CHAPTER VII

ENVIRONMENT AND THE THEORIES AS TO THE NATURE OF GENIUS—LOMBROSO’S GENIUS AND PERSONALITY.

I remarked before that almost every one of Lombroso’s books might have as its title, “The Cause of, and Prevention of ——.” One exception must, however, be made to this generalization, or perhaps two. The first of these relates to his book upon “The Man of Genius,”[49] and the second to his work “Pensiero e meteore,”[50] in which were collected his researches into the cosmic and telluric influences that determine human actions.

To speak first of the last-named work, we learn from it, as also from earlier and later minor writings, that in Lombroso’s opinion it is not the internal, inborn factors only that exercise an important influence upon the actions and the social behaviour of human beings. Indeed, to Lombroso as a determinist we owe a service which distinguishes him from the great majority of modern determinists. He was bold enough to revive and to restore to psychology the cosmic determinism of the Pythagoreans. It was not _within_ the organism alone that he sought the determining influences of physiological and psychological activity. He looked for these also _outside_ the organism—in the environment; and his conception of this environment was the very widest possible (see p. 132). At first, when still quite a young man, he laid stress, with Buckle, upon the influence of civilization—that is to say, of the cultural environment—upon individual phenomena. He saw, indeed, in these phenomena, when they are of an abnormal character—taking, for example, the form of insanity, crime, or prostitution—diseases of the social organism, which become individualized in predisposed or malformed persons (the theory of degeneration). Subsequently he came to note, and perhaps to overestimate, the influence of meteorological and cosmic processes—the influence, that is to say, of the physical environment. Later still, when he had grasped the entire plan of the edifice of his life-work, the most important part of that edifice was always the doctrine of causes and of the environment—understanding always by the term “environment” all that comes into relation from outside with the individual and with society, everything competent to determine his tendencies, his gifts, his capacities, and his actions.

Lombroso ultimately came to regard environment as profoundly important in determining the production of criminality, as may be seen most clearly in a passage from the fourth chapter of his work on “The Cause and Prevention of Crime,” of which I here give a portion. After a detailed explanation of the distinction between the older civilization, typified by force, and contemporary civilization, typified by cunning, and having shown that both these types are manifested in the criminal career, he goes on to say: “We experience here _de facto_ the parallel activity of two forms of criminality: atavistic criminality, characterized by the relapse of abnormally predisposed individuals to the employment of forcible means in the struggle for existence—means which our own civilization has normally ceased to use—manslaughter, robbery with violence, or rape; and evolutionary criminality, which is just as maleficent in intention, but far more civilized in its means, for in place of force and violence it employs cunning and artifice.”

The first form of criminality is exhibited only by _a comparatively small number of unfortunately predisposed individuals_; the second form, by those who are not sufficiently strong to withstand _the unfavourable influences of their environment_.

Thus, following in the tracks of Quetelet, and contemporaneously with Adolf Wagner—the former being the founder of “social physics,” and the latter the man who demonstrated “the reign of law in the apparently voluntary actions of human beings”—Lombroso regarded the activity of the individual as devoid of all true spontaneity. He viewed it in its dependence upon numerous external and internal factors, in part belonging to the organization of the individual and in part to his environment. In accordance with this view, he assigned to the intellect, to “reason,” a minimal share in the control of actions, in the conduct of the _ego_. And even in emotion he saw, for the most part, a simple operation of unconscious processes, subsidiary reactions of the organism in response to natural forces.

Thus, in his view, the personality of the doer tended to disappear; individual differences faded away. In his determinism, the idea of the “type,” of the “group,” of the “class,” preponderates. The average man, whose type is deformed by the inexorable law of pathological inheritance (which plays so large a part in all Lombroso’s works), acts under the mechanical compulsion of his internal disposition and organization; and, further, as if this alone were insufficient, he is driven by the external conditions of life, whether those of the physical environment or those of the social organization. Thus he reduces individual differences, for the most part, to a few types, in which the degenerative predispositions almost always manifest themselves in the form of automatic “epileptic” discharges. This does not mean that he altogether denied individual classification, but in his teaching all individuals were contemplated in the light of one and the same fundamental determinism. From the lowest step of this classification occupied by the savage atavistic criminal, the series proceeds to the altitude on which is enthroned the figure of the genius.

This determinism, although not expressly stated, underlies also his account of genius.

Almost throughout his whole life he was interested in the problem of genius. We see this from his first important work, published in the year 1855, upon the “Insanity of Cardanus.” It runs through the six Italian and eight foreign editions of his work on “The Man of Genius.” We see it also in the last important work published before he died, on “Genius and Degeneration.”

It is well known that he regarded the analogy between the epileptic automatic discharge and the inspiration of genius as a proof of the identity of these two phenomena. Here the indefiniteness of the concepts “genius” and “epilepsy” is compensated by the importance and abundance of the facts adduced by him to show that in the essence of genius an “anomaly” is almost invariably to be recognized—and this not merely in the peculiarities commonly observed in men of genius in spheres altogether independent of the direct manifestations of their genius. But inspiration, the discharge itself, is also cosmically determined. Thus we understand why it is that, in the last edition of “The Man of Genius,” the section upon the characteristics of the genius occupies no more space than does the account of the environing causes of genius, and occupies barely half the amount of space given to the section upon genius as manifested in the insane.

However much or however little of these ideas may be found to possess permanent value, one point of unquestionable importance is Lombroso’s demand that among the conditions of the work of genius we must study the personality of the genius himself with all his individual peculiarities. A glance at the almost interminable series of “pathographies” of highly-talented persons proves to us how strong an influence Lombroso’s ideas exercised upon the intellectual world of Germany, and to what an extent they gave rise to an anthropological method of study of the nature of the man of genius.

We Germans must see, unless we are blind, the enormous importance in relation to the work produced by the two most distinguished figures of our recent intellectual history—Richard Wagner and Friedrich Nietzsche—of the severe suffering with which both were afflicted. Even if it be not true that pathology is the root of genius, at any rate, pathos, not ethos, will persist as the sphere in which mortal man attains the highest perfection, and the one in which he performs the greatest deeds. And Lombroso’s own path through life, overburdened as he was with sorrows, struggles, pains, and deprivations, shows us that, in default of the forcible over-stimulation which severe suffering induces in rich and deep natures, the energy of the highest spiritualization is unable to radiate from the hidden depths of our nature; and yet these same sorrows and struggles are likely, in those in whom the divine fire of Prometheus has not glowed from the first, to lead to crime or to insanity.

In the light of this idea, the life-work of the master, who displayed the close relationship between these three great manifestations of suffering humanity, genius, insanity, and crime, will no longer appear so strange as his isolated and detached ideas appeared to his contemporaries. And we shall continue to return again and again to his works, as to an arsenal of means to help us to the understanding of the highest and of the deepest endowments of mankind.

If we wish to do justice to the life-work of Lombroso, we must not omit the study of his own personality, to which, therefore, a final glance may be directed. By his birth and by his own peculiar temperament he belonged to that Jewish aristocracy to which, as Bismarck pointed out, Disraeli also belonged. The former well-to-do position and the high standing of his family were changed greatly for the worse in consequence of the Austrian domination in Italy. Lombroso was compelled to be not merely his own teacher, but also his own bread-winner; and when at length he had attained a good position as a consulting physician and University Professor, owing to his espousal of the cause of the Italian peasantry he lost the material advantages of a position which would otherwise have led him to acquire considerable wealth in the industrially powerful Northern Italy.

These losses freed him completely from the desire to strive for outward success, and restored to him the leisure without which he could never have collected his enormous materials, or carried on his incessant polemic for clearer ideas, and effected the systematic arrangement of his material. Thus his life attained a harmonious character such as rarely belongs to the learned life of a successful physician; and whilst he remained outwardly unpretending and modest, always ready to help others both in word and deed, he continued to be the intellectual father of new and ever new sensational hypotheses. He, “the slave of facts,” never boasted of his diligence; and although in innumerable controversies he unweariedly defended his ideas, his zeal was always on behalf of the ideas themselves, never to gain material advantages. Lombroso never sought for personal gain from the conceptions of whose value and importance he was so firmly convinced, and which came to him, as it were, intuitively. Indeed, his principal strength lay in intuition, in his ready grasp of the essential. His theories of intuitive genius lay stress upon certain analogies between intuition and epileptoid states; and the great reverence paid by him to truth may possibly have led him at times to underestimate the powerful, although not always fully conscious, intellectual activity which paves the way to every happy discovery.

We cannot here attempt to show the extent and importance of Lombroso’s contributions to Italian culture outside the domain of anthropological researches. From his house in Turin, and from the circle of thinkers, officials and artists who assembled there, there was diffused a powerful influence, and at times the very consciousness of Italy seemed to be centred here at work. And, unceasingly, a manifold receptivity and activity found the unity and the energy requisite for their concentrated effects in the fiery soul in whose ardour the most heterogeneous elements were fused, and whose spirit lives on in his successors and disciples—

“cursores qui vitai lampada tradunt.”

APPENDIX A LOMBROSO’S SPIRITUALISTIC RESEARCHES

During the correction of the previous chapters I have read Lombroso’s final and posthumous work, and I feel that it is expedient to append a brief account of Lombroso’s dealings with the spiritualists, which were, indeed, characteristic of his peculiar personality, but are without significance in relation to his more important investigations—those which interest us and will interest posterity.

