CHAPTER XII.

CONCLUSION.

Classification of Pleistocene Strata by means of the Mammalia.--The late, middle, and early Pleistocene Divisions.--The Pleiocene Mammalia.--Summary of characteristic Pleiocene and Pleistocene Species.--Antiquity of Man in Europe.--Man lived in India in Pleistocene Age.--Are the Palæolithic Aborigines of India related to those of Europe?--Palæolithic Man lived in Palestine.-- Conclusion.

The animals inhabiting the caves have been enumerated in the last three chapters, and we have discussed the inferences drawn from their distribution as to the pleistocene climate and geography of Europe. It remains for us now, in conclusion, to define the pleistocene, and to see in what relation it stands to the pleiocene period.

_Classification of Pleistocene Strata by means of the Mammalia._

The pleistocene period was one of very long duration, and embraced changes of great magnitude in the geography of Europe, as we have seen in the ninth and tenth chapters. The climate, which in the preceding pleiocene age had been temperate in northern and middle Europe, at the beginning of the pleistocene gradually passed into the extreme arctic severity of the glacial period. This change caused a corresponding change of the forms of animal life; the pleiocene species, whose constitutions were adjusted to temperate or hot climates, yielding place to those which were better adapted to the new conditions. And since there is reason for the belief that it was not continuous in one direction, but that there were pauses or even reversions towards the old temperate state, it follows that the two groups of animals would at times overlap, and their remains be intermingled with each other. The frontiers also of each of the geographical provinces must naturally have varied with the season; and the competition for the same feeding-grounds between the invading and retreating forms must have been long, fluctuating, and severe. The passage, therefore, from the pleiocene to the pleistocene fauna might be expected to have been extremely gradual in each area. The lines of definition between the two are to a great extent arbitrary, instead of being marked with sufficient strength to constitute a barrier between the tertiary and post-tertiary groups of life of Lyell, or between the tertiary and quaternary of French geologists. The principle of classification which I have proposed[267] is that offered by the gradual lowering of the temperature, which has left its mark in the advent of animals before unknown in Europe; and according to it I have divided the pleistocene deposits into three groups.

1. Those in which the pleistocene immigrants had begun to disturb the pleiocene mammalia, but had not yet supplanted the more southern animals. No arctic mammalia had as yet arrived. To this group belongs the forest-bed of Norfolk and Suffolk, and the deposit at St. Prest, near Chartres.

2. That in which the characteristic pleiocene deer had disappeared. The even-toed ruminants are principally represented by the stag, the Irish elk, the roe, bison, and urus. _Elephas meridionalis_ and _Rhinoceros etruscus_ had retreated to the south. To this group belong the brick-earths of the lower valley of the Thames, the river-deposit at Clacton, the cave of Baume in the Jura, and a river-deposit in Auvergne.

3. The third division is that in which the true arctic mammalia were among the chief inhabitants of the region; and to it belong most of the ossiferous caves and river-deposits in middle and northern Europe.

These three do not correspond with the preglacial, glacial, and postglacial divisions of the pleistocene strata, in central and north Britain; since there is reason to believe that all the animals which occupied Britain after the maximum cold had passed away, had arrived here in their southern advance before that maximum cold had been reached; or, in other words, were both pre- and postglacial.

This classification does not apply to pleistocene river-strata south of the Alps and Pyrenees, into which the arctic mammalia never penetrated.

_The Late Pleistocene Division._

The late pleistocene division corresponds in part with the reindeer period of M. Lartet; but it comprehends also his other three periods; for the spotted hyæna, the lion, the cave-bear, the mammoth, the woolly rhinoceros, the bison, the reindeer, and the urus are so associated together in the caves and river deposits of Great Britain and the continent that they do not afford a means of classification. The arctic division of the mammalia, defined in the preceding chapter, was then in full possession of the area north of the Alps and Pyrenees, and the _Rhinoceros megarhinus_ and _Elephas meridionalis_ had disappeared. With three exceptions, to be noticed presently, all the ossiferous caverns of France, Germany, and Britain, belong to this division of the pleistocene.

_The Middle Pleistocene Division._

The middle division of the pleistocene mammalia may now be examined, or that from which the characteristic pleiocene deer had vanished, and were replaced by the invading forms from the temperate zones of northern Asia. It is represented in Britain by the mammalia obtained from the lower brick-earths of the Thames valley, at Crayford, Erith, Ilford, and Gray’s Thurrock, by those from the deposit at Clacton, and most probably by those of the older deposit in Kent’s Hole, and by the _Rhinoceros megarhinus_ of Oreston.[268] They consist of--

Man, _Homo_. Lion, _Felis leo spelæa_. Wild Cat, _F. catus_. Spotted Hyæna, _Hyæna crocuta var. spelæa_. Grizzly Bear, _Ursus ferox_. Brown Bear, _U. arctos_. Wolf, _Canis lupus_. Fox, _C. vulpes_. Otter, _Lutra vulgaris_. Urus, _Bos primigenius_. Bison, _Bison priscus_. Irish Elk, _Cervus megaceros_. Stag, _C. elaphus_. Brown’s Fallow Deer, _C. Browni_. Roedeer, _C. capreolus_. Musk Sheep, _Ovibos moschatus_. _Elephas antiquus._ Mammoth, _E. primigenius_. Horse, _Equus caballus_. Woolly Rhinoceros, _Rhinoceros tichorhinus_. _R. hemitœchus._ _R. megarhinus._ Wild-boar, _Sus scrofa_. Hippopotamus, _Hippopotamus amphibius_. Beaver, _Castor fiber_. Water-Rat, _Arvicola amphibia_.

The discovery of a flint-flake in the undisturbed lower brick-earths of Crayford, by the Rev. O. Fisher, in the presence of the writer, in April 1872, proves that man was living while these fluviatile strata were being deposited.

If these mammalia be compared with those of the forest-bed or the pleiocene age on the one hand, and with the late pleistocene on the other, it will be seen that they are linked to the former by _Rhinoceros megarhinus_, and to the latter by the musk sheep. The presence of the latter, the most arctic of the herbivores, in such strange company is most abnormal, and suggests the idea that the remains belong to two distinct eras. The skull, however, which I found at Crayford in 1867, and presented to the Museum of the Geological Survey, rested in intimate association with the bones of other species, is in the same mineral state, and bears no marks of being a “derived fossil.” It is the only trace of the animal as yet obtained from the lower brick-earths.

The absence of the reindeer, so numerous in the valley of the Thames, while the late pleistocene strata were being accumulated by the river, and the abundance of remains of the stag, seem to me to point backwards rather than forwards in time, and to imply that the lower brick-earths are not of late pleistocene age; just as the absence of the characteristic early pleistocene species shows that they are not of that age. The evidence seems to be sufficient to establish a stage intermediate between the two. Nevertheless, it is sufficiently conflicting to cause Dr. Falconer to come to the conclusion that these strata are of pleiocene date, and Mr. Prestwich to believe that they belong to a late stage in the pleistocene.

During the middle pleistocene, in the Thames valley, and at Clacton, the woolly rhinoceros, elephant, and mammoth competed for the same feeding-grounds with _Rhinoceros hemitœchus_, _R. megarhinus_, hippopotamus, and _Elephas antiquus_. Although all the characteristic pleiocene deer had retreated, the reindeer had not yet invaded that area: it was occupied by the stag, roe, the Irish elk, and Brown’s fallow deer. The whole assemblage of animals, the musk sheep being excepted, implies that the climate was less severe at this time, than when the reindeer spread over the same area in the late pleistocene age, and was far more numerous than the stag. It may, indeed, be objected that the classificatory value of the musk sheep is quite as great as that of _Rhinoceros megarhinus_; but in the case of the lower brick-earths, the evidence of the latter as to climate agrees with that of the whole assemblage of animals, while that of the former is altogether discordant.