It was about the year 1890 that throughout Europe the investigations of psychiatrists, neurologists, and psychologists into the subject of hypnotism attained their acme. During the years 1885 to 1890 there was an unceasing current of hypnotic experiments. Almost every clinic had its own mediums; and soon some of these mediums, of whom not a few attended more than one clinic, produced occult phenomena, such as the action of medicaments at a distance (Bourru and others), the polarizing effect of magnets, thought-transference, and thought-reading, in addition to the phenomena of the hypnotic sleep and hypnotic suggestion. Not infrequently such séances as these, instituted by serious men of science, closely resembled the phenomena of the “animal magnetism” of the first third of the nineteenth century and the séances of the spiritualists during the middle third of the century. Men who, unquestionably, were well experienced in observation and in rigorous experiment—such men as Charcot, Richet, Preyer, Forel, and Zöllner—believed in the reality of the occult phenomena which gradually made their appearance in the hypnotic mediums.

In the year 1888, Lombroso published a series of exhaustive experiments, dealing more especially with the limits of suggestion in the waking state, and the influence of a permanent magnet upon suggested sensations. It was most remarkable that this positivist investigator, a man whose habit it had been to confine himself to objective investigation, and to consider subjective phenomena as entirely subsidiary and to deal with them with extreme caution, should concern himself with matters so little accessible to objective observation as the reaction to hypnotic procedures and the examination of suggested ideas in hypnotized and hysterical subjects, and while engaged in this path of study to associate, ultimately, more and more intimately with thought-readers, spiritualists, and other thaumaturgists.

It was, indeed, a result of his overwhelming conviction, at once of the objectivity and of the materiality of the performances of hypnotized persons, associated with a reluctance to accept the explanation of such phenomena by purely subjective factors—viz., their explanation solely by means of ideas—that led Lombroso to the credulous assumption that there existed a peculiar material condition of the brain-substance as the cause of all these categories of phenomena.

The fact that the mediums themselves either coquetted in a most equivocal manner with the possibility of associated immaterial processes, or else introduced the absurd doctrines of spiritualism for the explanation of the phenomena occurring at their séances, did not discourage Lombroso from the continually renewed study of thought-readers, calculating wonders, telepathists, and teleurgists (persons who claimed the power of giving rise to mechanical changes in remote objects), for he believed in the genuineness of different forms of “trance”; and his honourable capacity for belief, his disinclination to explain anything that was new as the result of deception merely because it was an unusual experience, frequently delivered him over to the devices of cheats.

I can explain here that, from my own experience, his most important medium, Eusapia Palladino, whom, in April, 1894, in association with Lombroso, Enrico Ferri, the psychologist Luigi Ferri, the physiologist Richet, the anthropologist Sergi, and the painter Siemiradzki, I observed in several séances, was, indeed, a “miracle”—_i.e._, a miracle of adroitness, false bonhomie, well-simulated candour, naïveté, and artistic command of all the symptoms of hystero-epilepsy. In Rome, where the séances were held, she had at her disposal certain extremely adroit male mediums, who were associated in all her tricks. These mediums behaved irreproachably. During the séances, in consequence of emotional excitement and superstitious terror, they suffered publicly from hysterical paroxysms; and they were clever enough to charm Siemiradzki by arranging that “from the fourth dimension” a sheet of writing-paper should fall into his lap, upon which was inscribed in isolated Polish words[51] a prophecy of the speedy restoration of the kingdom of Poland. I took an exact transcript of this manifestation, and must repeat to-day what I said sixteen years ago, that if (as the mediums asserted, though I do not myself believe it) the spirit of Kosciuszko really wrote these hopeful words—instead of prophesying _finis Poloniæ_—then “in the fourth dimension” the spelling and grammar of the Polish language must have been very badly preserved. (Charles Dickens made the same observation in respect to English spelling as exhibited by “spirits.”)

At that time it was my impression that in these séances Lombroso’s interest was in the spiritualists, not in the “spirits,” and, in the next place, in the abnormal trance-state of the mediums. This was undoubtedly so at that time; but his subsequent publications have shown that at a later date he went much further than this, and ascribed to the brain-substance the faculty of exercising a powerful influence beyond the periphery of the body (although, according to the dominant and still unshaken opinion, the function of the brain-substance is subject to the law of isolated nervous conduction). For example, in the _Annales des Sciences Psychiques_, 1892, p. 146 _et seq._, Lombroso wrote as follows:

“Not one of these facts (which we must admit to be facts, since we cannot deny that which we have seen with our own eyes) is of a nature to render it necessary to suppose for its explanation the existence of a world different from that admitted by neuropathologists to exist. I see nothing inadmissible in the supposition that in hysterical and hypnotized persons the stimulation of certain centres, which become powerful owing to the paralyzing of all the others, and thus give rise to a transposition and transmission of psychical forces, may also result in a transformation into luminous or motor force. In this way we can understand how the force, which I will call cortical or cerebral, of a medium can, for example, raise a table from the floor, pluck someone by the beard, strike him or caress him—very frequent phenomena in these séances. In certain conditions, which are very rare, the cerebral movement which we call thought is transmitted to distance, sometimes small, sometimes very considerable. Now, in the same way in which this force is transmitted, it may also become transformed, and the psychic force may manifest itself as a motor force. Do we not see the magnet give rise to a deflection of the compass-needle without any visible intermediary?”

We must not without further consideration dismiss this idea as absurd, because a very simple experiment suffices to show that the well-known and continuous heat-radiation from the living body—that is to say, the dispersal from the body of ultra-red etheric undulations—undergoes notable and easily measurable changes, in association with every change in the intellectual or emotional equilibrium, just as the arterial pulse, which changes under the influence of emotional disturbance, gives rise to varying oscillations in the air. But we do not possess sense-organs adequate to detect either these atmospheric or these etheric undulations. We were unable to establish their existence until physiology had given us Mosso’s plethysmograph and Zamboni’s dry battery.

There was a very powerful subjective reason why Lombroso did not apply a strenuous criticism to the occult phenomena of Eusapia, of Pickmann, etc. His own most important ideas had at first encountered doubt from the learned world, and in many cases contempt and ridicule. For this reason he was free from the tendency, traditional in academic circles, towards an extreme reserve in relation to completely new facts and theories contrary to the dominant views, and therefore dangerous to those advocating them. On the contrary, to doubt the good faith of those who were producing the new hypnotic and other mediumistic phenomena was not only contrary to his natural disposition, incapable of any pettiness and indisposed to mistrust anything that was unusual, but it also conflicted with the tendencies resulting from his own personal experiences.

In the year 1872, when he brought before the Medical Academy of Milan his experiments and investigations regarding the etiology of pellagra through the consumption of spoilt maize, he was accused by the surgeon Porta, Dean of the medical faculty of Pavia and an advocate of the interests of the great landlords, of having falsified his experiments, and of having artificially induced lesions in the animals he experimented on—the result being that the whole matter was turned to ridicule, and he and his pellagrous chickens were made fun of at the next carnival.

Lombroso was accustomed to quote a verse from Dante, “Io non piangea, si dentro impetrai” (“I did not weep, but my heart was turned to stone”), in order to explain the impression left upon him by this experience. The controversies about pellagra continued for about thirty years, until at length, in the year 1902, official recognition was given to his theory by the legislation carried in that year for the prevention of the disease.[52] The _déclassé_, the Jew, the self-taught man, could not be allowed to take an equal rank in the university life amongst the sons of the well-to-do classes of Northern Italy, so closely allied with the landed interest; and for this reason the most distinguished and influential member of the academic circle described his laborious and tedious researches as falsified. It was this experience which made it psychologically impossible for him, when he came to study occult phenomena, to take into consideration the possibility of fraud.

This helps us to understand how he came to enter upon these investigations, and how it was that he allowed himself in many cases to be deceived regarding the reality of the processes under observation.

But it was precisely his unmitigated positivism which led him _a priori_ to regard many things as possible and open to discussion, from which others in their specialist narrowness would have (doubtless in this instance more wisely) turned away. In the year 1888, Lombroso believed himself to have proved the influence of the magnet upon suggested colour sensations. With this begins the series of his publications upon occult phenomena (“Studi sull’ ipnotismo e sulla credulità,” _Archivio di psichiatria_, 1888, ix., pp. 528–546). From these effects of the magnet (whose subjective causation he left an open question) he drew the following inference: “The magnet is an object known to have effect within the physical sphere. If a new result is seen to follow its application, this must also be of a physical character, and cannot be of any other. Thus in the hypnotized person, whose cerebral molecules are in a condition different from that in the brain of the non-hypnotized person, the magnet has given rise to a rearrangement of the cerebral molecules. If the observed effect is purely subjective, we must conclude that the subjective phenomena are dependent upon the physical conditions, and that the rearrangement of the cerebral molecules gives rise to the phenomenon of so-called polarization.”

Psychologically allied with this is Lombroso’s utterance regarding muscle-reading, to the effect that if an act of the will is effective at a distance, this proves that the will, far from being immaterial, is a phenomenon of movement, and is, therefore, a manifestation of matter. Indeed, he expresses his astonishment that thought-transference is so rarely observed: “May it be that in the forms of energy known under the names of electricity, magnetism, heat, light, and sound, there is produced the same thing as in thought; and if one admits this, may it not be that thought is simply a phenomenon of movement.”[53]

At the time when these first experimental studies were published, Lombroso was, however, still sceptical regarding spiritualistic phenomena, as is proved by the following utterance, which I publish here in full because in it we can already detect the psychological tendencies which ultimately led him to capitulate—_i.e._, to recognize the existence of telepathic phenomena at séances: “Every epoch is unripe for the discoveries which have had few precursors; and if it is unripe it is also unadapted to perceive its own incapacity. The repetition of the same discovery prepares the brain to make it its own, to accept it, and finds minds gradually becoming less hostile to its acceptance. For nearly twenty years the discoverer of the cause of pellagra was regarded throughout Italy as mad; to-day the academic world still laughs at criminal anthropology, at hypnotism, at homeopathy. Who knows whether we, who to-day laugh at spiritualism, may not also be in error? Thanks to the misoneism which lies concealed in us all, we are, as it were, hypnotized against the new ideas, incapable of understanding that we are in error, and like many insane persons, whilst the darkness hides the truth from us, we laugh at those who stand in the light” (“L’ influenza della civiltà e dell’ occasione sui genio,” _Fanfulla della Domenica_, 1883, Nr. 29).