There are no caves either in Britain or on the continent which can be referred with certainty to this middle division. The machairodus, however, of Kent’s Hole, and of the cavern of Baume in the Jura (see p. 337), and the megarhine species of rhinoceros from the fissures of Oreston, probably inhabited those regions, while the temperate group of animals held possession of the valley of the Thames, and of that now sunk beneath the North Sea.

_The Early Pleistocene Mammalia._

The fossil mammalia must now be examined, which inhabited Great Britain during the early pleistocene period, and before the maximum severity of glacial cold had as yet been reached. The fossil bones from the forest-bed, which underlies the boulder-clay on the shores of Norfolk and Suffolk, have for many years attracted the attention of naturalists and geologists. The magnificent collections of the Rev. John Gunn, and the late Rev. S. W. King, gave Dr. Falconer the means of proving that the fauna of the ancient submerged forest differed from that of any geological period which we have hitherto discussed: and the careful diagnosis of all the fossils from this horizon which I have been able to meet with, shows that it was of a very peculiar character, being closely allied to the pleiocene of the south of France and of Italy, and yet possessing species which are undoubtedly pleistocene. The following list is necessarily very imperfect, since the fragmentary nature of the fossils renders a specific identification very hazardous; and it only includes those which I have been able to identify with any degree of certainty.

_Sorex moschatus._ _S. vulgaris._ _Talpa Europæa._ _Trogontherium Cuvieri._ _Castor fiber._ _Ursus spelæus._ _U. arvernensis._ _Canis lupus._ _C. vulpes._ _Machairodus._ _Cervus megaceros._ _C. capreolus._ _C. elaphus._ _Cervus Polignacus._ _C. carnutorum._ _C. verticornis._ _C. Sedgwickii._ _Bos primigenius._ _Hippopotamus major._ _Sus scrofa._ _Equus caballus._ _Rhinoceros etruscus._ _R. megarhinus._ _Elephas meridionalis._ _E. antiquus._ _E. primigenius._

From the examination of this list, the peculiar mixture of pleiocene and pleistocene species is evident. The _Ursus arvernensis_, _Cervus Polignacus_, _Hippopotamus major_, _Rhinoceros etruscus_, and _R. megarhinus_, the horse, _Elephas meridionalis_, and _E. antiquus_ were living in the pleiocene age in France and Italy, and probably in Norfolk. The cave-bear, the wolf, fox, mole, beaver, Irish elk, roe, stag, urus, wild-boar, and the mammoth have not as yet been discovered in the continental pleiocenes, as judged by the standards offered by the Val d’Arno and Southern France. They are more or less abundant in the late pleistocene age. This singular association seems to me to imply that the fauna of the forest-bed is intermediate between the two, and, from the fact that only three out of the whole series, viz. _Ursus arvernensis_, _Rhinoceros etruscus_, and _Cervus Polignacus_, are peculiar to the continental pleiocene, that it is more closely allied to the pleistocene than to the pleiocene.

It is also very probable that this early pleistocene age was of considerable duration; for in it we find at least two forms (and the number will probably be very largely increased) which are unknown in continental Europe, although pleiocene and pleistocene strata have been diligently examined in France and Germany. The very presence of the _Cervus Sedgwickii_ and _C. verticornis_ implies that the lapse of time was sufficiently great to allow of the evolution of forms of animal life hitherto unknown, and which disappeared before the middle and late pleistocene stages. The _Trogontherium_ also, as well as the _Cervus carnutorum_, both of which occur in the forest-bed and in the gravel-beds of St. Prest, near Chartres, and which are peculiar to this horizon, point to the same conclusion.

The deer of the forest-bed, in this list, do not represent approximately the number of species: there are at least five, and perhaps six, represented by a series of antlers, which I do not venture to quote, because I have not been able to compare them with those of the pleiocenes of the Val d’Arno, of Marseilles, or of Auvergne.

Dr. Falconer pointed out that one of the peculiar characters of the fauna of the forest-bed is the presence of the mammoth; and the evidence on which he considered the animal to be of preglacial age in Europe has been fully verified by the molars from Bacton, which are now in the Manchester Museum. They are associated with _Elephas meridionalis_ and _E. antiquus_, and are incrusted with precisely the same matrix as the teeth and bones of those species.

No caves have been discovered containing this peculiar assemblage of fossil animals.

_The Pleiocene Mammalia._

The relation of the pleistocene to the pleiocene fauna is a question of very great difficulty, because the latter has not yet been satisfactorily defined, although Prof. Gervais and Dr. Falconer have given the more important species from Auvergne, Montpellier, and the Val d’Arno. The following list is taken from Prof. Gervais’s great work “Zoologie et Paléontologie Françaises,” p. 349, the term pseudo-pleiocene merely implying that the fauna differs from that of the marine deposit of Montpellier, which he takes as his standard.

_Pseudo-pleiocene of Issoire._

_Hystrix refossa._ _Castor issiodorensis._ _Arctomys antiqua._ _Arvicola robustus._ _Cervus pardinensis._ _C. arvernensis._ _C. causanus._ _Sus arvernensis. Lepus Lacosti._ _Mastodon arvernensis._ _Tapirus arvernensis._ _Rhinoceros elatus?_ _Bos elatus._ _Cervus polycladus._ _C. ardens._ _C. cladocerus._ _C. issiodorensis._ _C. Perrieri._ _C. etueriarum._ _Ursus arvernensis._ _Canis borbonidus._ _Felis pardinensis._ _F. arvernensis._ _F. brevirostris._ _F. issiodorensis._ _Machairodus cultridens._ _Hyæna arvernensis._ _H. Perrieri._ _Lutra Bravardi._

To these animals Dr. Falconer[269] adds _Hippopotamus major_, _Elephas antiquus_, and _Rhinoceros megarhinus_, and he identifies _Rhinoceros elatus_ with his new species _Rhinoceros etruscus_. Prof. Gaudry agrees with me in the belief that _Hyæna Perrieri_ is identical with _H. striata_ or the striped species.

Prof. Gervais also identifies the _Equus robustus_ of M. Pomel, from the same locality, with the common Horse, _Equus fossilis_.

The fauna of Montpellier is certainly very different from that of Issoire; but since it is neither meiocene nor pleistocene, it must belong to one of the intermediate stages of the pleiocene. It includes

_Semnopithecus monspessulanus._ _Macacus priscus._ _Chalicomys sigmodus._ _Lagomys loxodus._ _Mastodon brevirostris._ _Rhinoceros megarhinus._ _Tapirus minor._ _Antilope Cordieri._ _A. hastata._ _Cervus Cuvieri._ _C. australis._ _Sus provincialis._ _Hyænodon insignis._ _Hyæna ----?_ _Machairodus._ _Felis Christolii._ _Lutra affinis._

The _Mastodon brevirostris_ of this list is considered by Dr. Falconer to be identical with _M. arvernensis_ of MM. Croiset and Jobert.