In the year 1891, when Lombroso, in association with Bianchi and Tamburini, had held the first sittings with Eusapia Palladino, he wrote in a letter to Dr. Ciolfi: “I am ashamed and sorrowful that with so much obstinacy I have contested the possibility of the so-called spiritualistic facts. I say the _facts_, for I am inclined to reject the spiritualistic _theory_; but the facts exist, and as regards facts I glory in saying that I am their slave.”

There soon followed other sittings, most of them with Eusapia as medium, conducted by Von Aksakow and Du Prel. (To this period belong all the sittings in which I myself took part with Siemiradzki, and in which there took place Lombroso’s thorough investigation of the trance-state of both the male mediums mentioned above.) From 1896 onwards, after observations made on the “thought reader” Pickmann, Lombroso published in his _Archivio di psichiatria_ a perpetual record of his mediumistic experiments.

His last work of all, published after his death (“Ricerche sui fenomeni ipnotisi e spiritici,” pp. 320, Turin, Unione Editrice, 1910), might be regarded by the credulous as a “Greeting from the Spirit-World.” We, however, who renounce this “Spirit-World,” may well content ourselves with the undying intellectual achievements of the deceased investigator; to our enemies we freely give the Lombroso of senile decay, for the Lombroso of youth, for ever young, is ours.

APPENDIX B LIST OF BOOKS CONSULTED

PAOLA E GINA LOMBROSO: Cesare Lombroso, Appunti sulla vita. Turin, 1906.

C. LOMBROSO: Writings, 1854–1909.

C. LOMBROSO: Archivio di psichiatria, Scienze penali ed Antropologia criminale. Turin, 1880–1909.

ENRICO FERRI: Sociologia criminale. Turin, 1902.

FRASSATI: La nuova scuola di diritto penale. Turin, 1891.

M. CECCAREL: Della vita e degli scritti di Paolo Marzolo. Treviso, 1870.

L. BIANCHI: L’ Opera di Cesare Lombroso nella scienza e nolle sue applicazioni. Turin, 1906.

MARIO CARRARA: Cesare Lombroso (Annuaria della R. Università di Torino, 1909–1910).

H. KURELLA: Cesare Lombroso und die Naturgeschichte des Verbrechers. Hamburg, 1892.

H. KURELLA: Naturgeschichte des Verbrechers. Stuttgart, 1893.

H. KURELLA: Die Grenzen der Zurechnungsfähigkeit und die Kriminal-Anthropologie. Halle a S., 1903.

H. KURELLA: Die soziologische Forschung und Cesare Lombroso, Monatsschr. f. Kriminalpsychologie und Strafrechtsreform, 1906. S. 308 u. ff.

G. ASCHAFFENBURG: Das Verbrechen und seine Bekämpfung. Heidelberg, 1903.

R. SOMMER: Kriminal-psychologie und straftrechtliche Psychopathologie. Leipzig, 1904.

APPENDIX C FACTS AND DOCUMENTS OF POSITIVISM, 1841–1865

PREPARATORY WORK, 1841–1850

1841. JOULE: Thermogenic Effects of the Electric Current.

HERSCHEL: Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences.

LIST: Das nationale System der politischen Ökonomie.

1842. R. MAYER: Erhaltung der Energie.

R. WAGNER: Handwörterbuch der Physiologie.

A. COMTE: Cours de philosophie positive.

L. FEUERBACH: Wesen des Christentums.

1843. J. S. MILL: Inductive Logic.

MATTEUCCI: Discovery of the Nerve-Current.

1844. FARADAY: Electrical Conduction and the Nature of Matter.

1845. _Discovery of the Electrical Incandescent Lamp._

1846. W. WEBER: Electrodynamic Measurements.

_Discovery of Anæsthesia by Ether._

1847. HELMHOLTZ: Die Erhaltung der Kraft (Conservation of Energy).

_Discovery of Anæsthesia by Chloroform._

1848. QUETELET: Du système social.

DUBOIS-REYMOND: Animal Electricity.

_Discovery of Gold in California._

1849. _Discoveries of Bacillus of Anthrax and of Aniline Dyes._

1850. HERBERT SPENCER: Social Statics (Identity of Laws of Organic and Social Evolution).

DOMINANCE OF POSITIVISM, 1851–1860.

1851–1860. _Mileage of European Railway Systems increases by 250 per cent._

1851. LYELL: Principles of Geology.

LOMBROSO: Concerning Marzolo’s “Monumenti storici rivelati dall’ analisi della parola.”

SCHOPENHAUER: Parerga und Paralipomena.

_Discovery of the Neanderthal Skull and Other Evidences of the Antiquity of Man._

HELMHOLTZ: Ophthalmoscope.

RUHMKORFF: Induction Coil.

RICHARD WAGNER: Oper und Drama.

MILLET: Le Semeur; und COURBET: Das Begräbnis von Ornans.

1852. MOLESCHOTT: Kreislauf des Lebens.

1855. PFLÜGER: Electrotonus.

NAEGELI: Investigations Regarding Vegetable Physiology.

BÜCHNER: Kraft und Stoff (Force and Matter).

FARADAY: Magnetic Philosophy.

_Discovery of Hot-air Engine, of Bessemer Steel, and of Aniline-violet._

WALT WHITMAN: Leaves of Grass.

1856. _Discovery of the Annular Kiln, of the Regenerative Gas Furnace, and of the Mercurial Air-pump._

J. VON LIEBIG: Theory and Practice of Agriculture.

LE PLAY: Les Ouvriers Européens.

THE FOUR CLASSICAL YEARS OF POSITIVISM, 1857–1860.

1857. BUNSEN: Exact Methods for the Analysis of Gases.

MOREL: Traité des Dégénérescences.

MARX: Materialist Conception of History.

BUCKLE: History of Civilization.

TOCQUEVILLE: La Révolution et l’Ancien Régime.

FLAUBERT: Madame Bovary.

1858. VIRCHOW: Cellularpathologie.

M. SCHIFF: Lehrbuch der Physiologie.

1859. KIRCHHOFF und BUNSEN: Spectrum Analysis.

DARWIN: Origin of Species.

J. S. MILL: On Liberty.

_Discovery of the Telephone, the Ice Machine, and the Azo Colouring Matters._

1860. FECHNER: Psyohophysik.

BOUCHER DE PERTHES: De l’Homme Antédiluvien et de ses Œuvres.

BOUCHER DE PERTHES: Discovery of the Gas Engine.

SEMPER: Der Stil.

AFTER-EFFECTS, 1861–1865.

1861. BACHOFEN: Das Mutterrecht (Matriarchy).

GRIESINGER: Pathology of Mental Disorders.

SCHLEICHER: Grammatik der indogermanischen Sprachen.

MANET: Frühstück im Grünen.

DOSTOIEFFSKY: Raskolnikow.

FONTANE: Wanderungen durch die Mark.

_Liberation of Serfs in Russia._

1862. HERBERT SPENCER: First Principles.

IBSEN: The Comedy of Love.

TOURGUENEFF: Fathers and Sons.

_Construction of Pacific Railway._

_Lincoln’s Emancipation Proclamation._

_Bismarck’s Realpolitik (Blood and Iron)._

1863. HUXLEY: Man’s Place in Nature.

LYELL: Antiquity of Man.

HUGGINS: Spectra of Fixed Stars and Nebulæ.

BROCA: Sur le Siège, le Diagnostic et la Nature de l’Aphémie.

PASTEUR: Theory of Fermentation.

RENAN: Vie de Jésus.

WUNDT: Vorlesungen über die Menschen und Tierseele.

1864. LOMBROSO: Genio e follia.

A. WAGNER: The Reign of Law in the Apparently Voluntary Actions of Human Beings.

LASSALLE: Bastiat-Schultze.

DE GONCOURT: Renée Mauperin.

ZOLA: Confession de Claude.

TOLSTOY: War and Peace.

1865. MEYNERT: Anatomy of the Cerebral Cortex and its Relations to the Sensory Surface of the Body.

LUBBOCK: Prehistoric Times.

LOMBROSO: Aliénations Mentales Étudiées par la Méthode Expérimentale.

HAECKEL: Generelle Morphologie.

VON LIEBIG: Induktion und Deduktion.

CANNIZZARO: L’ emancipazione della ragione.

J. S. MILL: Comte and Positivism.

TAINE: Le Positivisme Anglais.

_Extension of Democracy in England by Russell and Gladstone._

_Martin Steel, Gas-engines, Influence Machines._

INDEX

A.