The fauna of the Val d’Arno differs from that of Montpellier and of Auvergne, and yet is considered by Dr. Falconer to be eminently typical of the European pleiocene.[270] The animals identified by him in the museums of Italy are as follow:--

_Felis._ _Hyæna._ _Machairodus cultridens._ _Mastodon arvernensis._ _M. Borsoni._ _Elephas antiquus._ _Elephas meridionalis._ _Rhinoceros etruscus._ _R. megarhinus._ _R. hemitœchus._ _Hippopotamus major._

All these animals, with the exception of _Rhinoceros hemitœchus_, have been discovered in the pseudo-pleiocene of Issoire, while the megarhine rhinoceros and _Mastodon arvernensis_ are the only two which have been obtained from the marine sands of Montpellier. The pleiocene animals, therefore, inhabiting Northern Italy are more closely allied to those of Auvergne than to those of Montpellier.

If these three localities be taken as typical of the pleiocene strata, we shall find that several of the species range as far north as Britain, and occur in deposits which from the evidence of the mollusca, have been assigned to that age. _Mastodon arvernensis_, _Elephas meridionalis_, and _Ursus arvernensis_, have been obtained from the old land-surface which underlies the sand and shingle of the Norfolk Crag, in company with many forms of deer and antelopes which have not yet been identified, while the _Hipparion_ is found in the marine crags of Suffolk.

The animals which especially characterize the pleiocene strata of Europe are _Machairodus cultridens_, _Mastodon arvernensis_ and _M. Borsoni_, besides the genus _Tapir_.

If this fauna be compared with that of the preglacial forest-bed, it will be seen that the difference between them is very great. The pleiocene mastodon, tapir, the majority of the deer, and the antelopes are replaced by forms such as the roe and the red-deer, unknown up to that time. Nevertheless many of the pleiocene animals were able to hold their ground against the pleistocene invaders, although, subsequently, as I have already shown, they disappeared one by one, being ultimately beaten in the struggle for life by the new comers. The progress of this struggle has been used in the preceding pages as a means of classification. This fauna has not been discovered in any cave.

_Summary of Characteristic Pleistocene and Pleiocene Species._

The following are the salient points of the pleistocene age offered by the study of the land mammalia in the area north of the Alps and Pyrenees.

THE PLEISTOCENE PERIOD.

A.--_The latest stage._

Palæolithic Man. Woolly Rhinoceros, abundant. Mammoth, abundant. Reindeer, abundant. Stag, comparatively rare. Northern forms of life in full possession of area north of Alps and Pyrenees.

B.--_The middle stage._

Palæolithic Man. _Machairodus latidens._ Stag, abundant. Northern forms of life present, but not in force. _Rhinoceros megarhinus_, still living. Woolly Rhinoceros, present.

C.--_The early stage._

The following are animals peculiar to this stage:--

_Trogontherium Cuvieri._ _Cerus verticornis._ _Cervus Sedgwickii._ _C. carnutorum._

The following make their appearance:--The beaver, musk-shrew, cave-bear, roe, stag, Irish elk, urus, and bison, wild-boar, horse, (2), mammoth, wolf, and fox.

The pleiocene _Ursus arvernensis_, _Cervus Polignacus_, _Rhinoceros etruscus_, and _Elephas meridionalis_ still living.

THE PLEIOCENE.

_Mastodon arvernensis._ _M. Borsoni._ _Hipparion gracile._ No living species of European Deer.

The three subdivisions of the pleistocene do not apply to the region south of the Alps and Pyrenees, because the northern group of animals did not pass into Spain and Italy. In these two countries we find southern and pleiocene animals living throughout the pleistocene age, which in France and Britain lived only in the two earlier stages.

_Antiquity of Man in Europe._

No remains have been discovered up to the present time in any part of Europe which can be referred with certainty to a higher antiquity than the pleistocene age. The palæolithic people or peoples arrived in Europe along with the peculiar fauna of that age, and after dwelling here for a length of time, which is to be measured by the vast physical and climatal changes, described in the last three chapters, finally disappeared, leaving behind as their representatives the Eskimos tribes of arctic America. There is no evidence that they were inferior in intellectual capacity to many of the lower races of the present time, or more closely linked to the lower animals. The traces which they have left behind tell us nothing as to the truth or falsehood of the doctrine of evolution, for if it be maintained on the one hand, that the first appearance of man as a man, and not as a man-like brute, is inconsistent with that doctrine, it may be answered that the lapse of time between his appearance in the pleistocene age and the present day, is too small to have produced appreciable physical or intellectual change. Also, it must not be forgotten, that we have merely investigated the antiquity of the sojourn of man in Europe, and not the general question of his first appearance on the earth, with which it is very generally confounded. Dr. Falconer well remarked that the _origines_ of mankind are to be sought, not in Europe, but in the tropical regions, probably of Asia. To these we have no clue in the present stage of the inquiry. The higher apes are represented in the European meiocene and pleiocene strata, by extinct forms uniting in some cases the characters of different living species, but they do not show any tendency to assume human characters. It must indeed be allowed, that the study of fossil remains throws as little light as the documents of history on the relation of man to the lower animals. The historian commences his labours with the high civilization of Assyria and Egypt, and can merely guess at the steps by which it was achieved; the palæontologist meets with the traces of man in the pleistocene strata, and he too can merely guess at the antecedent steps by which man arrived even at that culture which is implied by the implements. The latter has proved that the antiquity of man is greater than the former had supposed. Neither has contributed anything towards the solution of the problem of his origin.

_Man lived in India in Pleistocene Age._

The researches of the Geological Surveyors has shown that in ancient times man, in the same stage of civilization as the palæolithic man of Europe, lived in Southern India and in the valley of the Narbadá. In 1868[271] Mr. Bruce Foote described the flint implements which were discovered over a large area in the districts of Madras, either in the red clayey deposit known as Laterite, or in such positions as implied that they had been washed out of it. They all belong to the same rude types as those of the pleistocene strata of North-western Europe. A small fragment of bone was the only fossil which had up to that time been discovered in the Laterite, and this I was able to identify in 1869 as a portion of a human tibia of the abnormal platycnemic variety, which has been described in the fifth chapter of this work, from the European caves and tombs. The Lateritic deposits themselves are strictly analogous to our river-strata and brick-earths in their constitution, and in their resting at various levels above the sea, and were, as Mr. Foote remarks, formed under conditions different to those which are now going on in that district. They prove that the period of the sojourn of palæolithic man in Southern India is divided from the present day by considerable geographical changes, such as the elevation of land, and the erosion and breaking up of accumulations which were once continuous. We have seen that somewhat similar changes have happened in Europe, in the interval which separates the palæolithic period from our own time.

The discovery of a rudely chipped implement of quartzite, of the pointed oval shape common in the gravels of Britain and France, published by Mr. Medlicott in 1873, in the “Records of the Geological Survey of India,” proves further that man was a member of the remarkable fauna which inhabited the valley of the Narbadá in ancient times. It was dug out of reddish unstratified clay by Mr. Hacket at a depth of three feet from the upper surface, which was covered by twenty feet of ossiferous gravel, on the left bank of the Narbadá near the valley of Bhutra. The clay belongs to the same fluviatile series as that from which the mammalia were obtained and named by Dr. Falconer in 1828. Both clay and gravel are shown to be of fluviatile origin, by the presence of fresh-water mussels of the varieties still living in the adjacent river.