Adaptation, deficient, of degenerates, 123

Africo-Hellene race of Calabria, 129

“Agrarian Investigation,” 114

Agrarian problems, Lombroso, 127

Agrarian reform, 156, 157

Aksakow, Von, 176

Alcoholism and criminality, 95

Altruism deficient in criminal types, 105

Analogies, Lombroso’s talent for the discovery of, 112

Anarchism, 149

Animal magnetism, 168

Anomalous character of genius, 162, 163

Anthropology, earlier and recent significations of the term, 10 note subject-matter of, 132 Lombroso’s conception of, 135, 137, 138 according to Virchow, Broca, and Mantegazza, 135 criminal, 18–54. See also separate organs, as brain, skull, etc. tabular statement of primatoid varieties, 27–29 fundamental notion of, 42 physiognomy, 47–53 tabular statement of distinctive anatomical characters, indicating abnormal congenital predisposition in more than 800 non-insane criminals, 54 significance of, 130–138 Congress for, 147, 148 of women. See “Woman as Criminal”

Anti-semitism, 149

Anti-social tendencies of degenerates, 104, 105 types, 119, 123 need for segregation of, 146

Ape-like characters. See Primatoid varieties

Apportionment of punishment, 131

Argot. See Jargon

Aristocracy, Jewish, 164, 165

Arrest of development in criminals. See also Atavism, 46

“Art for art’s sake,” in criminals, 89

Art, naturalism in, 133

Artistic method, new, the fruit of positivism, 134

Arts, industrial, and positivism, 133

Aschaffenburg, 60 note, 147, 177

Asymmetry, facial, 104

Atavism, 19–25, 45–48, 59, 60, 95, 96, 101, 105, 118, 160 162 and crime. See Atavism and prostitution, 59, 60

Austrian dominion in Italy, 165

B.

Bachofen, 180

Bacon, Francis, 113

Baer, A., 24 note

Bagehot, Walter, quoted, 66 note

Battery, Zamboni’s dry, 172

Bebel, 110

Beltrani-Scalia, 80

Benedikt, 94

Bianchi, 175, 177

Biogenetic law, the fundamental, 118

Biological determination of social phenomena, 107 _et seq._ determinism. See also Determinism of Lombroso, 161, 162

Bismarck, 165

Bistolfi, 82

Blameworthiness, 131

Books consulted, list of, 177

Born criminal. See Criminal, born

Born criminals form a degenerative subtype, 105

Boucher de Perthes, 180

Bourgeois criminality, 87

Brain in criminals, 38–45

Bread-riots at Milan, 1898, 153

Breeding, racial improvement by, 129, 146

Broca, 135, 180

Bruant, 91

Brusa, 141

Büchner, 8, 179

Buckle, 107

Bunsen, 134, 179, 180

Burdach, 7

C.

Calabria, Lombroso’s work in, 114 races of, 114, 129

Camorra, the, 91

Cannizzaro, 181

Capital punishment, Lombroso favours, 128

Cardan, Jerome, Lombroso’s work on, 112, 162

Carrara, 81, 177

Cause and prevention, 158

Causes and prevention of crime, 147

Ceccarel, 177

Cerebrogenous characters, 27–29, 54

Chamberlain, Houston, 129

Characteristics common to criminals and epileptics, 98, 99

Characters, cerebrogenous, primatoid, etc. See under Adjectival term

Charcot, 168

Charuigi, 7

Cheats, 169

Child criminals, 97

Ciolfi, 175

Class-interests, power of, in preventing spread of truth, 151, 152

Class struggle. See Class war

Class war, the, and social evolution, 121, 122, 124, 125

Classes, differentiation by and through, 121

Clinical observation, 136

Comte, vi, 178

Congenital. See Inheritance

Congress for Criminal Anthropology, 147, 148

Conventional element in crime, 90

Correlation of growth, 104

Cosmic causality, 136 determinism, 69, 132–134 influences, 159

Cranio-facial developments, ratios of, 31, 34

Craniology. See Skull

Craniometry. See Skull

Crest, internal frontal, 28, 29 temporal, 29

Crime. See also Criminal and insanity, 84, 85 and imbecility, 84, 85 and disease, 97 causes and prevention of, 147 related to genius and to insanity, 164 political. See Political crime

Criminal. See also Anthropology, criminal accidental, 131 anthropology. See also Anthropology, criminal Congress for, 147, 148 positive foundation of, 134 significance of, 130–138 subject-matter of, 132 born, 100, 131. See also Criminal type

Criminal born, the insensibility of, 88, 89 degenerate, 131 epileptic, 140, 145 habitual, 140, 145 insane, 131, 140, 145 jargon of. See Jargon jurisprudence. 139–149

“Criminal Man, the,” 140

Criminal nature, 131. See also Criminal type and Criminal, born and epilepsy, 98–103 occasional, 131, 140, 145 by passion, 140, 145 political, 119, 120. See also Political criminal psychology. 79–105. See also Psychology, criminal significance of term, 93 note tendencies, inheritance of, 96, 97, 101 type, the, 102 criticism of idea of, 55 meaning and limitations of the doctrine, 50 physiognomy of, 51 types, female, comparatively rare, 61–63 lack “mother-sense,” 63 woman. See “Woman as Criminal”

Criminality, atavistic, 160 by passion, 100 evolutionary, 160 influence of environment on, 160

Criminaloid, the, 64, 145

Criminals, cruelty of, 84–86 recklessness of, 84, 85 responsibility of, 85, 86 economic status of, 86, 87

Criminology, school of positive, 140

Crispi, 153

Cro-Magnon, prehistoric man of, 33

Crossing of races, and its effect on political evolution, 74

Cruelty in women, 58 of criminals, 84–86

Cunning and force, 160

D.

Dante, 173

Darwin, 33, 47, 117, 134, 180

Darwin’s “Descent of Man,” 33, 117

Darwinian tipped ear, 47

Darwinism. See Evolution

Death, indifference to, in criminals, 88, note penalty, Lombroso favours, 128

Decentralization of Government, Lombroso favours, 127

Degenerate, the, an anti-social being, 104, 105

Degenerates, 123

Degeneration, 15 _et seq._, 103–105, 159, 160, 162 and crime, 103–105 genius and, 162 practical significance of term, 104 stigmata of, 103 105 theory of, 160

De Goncourt, 180

Democracy, Lombroso’s faith in, 125

Dental abnormalities, 104

De Perthes, Boucher, 180

“Descent of Man” (Darwin’s), 33, 117

Despine, 13, 14

Determinism, 69, 107 _et seq._, 116, 120, 121, 123, 132–134, 138, 161, 162 biological, of Lombroso, 107, 116, 120, 121, 161, 162 cosmic, 69, 132–134 economic, of Marx, 116, 123

Development, moral. See Moral development

Diagnosis, differential. See Differential diagnosis

Dickens, Charles, quoted, 170

Differences, individual, comparatively unimportant, 161

Differential diagnosis of varieties of criminal, 83–91

Differentiation in human species, 122 sexual, 57, 58, 121 Lombroso’s law of, 57

Differentiation, sexual, in savages as compared with civilized races, 58

Discovery, fruitful period of, in association with a positivist view of the universe, 133

Disease and crime, 97

Disraeli, 165

Documents of positivism, 178–181

Donna delinquente, la. See “Woman as Criminal”

Dostoieffsky, 180

Dubois-Reymond, 178

Du Prel, 176

E.

Ear, Darwinian tipped, 47 handle-shaped and projecting, 104 Morel’s, 48 peculiarities of, in criminals, 47, 48

Earpoint of Darwin, 47

Economic determinism. See Determinism factors of crime, 87 motive, supremacy of, 151, 152 status in relation to crime, 86, 87

Ellis, Havelock, vi, 58, note quoted, 67 note

Environment, 132, 159, 160 and crime, 160 and individual, 132 _et seq._

Epilepsy, 136 chronic, 100 and criminality, 98–103 and genius, 162 as an hereditary equivalent of criminality, 103 larval, 100 Lombroso’s conception of, 99

Epileptic discharges, 161

Epileptoid states (Griesinger), 100 types common in prisons, 103

Epispadias, 104

Equanimity of criminals sentenced to death, 88 note

Equivalents, hereditary, criminality and epilepsy as, 103

Erotism, strong, abnormal in women, 59

Eskimo, skull of, 35

Esquirol, 7

Ethos and pathos, 164

Eugenics, 123, 128, 129, 146

Eurygnathism, 26, 29

Eusapia Palladino, 169, 172, 175, 176

Evolution of man from unknown primate asserted by Lombroso in 1871, 33 social, _versus_ revolution, 120

Evolutionism, English, 7

Experimental method, Lombroso’s tendency to neglect the, 135–137

Extreme value of weights and measurements in criminal brains, 40, 41, 42 in criminal physiognomy, 49–51 in criminal skulls, 37, 38, 40, 41, 42

F.

Facts and documents of positivism, 178–181 Lombroso’s respect for, 134

Faraday, 178, 179

Fechner, 137, 180

Ferrati, 156

Ferrero, G., 56, 57, 81

Ferri, Enrico, 79, 140, 169, 177

Ferri, Luigi, 169

Feuerbach, 178

“First Principles,” 116

Flaubert, 179

Fontane, 180

Force and cunning, 160

Forehead, receding, 27, 31, 32

Forel, 168

Fossa, middle occipital, 28, 32

“Fra Diavolo,” skull of, 32

France and the revolutionary spirit, 68, 72–74

Frassati, 177

Free will, illusion of, 133

Frigerio, 48

Frigidity, sexual, of prostitutes, 63

G.

Gabelli, 141

Gall, 13, 14, 17

Garofalo, 140, 141

Gasparone, skull of, 32

Genius, 70–73, 119, 120, 162–164 and anomaly, 162

“Genius and Degeneration,” 162

Genius and epilepsy, 162 its freedom from misoneism, 70 function of, in promoting social evolution, 120 index of, for the departments of France, 72 in the insane, 163, 164 and republicanism, 72, 73 and revolution, 70–72

Géricault’s drawing, “Tête d’un Supplicié,” 51

Gladstone, W. E., 181

Gobineau, 129

Goethe, 111, 113

Goncourt, de, 180

Gosio, 156

Greek racial elements in Calabria, 129

Greenlander, brain of, 44, 45

“Greeting from the spirit-world, a,” 176

Griesinger, 7, 100, 180

Growth, correlation of, 104

Gudden, 7

H.