The fossil bones belong to extinct and living animals. Among the former are two kinds of elephant (_E. namadicus_) and (_E. stegodon insignis_), one of which is closely allied to the European _E. antiquus_, two species of hippopotamus, one (_H. palæindicus_) with four incisors in front of the jaws like the African, and a second with six incisors belonging to the extinct division of hexaprotodon, a large ox (_Bos namadicus_), a deer and a bear. The living forms are represented by the buffalo (_Bubalus namadicus_), which is identical with the wild arnee from which the Indian domestic buffaloes have descended, and the gavial, or long-snouted Gangetic crocodile. This imperfect list, borrowed from Dr. Falconer,[272] shows that there is the same mixture of extinct with living forms in the valley of the Ganges, while the clays and gravels were being accumulated, as we have observed in the pleistocene deposits of Europe, and the fauna may therefore be referred to the pleistocene age, and probably, as Mr. Medlicott proposes, to the late division of that age. The exact correspondence of the quartzite implements with those which are so abundant in the European river-strata of the same age, adds additional weight to this conclusion.

_Are the Palæolithic Aborigines of India related to those of Europe?_

It is not a little remarkable that Dr. Falconer, writing in 1865 of the peculiar fauna of the Narbadá, should have held the view that man was living in India at that time, and that the memory of the hippopotamus was handed down in Aryan traditions, under the striking name of the water elephant. “After reflecting,” he writes, “on the question during many years in its palæontological and ethnological bearings, my leaning is to the view that _Hippopotamus namadicus_ was extinct in India long before the Aryan invasion, but that it was familiar to the earlier indigenous races.” (ii. p. 644.) This inference is proved to be literally true by the discovery of the palæolithic implements in the ossiferous strata of the Narbadá, which must have required long ages for their accumulation and subsequent erosion.

We may, therefore, conclude that palæolithic man inhabited both Europe and India in the pleistocene age. And possibly the identity of the implements, in these two remote regions, may be accounted for in the same manner as the identity of Aryan root-words, by the view that their fabricators may have come from the same centre of dispersal, by the same routes as those which were subsequently used by the pre-Aryan, and Aryan, invaders of Europe and India. But whether this be accepted or not, it cannot be denied that the man who inhabited both these regions was in the same rude stage of human progress, and played his part in the same life-era.

_Palæolithic Man lived in Palestine._

The discovery, by the Abbé Richard,[273] of a palæolithic flint implement, of the ordinary river-bed type, on the surface of a stratum of gravel between Mount Tabor and the lake of Tiberias, lends great weight to the view that the Aborigines of India and Europe, whose implements are found in the deposits of rivers, migrated from the same centre, since it bridges over the great interval of space by which they were isolated. It is very probable, that future discoveries may reveal the presence of a tolerably uniform priscan population, in the pleistocene age, throughout this vast area: which as yet has only been explored by archæologists in a few isolated points, with the important results recorded in the preceding pages.

_Conclusion._

It now remains for us to sum up the results of the exploration of European caves, of which an imperfect outline has been given in this work. Their formation, and filling up, have an important bearing on the physical geography of the districts in which they occur, and reveal the great changes which are going on, in the calcareous rocks, at the present time. The study of the remains which they contain has led to the recognition of the fact, that the climate and geography of Europe, in ancient times, were altogether different from those of the present day.

It has also made large additions to the history of the sojourn of man in Europe. We find a hunting and fishing race of cave-dwellers, in the remote pleistocene age, in possession of France, Belgium, Germany, and Britain, probably of the same stock as the Eskimos, living and forming part of a fauna, in which northern and southern, living and extinct, species are strangely mingled with those now living in Europe. In the neolithic age caves were inhabited, and used for tombs, by men of the Iberian or Basque race, which is still represented by the small, dark-haired, peoples of western Europe. They were rarely used in the bronze age. When we arrive within the borders of history in Britain, we find them offering shelter to the Brit-Welsh flying from their enemies after the ruin of the Roman empire, and throwing great light on the fragmentary records of those obscure times. In treating of these questions, it has been necessary to discuss problems of deep and varied interest to the ethnologist, physicist, and historian, some of which have been partially solved, while others await the light of the higher knowledge which will be the fruit of a wider experience.

APPENDICES.

APPENDIX I.--P. 30.

ON THE INSTRUMENTS AND METHODS OF CAVE-HUNTING.

Instruments used in Cave-hunting.--The Search after Bone-caves.-- The three modes of Cave-digging.--Stalagmitic Floors to be broken up.--Preservation of Fossil Bones.

_Instruments used in Cave-hunting._

The instruments which Mr. James Parker, Mr. Ayshford Sanford and myself have found most valuable in cave-hunting, apart from the tools of the workman, are as follow:--

1. A hammer with an ash handle about twenty inches long, inserted into a square head of best steel, ending in a chisel edge in the same plane as the handle, weighing almost eight ounces, and seven inches in length.

2. A steel chisel ten inches long.

3. A prismatic compass.

4. A thermometer for taking the temperatures of the air and water.

5. An aneroid.

6. A steel measuring tape.

7. Abney’s patent level which is used for laying down datum-line for plan, as well as for taking the dips and angles.

In making a plan we have found it useful to mark the datum-line by a stout string or wire and to measure from it as the work proceeds, indicating on the sides and floor of the cave the points of measurement, with paint or wooden pegs.

8. A stout rope not less than twenty feet long with a horse’s girth at the end is necessary for the exploration of vertical fissures, so that the explorer may be let down without any great danger. No large unknown caves should be explored without a rope, or by a party less than three in number. In exploring the caves of Burrington Combe we used a rope sixty feet long. The descent into Helln Pot, described in the second chapter, p. 41, was effected in the following manner. A strong platform of timber was made over the open fissure, and from it a square “cage” or “basket” of the ordinary kind used in mining was let down for the first drop of 198 feet. It was prevented from twisting round by two guide ropes. For the rest of the falls we had two ladders eight feet long, and a rope, without which we should have been unable to reach the bottom.

9. In the exploration of water-caves, in which there are sometimes sheets of water of considerable size and depth, a raft may be used, such as that devised by Mr. James Parker for the navigation of the great cave of Wookey Hole. It consisted of a platform supported on barrels and built as follows: A frame of stout poles was made; two, _a a_, being eight feet long, with four others, _b_, _c_, lashed firmly across, each four feet in length. The space _d_ was converted into a platform by nailing boards across, and this was buoyed up by a beer-barrel at each end in the interspace _e_. The barrels were attached to the raft by two loops of rope _g_, passing over from _b_ to _c_, and thus kept in place, although they freely twisted and turned in actual use. The ropes had an advantage over iron hoops for the attachment of the barrels, because when they were tightened the platform was raised above the water, when they were loosened it was lowered, and thus the raft could be adjusted to the weight to be carried, to the depth of the water, and the distance of the water-line from the roof. A raft of this kind will bear three persons, and is sufficiently light to be carried over the shallows. With it Mr. Parker made his way for a considerable distance in the Wookey Hole cavern, and subsequently I penetrated as far as the water-line would allow me to get. A long pole is also necessary for punting. Mr. Parker found by experience that a raft made of boards nailed on the top of two beer-barrels was too unstable to be of any use. In making his way across subterranean pools the cave-hunter ought to be prepared for accidents, for the depth is very uncertain, and the water sufficiently cold to cause cramp. For the exploration of ordinary water-caves a raft is unnecessary, but no attempt should be made without a rope. In Yorkshire and Derbyshire there is an unlimited field for adventure in the subterranean water-courses.