Haeckel, 118, 181 quoted, 118 note

Hamel, Van, 142, 143

Handle-shaped and projecting ear, 104

Harden, Maximilian, 81

Heinze, 88 note

Hellenic racial elements in Calabria, 129

Helmholtz, 134, 178, 179

“Henkelohr,” 47, 104

Hereditary equivalents, criminality and epilepsy as, 103

Heredity. See also Inheritance criminal, 96, 97

Herschel, 178

History, determinist view of, 107 _et seq._

Hohlenfels, prehistoric man of, 33

Homo delinquens, 120. See also Criminal industrialis, 122 neanderthalensis, 120. See also Primitive man sapiens, 124 natural variability of, and its consequences, 120

Huggins, 180

Humanism, modern, 125

Huxley, 180

Hygiene, racial, 128

Hylozoism, 133

Hypnotism, 168

Hypospadias, 104

I.

Ibsen, 180

Ibsen’s “An Enemy of the People,” 154

Illusion of free will, the, 133

Imbecility. See also Insanity and crime, 84, 85

Impatience of reformers, 145

Imprisonment, Mittelstaedt on, 141

Impulsive criminality, 84, 85, 94

Inca bone, the, 35

“Inchiesta Agraria,” 114

Incorrigibility of criminals, 97

Individual differences, comparatively unimportant, 161 and environment, 132 _et seq._ factors influencing, 158–160

Individualism and Socialism, Lombroso’s attitude towards, 124

Industrial arts and positivism, 133

Inheritance of criminal tendencies, 96, 97, 101 pathological, 161, 162

Inhibition, lack of, in criminals, 42, 94

Innovation and misoneism, 66–69

Insensibility of born criminal, 88, 89

Insanity and crime, 84, 85 genius and, 163, 164

Insanity, moral, 100–103, 117 a professional disease of prisoners, 97

Inspiration, cosmic determination of, 163

“Intellectuals,” the, and Italian Socialism, 149

Italian influence on penal reform, 143, 144

J.

Jargon of criminals, 88 note, 91, 92

Jewish aristocracy, the, 164, 165 spirit, the, 129

Jews, civil disabilities of, 2

Joule, 178

Judenhetze. See Anti-semitism

Jurisprudence, criminal, 139–149

K.

Kant, 111

Kirchhoff, 180

Kirn, 103

Knecht, 103

Kosciuszko’s “spirit,” 170

Kraepelin, 141

Krauss, 94

Kuliszew, Madame, 81

Kurella, 177

Kurella’s “Naturgeschichte des Verbrechers,” 94, 96

L.

Labour bureaus, Lombroso advocates, 128

“La donna delinquente, la prostituta, e la donna normale,” 56. See also “Woman as Criminal”

Land reform, 156, 157

Laschi, 78

Lassalle, 71, 180 characterization of, 71

Lavater, 111

Law, Lombroso’s interest in, 126 uniformity of, 137

Le Play, 179

Levi, Zefira (mother of Cesare Lombroso), 2, 3

Liebig, Von, 179, 181

Life-work as social reformer, Lombroso’s, 106–129, 148

List, 178

Liszt, Von, 141

Lombroso, Aron, 1

Lombroso, Cesare, birth, 1 the family, 1–3 childhood and youth, 1–10 family history, 1–3 antecedents, 1–13 revolutionary tendencies, 4 and Marzolo, 5, 6 and Panizza, 7, 33 and Moleschott, 7, 8, 9, 10 and Skoda, 9 and Virchow, 9 and Mantegazza, 10 and Golgi, 11 predecessors in research, 13–17 criminal anthropology, 18–54 comparison of European with melanodermic races (“L’uomo bianco e l’uomo di colore”), 33 opposition to his views, 55, 56 merits and defects of his work, 56, 57, 65 “Woman as Criminal and Prostitute,” 56–64 “Political Criminals and Revolutions,” 64–79 “L’ uomo di genio,” 72 “The Man of Genius,” 72 _Archivia di psichiatria_, 79 home life at Turin, 79–83 criminal psychology, 79–105 daughters of, 80 “Palimsesti del carcere,” 95 note on the relations between epilepsy and criminality, 98–103 his conception of epilepsy, 99 and the term “degeneration,” 104, 105 as a social reformer, 106–129 his methods, 106–129 his significance in the history of science, 106 _et seq._ his method of work, 111 _et seq._ his pathographies, 112 work on “Cardanus,” 112 talent for analogy, 112 work in Calabria, 114 on the conception of “the social organism,” 116, 124 his principal contributions to sociology, 118 _et seq._ and the class war, 121, 122, 124 and “revaluation,” 119, 128 his attitude towards Socialism, 124 his philosophy, 124 as municipal councillor, 124 note not a “party man,” 124 and democracy, 125 and humanism, 125 and social reform, 125–129 views on Parliamentary government, 125 note, 128 views on universal suffrage, 126 note interested in the legal rather than the economic order, 126 and capitalism, 127 and industrialism, 127 and the agrarian problem, 127 and “protection,” 127 and decentralization of government, 127 and labour bureaus, 128 views on punishment in general, and on capital punishment in particular, 128 advocates artificial selection, 128 and eugenics, 128 on pellagra, 129 on races of Southern Italy, 129 significance of criminal anthropology, 130–138 on criminal law and its enforcement, 131 hylozoist ideas, 133 and positive science, 134 his respect for facts, 134 his hunger for material, 134 insufficient verification of facts by, 135 occasional credulity of, 135 spiritualistic experiences, 135 his conception of anthropology, 135, 136 his preference for observing _states_ rather than processes, 135 and the experimental method, 135, 136 and Fechner’s psycho-physics, 137 often misunderstood by German biologists and psychiatrists, 137 and the notion of uniformity, 137 and positivism, 138 and determinism, 138 and social reactivity, 138 and responsibility, 138 and apportionment of punishment, 138 “L’ uomo delinquente,” 140 and criminal jurisprudence, 139–149 and “School of Positive Criminology,” 140 on punishment, 140, 145 and Ferri, 140 and Garofalo, 141 and Kraepelin, 141 and the science of law, 144 a utilitarian, 146 and the Congress for Criminal Anthropology in 1906, 147, 148, 157 pessimism, tendency to, in old age, 148 mystical tendency, 148 an optimist in the field of social reform, 148 as leader of Italian political radicalism, 149 and Marxist Socialism, 124 _et seq._, 149 freedom from opportunism, 149 opposed to compromise, 149 the pellagra controversy, 149–157 proscribed for political reasons in 1898, 153 boycotted by the well-to-do, 154 “Cause and Prevention” the keynote of his life-work, 154 as experimental pathologist, 155 and agrarian reform, 156, 157 his character, 157 as “an enemy of the people,” 154, 157 on “Cause and Prevention,” 158 on the influence of environment, 159, 160 “Causes and Prevention of Crime,” 160 his biological determinism, 161, 162 “The Man of Genius,” 162, 163 “Genius and Degeneration,” 162 “Insanity of Cardanus,” 162 life-work of, 164 his genius and personality, 164–166 a member of the Jewish aristocracy, 164, 165 “the slave of facts,” 165 his ready grasp of the essential, 166 contributions to Italian culture, 166 spiritualistic researches, 167–176 and Eusapia Palladino, 169, 172, 175, 176 effect on his character of the hostile reception of his theories regarding the etiology of pellagra, 172, 173 “Studi sull’ ipnotismo e sulla credulità,” 173, 174 on the material nature of the will, 174 on muscle-reading, 174 on thought-transference, 174 on misoneism as a hindrance to the acceptance of new discoveries, 175 “Ricerche sui fenomeni ipnotisi e spiritici” (a posthumous work), 176 and the “Spirit-World,” 176 Gina, 177 Paola, 177 contributions to “Positivism,” 180, 181

Loria, 78, 124

Lubbock, 181

Lucas, 14

Lucchini, 141

Lumbroso, 1 note

Lunatic, the criminal, 140, 145

“L’ uomo delinquente,” 140

Luzzati, Luigi, 78

Lyell, 134, 179, 180

M.

Maffia, the, 91

Magnet, its alleged influence upon suggested colour sensations 173, 174

Magnetism, animal, 168

“Man of Genius, the,” 162, 163

Man, palæolithic, 44 prehistoric. See Primitive man primitive. See Primitive man

Manet, 180

Man’s place in Nature, 117, 134

Mantegazza, 10, 135

Marriage and prostitution, 67 note

Marx, Karl, 107, 108, 110, 116, 124, 149, 179 and Marxism, 124

Marzolo, 5, 6, 157

Masochistic nature of woman, 59

Material nature of the will, 174

Materialism, 107 _et seq._ See also Determinism German, 7

Matteucci, 178

Mattoids, 77, 118 and revolts, 71

Mayer, R., 134, 178

Measurement of punishment, 131, 138

Medievalism, persistent, 5

Mediterranean region, races of, 129

Mediums, spiritualistic, 136

Meteorological influences, 159

Method of work, Lombroso’s, 111 _et seq._

Meynert, 181

Microcephaly, partial, in relation to criminality, 41

Milan, bread-riots at, 1898, 153

Mill, J. S., 178, 180, 181

Millet, 179

Misoneism, 66–76 as manifested in the pellagra controversy, 151 in relation to new discoveries, 175

Mittelstaedt, 141

Moeli, 103

Moleschott, 7, 8, 9, 10, 134, 179

Moral development, inferior in women, 59 ultimate goal of, 59 imbecile, the, 102 imbecility, 104 insanity, 100–103

Morality, traditional and ideal, 67 note

Morbidity and crime, 97

Morel, 13–17, 105, 179

Morel’s ear, 48

“Morlocks,” the, 123 note

Mosso’s plethysmograph, 172

Motherhood, woman’s function of, its influence on her sexual differentiation, 57–59

Mother-sense, lack of, in genuine women criminals and in prostitutes, 63 unimpaired, in female criminals, by passion, and female occasional criminals, 62, 63

Müller, F. Max, quoted, 92 note

Muscle-reading, 174

N.

Naegeli, 179

Naturalism in art, 133

Nature, criminal. See Criminal type

Nature, man’s place in, 117, 134

Neanderthal, 32, 120

Nicolson, 14, 16

Nietzsche, Friedrich, 86, 163

Non-moral, woman fundamentally so (in Lombroso’s view), 59

O.

Occasional criminals form the majority of women criminals, 62–64

Occultism. See Spiritualism

Organizations, criminal, 91

“Organism” of human society, 116 a strained metaphor, 124

Organs, rudimentary. See Rudimentary

Ossification of sutures of skull, peculiarities in, 34, 35

P.

Palæolithic man, 44

Palladino, Eusapia, 169, 172, 175, 176

Panizza, Bartolomeo, 7, 33

Parasitism of criminals, 95

Parliamentary government, Lombroso on, 125 note, 128

Passion, criminality by, 100

Pasteur, 180

Pathographies, 112, 163

Pathological inheritance, 161

Pathos and ethos, 164

Pellagra, 12, 129, 149–157, 172, 173 recent theories as to its etiology, 152, 153 note in the United States, 156 note

Pellagrozeïn, 156

Pellizzi, 45, 156

Penal reform, 139–149

Perthes, Boucher de, 180

Pflüger, 134, 179

“Physical phenomena” of spiritualism, Lombroso’s interpretation of, 171

Physiognomy, the criminal, 47–53

Pickmann, 172, 176

Place in Nature, man’s, 134

Play, le, 179

Plehve, 110

Plethysmograph, Mosso’s, 172

Poetry and art, naturalism in, 133

Political crime, essence of, 67 individual factors of, 76–79

“Political crime,” 119

Political criminals, 55 classification of, 55, 56

“Political Criminals and Revolution,” 64–79

Politics, realism in, 133

Porta, 173

Positive criminology, school of, 140 view of the world, 133

Positivism, 134, 138 French, 7 and the industrial arts, 133 and scientific progress, 133 preparatory work (1841–1850), 178 dominance (1851–1860), 179 four classical years (1857–1860), 179, 180 after-effects (1861–1865), 180, 181 facts and documents of, 178–181

Predisposition to crime, 160 its organic character, 97

Prehistoric man. See Primitive Man

Prel, du, 176

Preyer, 168

Prichard, 14, 16, 17

Primatoid varieties, 27, 29, 30, 43, 44, 54 definition of term, 30, 31

Primitive man, 32, 33. See also Atavism

Professional crime, 90

Prognathism, 27, 31

Progress as influenced by climatic and other physical conditions, 72–76 inevitable slowness of, 68 positivism and, 133 prerequisites of, 67 _et seq._

Proletarian, the, 122 criminality, 86

Prometheus, the fire of, 164

Prostitute, the, 56

Prostitutes, commonly sexually frigid, 63

Prostitution, 115 antiquity of, 59 an atavistic phenomenon in Lombroso’s view, 58, 59 as counterpart of major criminality in the male, 60–62 and marriage, 67 note

Protection, Lombroso opposed to, 127

Pseudo-genius and revolt, 71

Psycho-physics, 137

Psychology, criminal, 79–105

Punishment, 138 apportionment of, 131 theory of, 145, 146

Q.

Quetelet, 107, 160, 178

R.

Races of Calabria, 114, 129

Races of Southern Italy, 114, 129

Radicalism, Lombroso and, 149

Ranke, Johannes, 40–42

Reaction the fruit of too rapid innovation, 68–70

Reactivity, social, 131, 138, 142

Realism in politics, 133

Receding forehead. See Forehead Recidivism, 97

Reciprocal action between individual and environment, 132–134

Recklessness of criminals, 84, 85

Reform, agrarian, 156, 157 penal, 139–149

Reformer, social, Lombroso as, 106–129, 148

Reformers, impatience of, 145

Reforms, true, how effected, 126. See also Misoneism

Reich, 8

Relapses into crime, 97

Renan, 8, 180

Republicanism and genius, 72, 73

Researches into spiritualism, 167–176

Responsibility, 83–86, 97, 130, 132, 133, 138 the problem of, 130, 132, 138

Revaluation of old values, 119, 128

Revolts, 71

Revolution, 64–79. See also Political crime nature of, 70

Revolutionist. See Political criminal by passion, 77

Ribot, 96

“Ricerche sui fenomeni ipnotisi e spiritici,” 176

Richet, 168, 169

_Ride du vice_, 53

Ridges, superciliary, 27, 32

Romance peoples of Mediterranean region, 129

Roncoroni, 45

Rudimentary organs, 45–47

Ruhmkorff, 179

Russell, Lord John, 181

S.

Sander, 103

Scaphocephaly, 35

Schaeffle, 117

Schiff, 179

Schleicher, 180

Schönlank, 110

School of Positive Criminology, 140

Schopenhauer, 107, 117, 179

Science. See Positivism

Scientific. See Positive

Segregation of anti-social types, 146

Selection, artificial, 128. See also Eugenics

Semitic racial elements, importance of, 129

Semper, 180

Sensibility, lesser, of woman, 58 lack of, in born criminals, 88, 89 and in epileptics, 99

Sergi, 169

Sexual differentiation, 57, 58, 126, See also Differentiation Lombroso’s law of, 57 in savages as compared with civilized races, 58

Sexual frigidity of prostitutes, 63

Sexuality increased in genuinely criminal feminine types, 63 not increased in female criminals by passion and female occasional criminals, 63

Siemiradzki, 169, 170, 176

Significance of criminal anthropology, 130–138

Simian characteristics of criminals. See Primatoid varieties

Skoda, 9

Skull, anomalies of, in relation to moral imbecility, 104 cubical capacity of, 36–38 Eskimo, 25 eurygnathism, 26, 29 Inca bone, 35 measurements of, extreme values common in criminals, 37, 38, 40, 41, 42 peculiarities of, in relation to criminal anthropology, 26–39 peculiarities in ossification of sutures, 34, 35 prognathism, 27, 31 scaphocephaly, 35 stenocrotaphy, 41 submicrocephalic, in criminals, 37 sutures, ossification of, 34, 35 Wormian bones, 35

Slang. See Jargon

Social environment, man and, 132–134 inadequacy of degenerate individuals, 104 reactivity, 131, 138, 142 _versus_ punishment, 142 reformer, Lombroso as, 106–129, 148

Social sentiments, their congenital character, 119

Socialism, Italian school of, 124 Lombroso and, 124 _et seq._, 149

Socialist? was Lombroso a, 124

Society as an “organism,” conception of, 116, 117

Sociology, Lombroso’s principal contribution to, 118 _et seq._

Sommer, 103, 177

Soutenage, 60

Spencer, Herbert, 116, 117, 178, 180

Spinoza, 107, 117

Spiritualistic researches, 167–176

“Spirit-world,” the, 176

Spy, prehistoric human remains of, 32

Statistical method, the, 134, 136

Steinheil, Madame, 83

Stenocrotaphy, 41

Stigmata of degeneration, 103–105, 136

Stone Age, 44

Struggle, the class. See Class war

Subject-matter of criminal anthropology, 132

Suffrage, universal, Lombroso’s views on, 126 note

Suggestion in the waking state, 168

Superman, criminal’s own persuasion that he is, 46

Supermen, breeding of, 123, 128, 129

Sutures of skull, peculiarities in ossification, 34, 35

Sympathy, greater development of, in women, 58, 59

T.

Taine, 181

Tamburini, 175

Tariffs, protectionist, Lombroso opposed to, 127

Tattooing, 92, 93

Teeth, abnormalities of, 104

Telepathy, 167, 168, 169, 174, 175

Teleurgists, 169

Telluric influences, 159

Temperature and political crime, 75, 76

Thaumaturgy, 168, 169

Theory of punishment, 145, 146

Theromorphism, 12, 19, 20, 21, 58

Theromorphs in women, their significance greater than in men, 58

Thomson, J. Bruce, 14

Thought-reading, 167, 168, 169, 174, 175

Thought-transference, 167, 168, 169, 174, 175

“Time Machine, the,” quoted, 122 note

Tirelli, 156

Tocqueville, 179

Toldt’s “Atlas of Human Anatomy,” 35 note

Tolstoy, 180 and “The Hanging Czar,” 153

Torus occipitalis, 29 palatinus, 26

Tourgueneff, 180

Traditional criminality, 90

Trance, 136

Trance-state, the, 176

Trickery, “spiritualistic,” 169

Troppmann, 88 note

Truth, alleged dangers of, 9

Tubercle of Darwin, 47

Type, criminal. See Criminal

U.

Universal suffrage. See Suffrage

V.

Values, extreme, of weights and measurements. See Extreme values revaluation of, 119, 128

Van Hamel, 142, 143

Vanity of habitual criminal, 89

Variability, lesser, of woman, 58

Vico, 5, 107

Villon, François, 91

Virchow, 9, 135, 179

Von Alesakow, 176

Von Liebig, 179, 181

Von Liszt, 141

W.