10. The most convenient lights for use in caves are the common composite candles. Paraffin candles are open to the objection that they gutter, lanthorns do not give a sufficiently diffused light, and the smoke of paraffin torches, or flambeaux dipped in turpentine or tar is intolerable. Magnesium wire reveals the beauties of the higher roofs.

_The Search after Ossiferous Caves._

Many of the ossiferous caves, and especially those of the neolithic and pleistocene ages, have their entrances masked by débris which has been accumulated from the surface above during the long lapse of ages. In their discovery I have found rabbits, foxes, and badgers of the greatest service, since these animals generally make their burrows in such places. And where their earths are met with at the base of a vertical wall of rock, I have very generally found a cave. They were my sole guides to the discovery of the five sepulchral caves at Perthi Chwareu, described in the fifth chapter, in a district in which up to that time caves were not known to exist.

The dwellers in caves very generally chose for their habitations the sunny side of the ravines and valleys, and the spots which commanded a wide view, and, therefore, their remains are to be looked for in those places, rather than on the cold and sunless sides, or where an enemy might approach without observation.

_The Scientific Methods of Cave-digging._

The exploration of an ossiferous cavern with sufficient accuracy to be of scientific value, may be carried out in all tunnel caves, or those extending horizontally into the rock, by one of the three following methods which may be adapted to the local conditions:--

The first step to take in all cases is to make a plan of the entrance, and to cut a passage down to the rock at the entrance, so as to obtain a clear idea of the sequence of the strata. In the hyæna-den at Wookey Hole, we first of all cut a passage through the cave-earth which extended from the roof to the floor, and then removed the earth on either side in blocks, until ultimately the chamber and passages described in the eighth chapter were cleared of their contents. Our work was measured every evening, and each bone and object found was labelled with the date which was recorded on the ground plan. Vertical sections were also taken from time to time. This mode, supplemented by constant supervision of the workmen, was sufficiently accurate to satisfy the demands of scientific research.

The Victoria Cave, where the demarcation between the strata was very distinct, was explored, while the work was under my direction up to September 1873, in a somewhat similar fashion. It was, however, impossible on account of the great depth of the deposits to cut a passage down to the rock at the entrance. We therefore examined the superficial strata throughout the cave, merely gauging the thickness of those below by sinking three shafts. Where a cave is sufficiently high to allow of the work being carried on, it is better to clear out one stratum before another is disturbed.

The most elaborate and perfect method of cave exploration is that which has been used by the committee in Kent’s Hole, under the superintendence of Mr. Pengelly, who writes as follows:[274]--

“The following is the method of exploration which has been observed from the commencement, and which it is believed affords a simple and correct method of determining the exact position of every object which has been found.

“1. The black soil accessible between the masses of limestone on the surface was carefully examined and removed.

“2. The limestone blocks occupying the surface of the deposits were blasted and otherwise broken up, and taken out of the cavern.

“3. A line termed the ‘datum-line,’ is stretched horizontally from a fixed point at the entrance to another at the back of the chamber.

“4. Lines, one foot apart, are drawn at right angles to the datum-line, and therefore parallel to one another, across the chamber so as to divide the surface of the deposit into belts termed ‘parallels.’

“5. In each parallel the black mould which the limestone masses had covered is first examined and removed, and then the stalagmite breccia, so as to lay bare the surface of the cave-earth.

“6. Horizontal lines, a foot apart, are then drawn from side to side across the vertical face of the section so as to divide the parallel into four layers or ‘levels,’ each a foot deep.

“Finally each level is divided into lengths called ‘yards,’ each three feet long, and measured right and left from the datum-line as an axis of abscissæ.

“In fine, the cave-earth is excavated in vertical slices or parallels four feet high, one foot thick, and as long as the chamber is broad, where this breadth does not exceed thirty feet. Each parallel is taken out in levels one foot high, and in each level in horizontal prisms three feet long and a foot square in the section, so that each contains three cubic feet of material.

“This material, after being carefully examined _in situ_ by candlelight, is taken to the door and re-examined by daylight, after which it is at once removed without the cavern. A box is appropriated to each yard exclusively, and in it are placed all the objects of interest which the prism yields. The boxes, each having a label containing the data necessary for defining the situation of its contents, are daily sent to the honorary secretary of the committee, by whom the specimens are at once cleaned and packed in fresh boxes. The labels are numbered and packed with the specimens to which they respectively belong, and a record of the day’s work is entered in a diary.

“The same method is followed in the examination of the black mould, and also of the stalagmitic breccia, with the single exception that in these cases the parallels are not divided into levels and yards.”

A careful record of the work, and minute sections should be taken daily on the spot.

_The Stalagmitic Floor to be broken up._

In all cases the crystalline flooring of stalagmite and stalagmitic breccias which often occur, should be broken up, or, if necessary, blasted with gunpowder. The former very frequently conceals the pleistocene remains, and the latter, which is in Kent’s Hole many feet thick, often contains the traces of man and wild animals. Sometimes it is very difficult to distinguish the breccia from the rocky floor.

Where the ossiferous deposit fills a vertical fissure it must be worked on the same plan as in ochre-mining, by sinking a shaft. To dig into it from below (where this is possible) is very dangerous, because of the large imbedded stones which fall sometimes without any warning.

_The Preservation of Fossil Remains._

The fossil bones and teeth, which have very generally lost their gelatine and have a tendency to crumble and split to pieces in drying, should be gradually dried, and from time to time saturated with a weak hot solution of gelatine or glue. Silicate of soda, sometimes called “liquid glass,” or melted paraffin (not the oil), may also be used for the same purpose. If the bones are extremely soft, they may be rescued from destruction by letting them dry in the matrix, saturating them and the matrix with a solution of gelatine, and then clearing off the latter. In this manner I preserved the skull of the musk sheep which is now in the Museum of the Geological Survey in Jermyn Street, London.

APPENDIX II.--P. 40.

_Observations on the Rate at which Stalagmite is being accumulated in the Ingleborough Cave._ Proceed. Lit. and Phil. Soc. Manch. April 1873.

The only attempt to measure with accuracy the rate of the accumulation of stalagmite in caverns, in this country, is that made by Mr. James Farrer in the Ingleborough Cave, in the years 1839 and 1845, and published by Prof. Phillips in the “Rivers, Mountains, and Sea Coast of Yorkshire” (second edition, 1855, pp. 34-35). The stalagmite of which the measurements were taken is that termed, from its shape, the Jockey Cap. It rises from a crystalline pavement to a height of about two and a half feet, and is the result of a deposit of carbonate of lime, brought down by a line of drops that fall into a basin at its top, and flow over the general surface. On March 13th, 1873, in company with Mr. John Birkbeck and Mr. Walker, I was enabled by the kindness of Mr. Farrer to take a set of measurements, to be recorded for use in after years.

For the sake of insuring accuracy in future observations, three holes were bored at the base of the stalagmite, and three gauges of brass wire, gilt, inserted; gauge No. 1 in the following table being that on the S.S.E., No. 2 on N.N.E., No. 3 on the West side. The curvilinear dimensions were taken with fine iron wire, or with a steel measure; and the circumferential around the base along a line marked by the three gauges. The measurements 2, 3, and 4 of the table were taken on the 15th of March, by Mr. Walker, and their accuracy may be tested by the fact that they coincide exactly with No. 1, which I took two days before.

The lengths of wire, properly labelled, are deposited in the Manchester Museum, the Owens College, for future observers.

In the following table I have given my own measurements and compared them with those taken by Mr. Farrer.