Wages and prices in relation to crime, 87, 88

Wagner, A., 180

Wagner, Richard, 163, 178, 179

War, the class. See Class war

Weber, W., 178

Wells, H. G., quoted, 122 note

Westermarck, 59

Whitman, Walt, 179

Will, the, and action at a distance, 174 material nature of, 174

Woman, lesser variability of, 58 lesser sensibility of (general, and to pain), 58 sympathy, greater development of, 58, 59 cruelty in, 58 masochistic nature of, 59 erotism, strong, abnormal in, 59 moral development, inferiority of, 59

Woman as criminal, 55–64 absence of distinctive anthropological characters in, 55, 56 prostitution in women regarded by Lombroso as counterpart of criminality in men, 60, 61 comparative infrequency of criminality in women, 61, 62 chiefly criminals by passion and occasional criminals, 62, 63, 64

Woolner’s tip, 47

World-all, the, 132 _et seq._

Wormian bones, 35

Wundt, 180

Y.

Youthful criminals, 97

Z.

Zamboni’s dry battery, 172

Zola, 180

Zöllner, 168

_Zukunft_, 81

Footnote 1:

The family name, originally pronounced Lumbroso, shows clearly that the family belonged to the Spanish Jews who were expelled from Spain and settled in North Africa. The name is a Spanish adjective in common use, denoting “clear” or “illuminating.”

Footnote 2:

Bartolomeo Panizza—in 1812–13 army surgeon attached to the grande armée in Russia; in 1815 professor of anatomy at Pavia—discovered the characteristic of the crocodile to which Brücke gave the name of _foramen Panizzæ_; widely known as a teratologist and comparative anatomist; in 1856 published his “Osservazioni sperimentali sul nervo ottico,” based upon the method of secondary degeneration of the medullary sheath, subsequently applied by Gudden with such valuable results.

Footnote 3:

I have not been able to ascertain precisely to what extent Lombroso was influenced by Quetelet. The writings of this investigator did not reach him directly, but they probably influenced him indirectly by way of von Oettingen’s “Moral Statistik.”

Footnote 4:

“Ricerchi sul cretinesimo in Lombardia,” _Gazz. Medica Italiana Lombarda_, No. 13, 1859.

Footnote 5:

Together with Mantegazza, his colleague (as experimental pathologist) in Pavia from 1861 to 1866, Lombroso was the founder of anthropology in Italy. Of anthropology in the modern sense it is possible to speak only since, in the year 1859, Broca founded the Parisian Anthropological Society. Previously the term had denoted, as Kant’s “Anthropology” shows, empirical descriptive psychology. From the first the doctrine of the important varieties of human beings (insanity, cretinism, criminality, genius, degeneration) was for Lombroso a chapter of general anthropology. From the first also he regarded a knowledge of the environment as of the greatest importance for an understanding of the origin of these varieties (_vide infra_).

Footnote 6:

In Pavia, in 1871, he was appointed, in addition, lecturer on forensic medicine and hygiene.

Footnote 7:

Lombroso, as professor of forensic medicine, was also a member of the legal faculty. From 1896 onwards he held, in addition, the position of professor-in-ordinary of psychiatry and superintendent of the psychiatric clinic. As early as 1891 he had received the appointment of professor-extraordinary of psychiatry. In the year 1900, the Minister of Education (L. Bianchi) appointed him professor-in-ordinary of criminal anthropology, whilst he retained the professorship of psychiatry.

Footnote 8:

The title given by the author, then only nineteen years of age, to this study of important relations of correlation, does not give an adequate notion of the real contents of the essay.

Footnote 9:

These two works, with two publications regarding criminal lunatics (1871), and the “Antropometria di 400 delinquenti veneti” (_R.C. dell’ Istituto Lombardo_, fasc. 12) form the nucleus of his subsequent work on “L’ uomo delinquente.”

Footnote 10:

A. Baer, one of the fiercest opponents of criminal anthropology, pushes his criticism so far as to maintain in his leading work “that the formation of the skull is in no way dependent upon that of the brain.” The book, upon p. 12 of which will be found this monumental nonsense, is entitled by Baer “Der Verbrecher in anthropologischer Beziehung” (“The Criminal from the Anthropological Standpoint”), Leipzig, 1893.

Footnote 11:

“Iets over criminelle Anthropologie,” Haarlem, 1896; P. H. J. Berends, “Eenige Schedelmaten van Recruten, Mordenaars, Paranoisten, Epileptici, en Imbecillen,” Nymegen, 1896.

Footnote 12:

The “Inca bone” will be found figured in Toldt’s “Atlas of Human Anatomy” (London: Rebman, Limited), p. 100, fig. 218, where it is described as “a large Wormian bone in the uppermost part of the lambdoid suture.”

Footnote 13:

Certain peculiarities are discoverable in the brains of criminals which are not yet explicable on comparative anatomical considerations. I have described these as _atypical_, and in my “Natural History of the Criminal” I have collected and discussed them. Since the date of publication of this work (1893) only one extensive investigation of the brains of criminals has been undertaken, and in this the number of brains dealt with was about equal to the number examined in all the previous investigations put together. In so far as it furnishes any new particulars, this investigation confirms the doctrine of criminal anthropology, a fact of especial interest for the reason that the brains examined were chiefly those of women (Leggiardi-Laura, _Rivista di sc. biologiche_, ii., 4–5, 1900; _ibid._, _Giorn. de le R. Accademia di Torino_, 1900, fasc. 5).

Footnote 14:

The _ear-point_, or _tubercle of Darwin_, is a small prominence on the edge of the helix, an atavistic vestige of the former point of the ear. It is sometimes called _Woolner’s tip_, Darwin’s attention having been drawn to this prominence by the sculptor Woolner (Toldt’s “Atlas of Human Anatomy,” London, Rebman, Limited).

Footnote 15:

The Germans speak of thieves as being _langfingerig_, “long-fingered,” in the same sense in which we in England speak of them as “light-fingered.”—TRANSLATOR.

Footnote 16:

“La Donna Delinquente, la Prostituta, e la Donna Normale.”

Footnote 17:

Havelock Ellis confirms this statement, as the result of a most laborious investigation (“Man and Woman,” 4th edition, London, 1904, chap. xvi, and appendix).

Footnote 18:

Aschaffenburg also writes: “I believe that in some instances we are entitled to regard the prostitute as the equivalent of the criminal; but, notwithstanding this, I believe that the complement to the prostitute is to be looked for, not in the thief, the pickpocket, or the forger, but rather in the beggar and the vagrant.”

TRANSLATOR’S NOTE.—Lombroso’s views regarding the prostitute are disputed by many who accept the greater part of his teachings in the matter of criminal anthropology. Prostitution is largely a socially-caused phenomenon, and therefore prostitutes, in so far as they are the complements of criminals will be mainly complementary to socially-caused and occasional “criminals,” _not_ to habitual and instinctive criminals. Thus, Bloch (“The Sexual Life of Our Time,” London, Rebman, Ltd., 1909, p. 401), while admitting that the world of crime is very near to that of prostitution—because the prostitute has need of a man to whom she is not simply a chattel, to whom she can be something from the personal point of view, and also because she shares with the criminal the life of the social pariah—goes on to say: “Lombroso’s doctrine that prostitution is throughout equivalent to criminality is certainly not justified. It is only by the outward circumstances of their life that the bulk of prostitutes are driven into intimate relations with criminality.” For a careful consideration of the pros and cons of this profoundly important question, with reference to leading authorities, see Havelock Ellis, “Sex in Relation to Society,” pp. 266–269.

Footnote 19:

In Germany in the year 1899 (“Statistik des Deutschen Reichs,” vol. xxxii., II., 50–65), for every 100 men condemned for the offences specified below, there were of women convicted of the like offence:

Crime and misdemeanour in general 19·3 Breaches of the peace 12·0 Perjury 14·6 False accusation 35·8 Procurement 164·6 Procuring abortion 375·9 Infant exposure 400·0 Fraud 20·0 Injury to property 6·0 Simple assault 11·8 Aggravated assault 7·9 Petty larceny 37·9 Major thefts 13·3

Footnote 20:

Compare Walter Bagehot’s phrase, “the pain of a new idea,” which will be found in his brilliant little volume on “Physics and Politics” (p. 163).—TRANSLATOR.

Footnote 21:

Compare also Havelock Ellis, “Studies in the Psychology of Sex,” vol. vi., “Sex in Relation to Society,” where this fundamental and profoundly important paradox is most thoughtfully expounded. After explaining the difference between _traditional morality_ and _ideal morality_, the former being concerned with the accepted standards of social conduct, the latter embodying an attempt to reform those standards, and showing how the two moralities are of necessity opposed each to the other, Ellis goes on to say (_op. cit._, p. 368): “We have to remember that they are both equally sound and equally indispensable, not only to those who accept them, but to the community which they continue to hold in vital theoretical balance. We have seen them both, for instance, applied to the question of prostitution; traditional morality defends prostitution, not for its own sake, but for the sake of the marriage system, which it regards as sufficiently precious to be worth a sacrifice, while ideal morality refuses to accept the necessity of prostitution, and looks forward to progressive changes in the marriage system which will modify and diminish prostitution.”—TRANSLATOR.

Footnote 22:

Translated as “The Man of Genius.” London: Walter Scott.

Footnote 23:

This brilliant expert has given the best summary of his own aims in the speech which he delivered in the year 1870 in Cincinnati, at the Congress for Prison Reform. He said: “When the chains have been removed, when corporal punishment has been abolished, when the treatment of prisoners has become something altogether different from what it has been in the past, when, in a word, in penology severity has been replaced by mildness and consideration, still it will not be easy to say if and to what extent this humane spirit will have dammed the spreading flood of crime, nor should I find it easy to determine precisely the grounds by which we have been guided to a decision whether severity or mildness is to be preferred.