TABLE OF MEASUREMENTS.

+--------------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-----------+--------+ | | 13th | | | |Rate of | | | Mar. | |30 Oct.| Increase |Increase| | | 1873. | 1839. | 1845. | since | per | | |Inches.|Inches.|Inches.|1839.|1845.| annum. | | | | | | | | Inches | +--------------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-----+-----+--------+ | 1 Basal circumference at | | | | | |·2941- | | Gauges |128 |118 |120 | 10 | 8 | ·2857 | | 2 Gauge No. 1 to Gauge No. 2 | 52·625| | | | | | | 3 ” 2 ” 3 | 35·0 | | | | | | | 4 ” 3 ” 1 | 40·375| | | | | | | 5 Gauge No. 1 to hole in centre| | | | | | | | of basin at apex| 30 | | | | | | | 6 ” 2 ” ” | 29·5 | | | | | | | 7 ” 3 ” ” | 31·4 | | | | | | | 8 Height from Gauge No. 1 | 20·9 | | | | | | | 9 ” ” 2 min | 20·4 | | | | | | |10 Maximum | 29·7 | | | | | | |11 Tape measurement on slope | | | | | | | | Gauge No. 1 to edge of apex| 26·7 | | | | | | |12 ” No. 2 ” ” | 26·6 |21·0 | | 5·6 | | | |13 ” ” maximum ” | 36·0 |32·0 | 35·0 | 4·0 | 1·0 | | |14 Roof to apex of Jockey Cap | 87 | | 95·25 | | 8·25|·2946 | |15 Roof to tip of stalactite | | | 10 | | | | |16 Stalactite to apex of Jockey | | | | | | | | Cap | | | 85·25 | | | | +--------------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-----+-----+--------+

Unfortunately I have been unable to identify the exact spots where the stalagmite was measured by Mr. Farrer, so that the only measurement which affords any trustworthy data for estimating the rate of increase is number 14. With regard to this, the only possible ground of error is the erosion of the general surface of the solid limestone, of which the roof is composed, by carbonic acid, since the year 1845, and this is so small as to be practically inappreciable. We have, therefore, evidence that the Jockey’s Cap is growing at the rate of ·2946 of an inch per annum, and that if the present rate of growth be continued it will finally arrive at the roof in about 295 years. But even this comparatively short lapse of time will probably be diminished by the growth of a pendent stalactite above, that is now being formed in place of that which measured ten inches in 1845, and has since been accidentally destroyed. It is very possible that the Jockey Cap may be the result not of the continuous but of the intermittent drip of water containing a variable quantity of carbonate of lime, and that, therefore, the present rate of growth is not a measure of its past or future condition. Its possible age in 1845 was estimated by Prof. Phillips at 259 years, on the supposition that the grain of carbonate of lime in each pint was deposited. If, however, it grew at its present rate it may be not more than 100 years old. All the stalagmites and stalactites in the Ingleborough Cave may not date further back than the time of Edward III. if the Jockey Cap be taken as a measure of the rate of deposition.

INDEX.

A.

Abbeville, flint implements of, 16.

Aborigines (palæolithic) of India, 428, 429.

Acid-worn joint, Doveholes, Derbyshire, 52.

Adams, Dr. Leith, explores bone-caves of Malta, 377; finds tooth of pigmy hippopotamus in Candia, 378.

Adriatic Sea, the, 388.

Africa, mainland of, 379; moraines in, 387; physical geography of, in pleistocene age, 370; species of European mammalia found in, 380.

African animals in the Iberian peninsula, 372; elephant, the, 372, 376.

Age of cavern deposits, test of, 410.

Albert Cave, the, Settle, 101.

Alessi, Canon, cited, 376.

Algeria, fossil mammalia in, 379.

Alps, the, animals living to the North of, 359, 360; glaciers of, 403.

Altai mountains, the, Irish elk in, 401; panther in, 403.

America, animals in, 396-399.

Amiens, flint implements in the gravels of, 16.

Anatolia, the glaciers of, 383-385.

Anca, Baron, on caves of northern Sicily, 376.

Andalusia, prehistoric antiquities in, 209.

Animals in Brit-Welsh caves, 130, 131; classificatory value of, 78; domestic, derived from Asia, 137; evidence of, as to climate, 392; extinct species of, 400; historic, 75, 76; living under the care of man, 77; migration of, 366; northern group of, 395; pleistocene, living to the north of the Alps, 359-361; unknown in Britain in the prehistoric age, 266; prehistoric, 265; probable cause of association of species, 397; southern group of, 393; temperate group of, 399.

_Antelope saiga_, the, 336, 348, 399.

Antelopes, spread of, into Europe, 370.

Antiquity of Man in Europe, 424.

Aquitaine, implements in the caves of, 354, 355; palæolithic hunters in, 347; the people of, 356, 357.

Ardennes, rock denuded from the, 61.

Arenaceous rocks, caves in, 24.

Arnould, M., on the cave of Sclaigneaux, 218.

Arrows used by palæolithic hunters, 342.

Art of the Eskimos, 356.

Arthur’s cave, King, 290.

Ashmolean Museum, harpoons in the, 354, 356.

Asia, domestic animals of Europe derived from, 137; the lion in, 393.

Ass, the, 77.

Atlantic Ocean, the, 380; shore, the, at one hundred fathom line, 365.

Atlas mountains, glaciers of the, 386.

Aurignac, the cave of, 19; bones found in, 246; discovery of, 243; interment in, 242; skeletons of man above palæolithic stratum of, 245.

Austen, Mr. Godwin- (_see_ Godwin-Austen).

Auvergne, palæolithic men in, 21.

Avison, cave of, 18.

Axe, the river, 29.

Aymard, M., cited, 330.

B.

Badger, the (_see_ _Meles taxus_).

Banwell, cave at, 293.

Basques, the, eastern derivation of, 227, 228; elements of, in British and French populations, 225; in Britain and Ireland in the neolithic age, 215; the Dolicho-cephali cognate with, 213; the oldest neolithic population, 223.

Baumann’s Hole, 12.

Baume, the cave of, animals found in, 337.

Bayle, M., on animals from Mansourah, 379.

Bear, the, 75, 79, 131, 146; in Germany, 278; in the care of Kühloch, 27; the cave, 138, 278, 401; the grizzly, 278, 348, 376, 399.

Beard, Mr., of Banwell, cited, 15, 33; explorations of, 292.

Beaumont, Mr. John, describes Wookey Hole, 29; on fungoid structures, 69.

Beaver, the, 76, 79, 132.

Behrens, Dr., cited, 12.

Belgium, brachy-cephalic skulls found in, 228; caves in, 20, 347; dolicho-cephalic skulls in, 215.

Bell, Professor, on the ass, 77.

Bertrand, M. Eugène, cited, 175.

Billaudel, M., cited, 18.

Birkbeck, Mr., cited, 35; descends into Helln Pot, 43.

Bishofferode, cave at, 4.

Bison, the, 80, 266, 359.

Blackmore, Dr., cited, 268, 269.

Black-Rock Cave, the, near Tenby, 68.

Blake, Mr. Carter, cited, 144.

Blyth, Mr., cited, 393.

Boar, the wild, 76, 79.

Bone-beds, the, in Wookey Hole Hyæna-den, 305-307.

Bone-caves, before and after the ice-period, 408; exploration of, in Great Britain, 13; in Southern Europe, 21, 370, 373, 375, 377; the three classes of, 10.