“To study the criminal, this is the first and the greatest need. After so many years filled with work and discussion we have arrived at the point from which we ought to have started, precisely because, after taking such an infinity of trouble, we have discovered nothing but emptiness.”

Footnote 24:

“Pensieri sui processo Steinheil,” _Archivio di psichiatria_, etc., vol. xxx., p. 87, 1909.

Footnote 25:

The monumental work of the Public Prosecutor, E. Wulffen (Berlin, 1909), offers a notable exception to this generalization.

Footnote 26:

The born criminal is, invariably, utterly destitute of the feeling that he is doing wrong. Murderers frequently describe their misdeeds as trifles, as pardonable errors of youth, and they are astonished and indignant that they are so severely punished. To the true criminal, the pangs of conscience are entirely unknown, and a brutish indifference to death is a most frequent manifestation. This is shown very clearly in the turns of phrase met with in the jargon of criminals in relation to the punishment of execution. One of the most sensational trials in recent days—the trial of Heinze and of the prostitute with whom he lived—served to acquaint the general public with the phrase “cut the cabbage” for decapitation. The expression “to sneeze in the sack” corresponds to this (the guillotined head, when severed by the falling knife, is received in a sack); and there are many others. Lombroso gives numerous examples of a perfect equanimity persisting up to the very moment of death. One of his reports (_Archivio di psichiatria_, 1891, Section 4) tells us of a murderer who, whilst awaiting his execution, drew caricatures of the spectators. Allied to this indifference, appears to be the puzzling impulse of professional murderers before the commission of a crime to speak openly of their plans, and even to describe the actual details of the proposed murder. Troppmann, although he lied in court during the trial, while confined in his cell made drawings of the way in which he had committed the murder.

Footnote 27:

_Cf._ F. Max Müller, “The Science of Thought,” 1887, pp. 270, 271: “If the science of language has proved anything, it has proved that every term which is applied to a particular idea or object, unless it be a proper name, is already a general term. _Man_ meant originally anything that could think; _serpent_, anything that could creep; _fruit_, anything that could be eaten.”—TRANSLATOR.

Footnote 28:

Very various significations are attached to the term “criminal psychology.” Some denote by it a general theory of responsibility; some, an account of the mental disorders which have forensic importance; some, the theory of the will, of purpose, of deliberation, of design, of resolve, of the associations with and the aids to crime; some, the developmental history of individual criminals, or a description of the means by which they have been led to commit some particular crime, or which they have adopted in the course of its performance; some, finally, denote by the term a classification of the world of criminals in accordance with character, after the manner of Benedikt and Krauss. The teaching of Lombroso is concerned solely with the elements of the criminal nature which possess an anthropological interest, just as the ethnologist endeavours to elucidate the natural character of a race.

Footnote 29:

“Naturgeschichte des Verbrechers” (“The Natural History of the Criminal”), pp. 230–246.

Footnote 30:

See above, p. 42, the observations of Professor Ranke.

Footnote 31:

In Lombroso’s “Palimsesti del carcere” (1891) are to be found extremely interesting histories of the childhood of criminals, to which, in my German edition of the work, I have added certain observations of my own (Hamburg, 1900).

Footnote 32:

Lombroso’s syllogism: “All criminals are morally insane, all epileptics are morally insane, therefore all criminals are epileptics,” should have been stated in the hypothetical rather than in the categorical form.

Footnote 33:

“Il delitto politico e le rivoluzioni,” Turin, Fratelli Bocca, 1890. (A French translation of this work has been published.)

Footnote 34:

_Archivio di psichiatria_, vol. vi., p. 148, 1884.

Footnote 35:

See p. 33.

Footnote 36:

The _fundamental biogenetic law_ runs as follows: “The history of the fœtus is a recapitulation of the history of the race, or, in other words, ontogeny is a recapitulation of phylogeny.”—Haeckel, “The Evolution of Man,” Popular English Edition, p. 2.

Footnote 37:

For the reason that in such a moral scheme the true social instinct is lacking.

Footnote 38:

In his earliest great imaginative work, “The Time Machine,” Mr. H. G. Wells imagines in the distant future of our race such a differentiation into two types; the “Morlocks,” the underground race, who had taken to preying on the above-ground moiety, were the descendants of our present proletarians.—TRANSLATOR.

Footnote 39:

In 1899 he was chosen as municipal councillor by one of the working-class quarters of Turin, and sat for some years. In this position, however, he attracted public attention only by his successful resistance to a proposed large municipal loan for the purpose of building a great electric power station, to be driven by water-power.

Footnote 40:

Of parliamentary government he writes (“Delitto politico,” p. 531): “Parliamentary government, which has with justice been stigmatized as the greatest superstition of modern times, offers greater and ever greater obstacles to the introduction of a good method of government, so that, whilst the electors lose sight more and more of the high ideals of the State, some of the elected representatives obtain a freedom from responsibility which tends to the advantage of crime—which may, indeed, make of them occasional criminals, if they have not inherited the criminal nature. For five centuries Italy has fought for the abolition of the privileges of priests, feudal lords, and kings; and now in the name of freedom we endow 500 kinglets with inordinate privileges, and even free them from liability to prosecution for ordinary crime!”

And of universal suffrage he writes: “In the general view, universal suffrage works for the abolition of class distinctions, but in the hands of the corrupt and the uncultured it may be directly subversive of freedom.

“Let us therefore advocate everything that can be for the advantage of the common people, but let us at the same time give these latter only so much power as may be necessary to wring from the upper classes the concessions needful for the good of the commonalty” (“L’uomo delinquente: Cause e rimedii,” 1897, pp. 442, 443).

Footnote 41:

“L’uomo delinquente.”

Footnote 42:

See also R. Sommer, _Kriminalpsychologie_, 1904, p. 6 _et seq._ It may be mentioned that Sommer, in the spirit of positive science, has discovered methods by which psychomotor processes, some of which possess great crimino-psychological importance, may be rendered objectively cognizable.

Footnote 43:

“Della pene” (R. Instituto Lombardo, Rendic, second series, vol. viii., pp. 993–1005, 1875); “Sull’ incremento del delitto in Italia e sui mezzi di arrestarlo,” Turin, 1879; Troppo presto. “Appunti al nuovo pregetto di codice penale,” Turin, 1888; “Il delitto politico e le rivoluzioni,” Turin, 1890. In addition, there was founded in the year 1880, in association with Ferri and Garofalo, the _Archivio di psichiatria_, “Scienze penali ed antropologia criminale” (Turin, E. Loescher).

Footnote 44:

See above, p. 124 _et seq._

Footnote 45:

In view of the fact that shortly after the death of Lombroso it was widely asserted both in the medical and the lay Press of this country and of the United States that Lombroso’s views regarding the nature of pellagra had recently been shown to be erroneous, I wrote to Dr. Kurella for further information. He replied as follows: “On receipt of your letter, I wrote to an Italian colleague to inquire of him what were the views presently held regarding the etiology of pellagra. He informs me that the majority of experimental pathologists in Italy remain convinced of the truth of Lombroso’s views. He also refers me to this year’s (1910) _Wiener Klinische Wochenschrift_, No. 23, p. 963, where there is an article by Raubitschek, an Austrian experimenter, who claims to have confirmed Lombroso’s theory by means of experiments on rats.”

Unquestionably, therefore, numerous investigators, both in Italy and elsewhere, hold fast by one form or other of the _zeist_ theory of the etiology of pellagra, which Lombroso believed himself to have established beyond the possibility of refutation. But during the past year this theory has, nevertheless, been largely discredited. In the _Lancet_ of February 12, 1910, will be found the report of the Pellagra Investigation Commission, in which some of the alternative hypotheses are discussed. Dr. Sambon was despatched by this Commission in charge of the Pellagra Field Commission in Italy, and in an editorial note in the _British Medical Journal_ of May 21, we are told that a telegram had been received from Dr. Sambon, under date of May 13, stating “The Commission has definitely proved that maize is not the cause of pellagra; the parasitic conveyor is the _Simulium reptans_.” It is probable that the matter will soon be definitely settled, and it cannot be denied that pellagra presents many analogies with other endemic disorders due to protozoal infection conveyed by the bite of a blood-sucking insect.—TRANSLATOR.

Footnote 46:

See the translation of Count Tolstoy’s pamphlet, “The Hanging Czar,” published by the Independent Labour Party.—TRANSLATOR.

Footnote 47:

In view of this advice, it is interesting to note that I have just received a medical periodical published in the United States, from which I learn that during the winter of 1909–1910 the Romance and Slav population of the towns of the Mississippi States has been extensively ravaged by pellagra. As late as the year 1908, in the great American textbook, Osler’s “Principles and Practice of Medicine,” we learn that pellagra “has not been observed in the United States!”

TRANSLATOR’S NOTE.—Dr. Kurella writes to me to the following effect: “I remember twenty-five years ago, in asylums both in Pennsylvania and in Illinois, finding cases of pellagra, with the characteristic skin-lesions, in addition to the mental disorder. But my American colleagues then ridiculed my diagnosis.”

Footnote 48:

Among other tributes to Lombroso may be mentioned those which he received at the International Congress of Criminal Anthropology, held at Turin in the year 1906.

Footnote 49:

English translation in Scott’s Contemporary Science Series.

Footnote 50:

Milan, 1878. A volume of the International Scientific Series.

Footnote 51:

Pure nominatives, such as anyone could extract from a dictionary in default of all knowledge of the language.

Footnote 52:

See note to page 152.

Footnote 53:

_Annales des Sciences Psychiques_, 1904.

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TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES

1. Silently corrected typographical errors and variations in spelling. 2. Anachronistic, non-standard, and uncertain spellings retained as printed. 3. Enclosed italics font in _underscores_.