Bone harpoon, found in Victoria Cave, 111.

Bones gnawed by hyænas, 282.

Bonney, Rev. T. G., cited, 28.

_Bos longifrons_, 78, 88, 125, 131, 133, 136, 144, 150, 166, 194, 256, 262, 269.

_Bos namadicus_, 428.

Bosco’s Den, 288.

Boulder clays, 403.

Brachy-cephali, the Belgian, 199, 219; British, 193, 199; French, 199, 202, 203; represented by Celts, 229.

Bradley, Mr., cited, 190.

Brandt, Professor, cited, 399; on the Irish Elk, 401.

Brenan, Mr., discoveries of, in Ireland, 335.

Bristol Channel, the, 290.

Britain, cave exploration in, 13; during the second ice age, 406; historic caves in, 81; historic period in, 75; inhabitants of, in the neolithic age, 191; in the pleistocene age, 366; mammalia in, during the second ice age, 406; population of in time of Cæsar, 224; raids of Picts and Scots in, 105; range of dolicho-cephali in, and Ireland, 194; Roman dominion in, 103; two periods of glaciation in, 401; wild animals in, 75.

British brachy-cephali, 198, 199.

Brit-Welsh caves, 129, 130.

Brixham, caves at, 16, 319; implements and animals in, 320; history of deposits in, 321.

Broca, M., cited, 156; on Basque crania, 213; on the Caverne de l’Homme Mort, 198, 200, 201; derivation of the Basques from Africa, 227, 228; on platycnemic _tibiæ_, 175; sepulchral cave of Orrouy, 202.

Brome, Captain, researches of, 21, 204.

Bronze age in Britain, caves of the, 141; armlet from Thor’s cave, 128; articles from Heathery Burn, 142.

Brooches found in the Victoria cave, 98.

Brown, Mr. Edwin, on Thor’s cave, 128.

Browne, the Rev. G. F., explorations of, 26; on the temperature of caves, 72.

Bruniquel, cave of, 40; description of, 247; interments of doubtful age in, 248.

Bryce, Dr., cited, 405.

Brysgill, cave of, 160.

_Bubalus namadicus_, 428.

Buckland, Dr., cited, 13, 18, 30, 120, 240, 293, 295, 300; on Gailenreuth cave, 273, 274; Kirkdale, 14, 280, 281, 283; Kühloch, 276; Paviland, 234.

Buffalo in Italy, 81.

Busk, Professor, cited, 13, 120, 155, 162, 189, 259; on fossil bones in the Iberian peninsula, 372; human bones from Perthi-Chwareu caves, 166-179; human remains from Cefn tumulus, 180-186; human skull from caves of Césaroda, 146, 147; skulls found in Spain, 208, 209; the Berbers, 212; the fauna of Mentone, 373; researches of, in caves of Gibraltar, 204-208, 371.

C.

Calcareous rocks, caves in, 25.

Caldy, cave of, 62, 63; cave-pearls in, 66; fungoid stalagmites in, 67; island of, 289.

Campbell, Dr., cited, 196.

_Canis familiaris_, 131, 144, 150, 157, 166, 256; _lupus_, 166; _vulpes_, 131, 150, 166.

Capellini, Professor, cited, 258; on the Grotta dei Colombi, 259.

_Capra hircus_, 131, 150, 166.

Carbonate of lime, circulation of, 71; in Thames water, 70; removed by streams, 69.

Cartaillac, M., cited, 247.

Carte, Dr., cited, 335.

Cat, Caffir, 394; domestic, 77, 81.

Cat-Hole cave, in Gower, 145.

Cave-pearls, 66.

Caves, biological division of, 6-9; classification of palæolithic, 351; conclusions as to prehistoric, 261; containing remains of doubtful age, 232; contents of historic, 131; deposits in valleys and in, 272, 273; exploration of European, 11; filling up of, 61; formation of, 50; historic, in Britain, 81; in the region of Craven, 106; legends and superstitions of, 2; not generally found in line of faults, 57; of bronze age in Britain, 141; of neolithic age, 149; physical division of, 5; physical history of, 23, 65; relation of, to Pot-holes, “Cirques,” and Ravines, 27, 54; results of the exploration of European, 430; temperature of, 71; test of age of deposits in, 410; used as places of refuge, 102; various ages of, 58; Albert, 101; of Andalusia, 208, 209; Aquitaine, 347, 354; Aurignac, 243; Avison, 18; Banwell, 293; Baumann’s Hole, 12; Baume, 337; Belgium, 347; Bishofferode, 4; Black Rock, 68; Bosco’s Den, 288; Britain, 278; Brit-Welsh, 130; Brixham, 319; Bruniquel, 247; Brysgill, 160; Caldy, 62; Canary Isles, 211; Cat-Hole, 145; Cavillon, 257; Cefn, 164, 166, 286; Césareda, 145; Chauvaux, 215; Colombi, 258; Crawley Rocks, 288; Cro-Magnon, 249; Denbighshire, 18; Derbyshire, 284; Devonshire, 317; Dowkerbottom, 101; Dream, the, 284; Engis, 234; Fingal, 24; France, 336; Franconia, 12; Gailenreuth, 273; Gatekirk, 50; Gendron, 239; Genista, 205, 371; Gibraltar, 204, 371; Goatchurch, 31-34; Gower, 288; Heathery Burn, 141; Hutton, 292; Ingleborough, 36; Ireland, 365; Kelko, 101; Kent’s-Hole, 324; King Arthur, 290; King’s Scar, 112; Kirkdale, 280; Kirkhead, 125; Kühloch, 276; Laugerie Basse, 339; L’Homme Mort, 198, 200; Llandebie, 194; Llanamynech, 34; Lombrive, 256; Longberry Bank, 133; Long Churn, 41; Lunel-viel, 336, 375; Maccagnone, 376; Maghlak, 377; Malta, 377; Moustier, 341; Naulette, 349; Neanderthal, 240; North Wales, 286; Oban, 195; Orrouy, 202; Paviland, 232; Peak, 34; Pembrokeshire, 289; Périgord, 337; Perthi-Chwareu, 152, 157, 167; Plas Heaton, 160, 287; Poole, 34, 126; Provence and Mentone, 373; Reggio, 148; Rians, 373; Rhosdigre, 156, 166, 188; San Ciro, 376; Sclaigneaux, 218; Sicily, 375; South Wales, 288; Thor’s, 127; Uphill, 294; Victoria, 81, 110, 118, 121, 284, 411; Weathercote, 47; Whitcombe, 140; Woman’s, 210; Wookey, 17, 29; Yorkshire, 101, 278.

Caverne de l’Homme Mort, 198, 200.

Cavillon, cave of, 257; palæolithic skeletons in, 257; strata in, 374.

Cedars of Lebanon, the, Dr. Hooker on, 382.

Cefn, caves at, 286; chambered tomb near, 161; discovery of bones at, 15, 159; Professor Busk on human remains from tumulus at, 180-184; on skull from, 184-167.

Celts, brachy-cephali represented by, 229.

_Cervus alcis_, 137; _capreolus_, 131, 150, 166; _carnutorum_, 419, 424; _elaphus_, 131, 150, 166; _Polignacus_, 418, 419, 424; _Sedgwickii_, 419, 424; _verticornis_, 419, 424.

Césareda, caves of, 145; evidence of cannibalism in, 147.

Chautre, M., cited, 403.

Chapel-en-le-Dale, valley of, 49, 56.

Chauvaux, cave of, 20, 215.

Chester, sack of, 110.

Chierici, l’Abbé, on remains from the cave of Reggio, 148.

Chillingham ox, the, 77, 90.

Christol, M. de, cited, 376.

Christy, Mr., cited, 19; on the caves of Périgord, 337.

“Cirques” in calcareous rocks, 56.

Classification of pleistocene strata, 412-414.

Classificatory value of historic animals, 78.

Close, Rev. H. M., cited, 402.

Climate, evidence of animals as to, 392, 401; pleistocene, 398.

Coast line of North-Western Europe in pleistocene age, 362.

Cochrane, Sir James, cited, 208.

Coins in the Victoria cave, Settle, 93.

Corsica, absence of cliffs in, 390.

Crania from Genista cave, 207.

Cranial terms, definition of, 190.

Craven, caves near, 106.

Crawley Rocks, the cavern of, 288.

Crayford, discovery of a flint-flake at, 416.

Cro-Magnon, cave of, 249; ornaments found in, 254; position of human skeletons in, 253; section of deposits in, 250; the human _tibiæ_ of, 176; traces of occupation in, 251.

Cuvier, Baron, cited, 12, 13, 18.

D.

Dalebeck, the, course of, 49.

Dana, Professor, on caverns, 58.

Darbishire, Mr. R. D., reference to, 93.

Dauphiny, the hills of, 404.

Delgado, Senhor J. L., on researches in the caves of Césareda, 145, 146.

De Luc, M., cited, 12.

Denbighshire, sepulchral caves in, 18.

Denny, Mr., cited, 120.

Derbyshire, caves of, 284.

Desnoyers, M., cited, 25, 26, 28; on the analogy between caverns and mineral veins, 57; relation of caves to ravines, 55.

Devonshire, caves of, 317.

Dio Chrysostom Rhetor on the lion, 80.

Dog, the (_see_ _Canis familiaris_).

Dolicho-cephali, British, 191, 192; their range in Britain and Ireland, 194-197; cognate with the Basque, 218; of Gibraltar, 204-207.

Dormouse of Malta, the, 267.

Dowkerbottom cave, 101, 102.

Dream-cave, near Wirksworth, 284.

Dubrueil, M., cited, 18.

Dupont, M., cited, 216, 237, 239; discoveries of, 21, 235; investigations of, in Dinant-sur-Meuse, 348; on the Trou de Naulette, 349.

Durdham Down, fissures of, 291.

Dürnten, the lignite bed of, 404.

E.

Eagle, the, 150.

“Ebur fossile,” 11.

Egerton, Sir Philip, cited, 273.

Elephant, the African, 21; found near Madrid, 372; in Sicily, 376, 394.

_Elephas antiquus_, 266, 281, 373, 376, 400, 404, 417; _melitensis_, 378, 400; _meridionalis_, 266, 379, 419, 422, 424; _namadicus_, 427; _primigenius_ (_see_ _Mammoth_); (_stegodon_) _insignis_, 427.

Elk, the, 79, 137.

Elmet, conquest of, 109.

Enamels in the north of England, 100; mentioned by Philostratus, 101.

Engis, cave of, 234.

English invasion, the, 107.

Enniskillen, Lord, cited, 273.

_Equus fossilis_ of pleiocene age, 421.

Eskimos, art of the, 356; implements of the, 354; in Europe, 425; probably the representatives of cave-dwellers, 358; relation of cave-dwellers to, 353.

Esper, cited, 273.

Europe, Antiquity of man in, 424; climatal changes on the continent of, 403; pleistocene mammalia pre-glacial in, 404; species of mammalia in Africa, and, 380; Southern, bone-caves of, 370; fauna in caves of, 368.

Evans, Mr. John, cited, 17, 147, 158, 243, 248, 267; on coins, 94; on the iron, bronze, and stone ages, 139; on the palæolithic cave-dwellers, 351.

Evidence of soundings in Southern Europe, 380.

F.

Fairy Chamber, the, Caldy, 63, 64.

Falconer, Dr., cited, 17, 21, 156, 175, 281, 288, 316, 362, 404, 416, 418, 421, 425, 427; on bones from San Ciro, 376; on mammals in the Iberian peninsula, 372; on the fauna of the forest bed, 420; on the hippopotamus, 377; on the _Hippopotamus namadicus_, 428, 429; researches of, in caves of Gibraltar, 204-207.

Fallow deer, the, 77; in Britain, 131; in France, 80; in Spain and Africa, 380.

Falsan, M., cited, 403.

Farrer, Mr., explorations of, 36; on coins, 102; on remains from Dowkerbottom cave, 113; stalagmite, 39.

Fauna, cave, identical with river-bed, 362; changes in the, of Great Britain, 78; of Montpellier, 421; of Southern Europe, 368, 373; the pleiocene, 420; the pleistocene, 393, 417; the prehistoric, 136, 137.

_Felis caffer_, the, 138, 266, 388; in Iberian peninsula, 372; in Somerset, 394.

Fellowes, Sir Charles, cited, 164.

Fibulæ, enamelled, 99.

Fingal’s cave, 24.

Fischer, Dr. Gothelf, on the panther, 400.

Fisher, Rev. O., discovers a flint-flake at Crayford, 416.

Fisherton, valley-gravels at, 268.

Fissures, 37, 58; of Durdham Down, 291; of Mentone, 373; of Windmill Hill, 371.

Flint flakes and scrapers in caves of Périgord, 339; in caves of Mentone, 373; in Perthi-Chwareu, 166; Wookey Hole, 298.

Florus on the Aquitani, 7.

Foote, Mr. Bruce, cited, 156; on flint implements from Madras, 426.

Fossil mammalia from the German Ocean, 364, 365.

Foville, M., cited, 170.

Fowl, the domestic, 77, 80.

Fox, the Arctic, 348, 396, 400.

Fraas, Professor, cited, 350, 409.

France, Basque peoples in, 226; caves in, 18, 242, 336; skulls from tumuli in, 203; the dolicho-cephali and brachy-cephali in, 198.

Franconia, caves of, 12.

Franks, Mr., cited, 206; on drawings of palæolithic hunters, 345; on enamelling, 100; on “late Celtic” art, 96, 99.

Freeman, Mr. E. A., on the dominion of West Wales in the days of Ecgberht, 130; on the Norman Conquest, 108.

Freshford, pleistocene deposits at, 269.

Fuhlrott, Dr., skull found by, 240.

G.

Gailenreuth, cave of, 12, 240, 273; filled by a stream, 275.

Garonne, valley of the, 366.

Garrigou, M., cited, 316.

Gatekirk cavern, 50.

Gaudin, M. Charles, cited, 376.

Gaudry, Professor, cited, 421; on fossil remains at Pickermi, 369.

Gaul and Spain, the peoples of, 220.

Gautier, M., cited, 247.

Geikie, Mr. James, cited, 263.

Geikie, Professor A., cited, 405.

Gendron, cave of, 239.

Genista, caves, the, 205; articles in, 206; human remains in, 207, 371.

Geography, pleistocene, 398.

German Ocean, fossil mammalia in, 364.

German race, the ancient, 230.

Germany, bears in, 278; cave-exploration in, 11, 12.

Gervais, M., cited, 19; list of pleiocene mammalia by, 420; on _Equus robustus_, 421; on mammalia from Algeria, 379.

Gesner, Dr., cited, 11.

Gibraltar, the neolithic caves of, 204, 371; the Straits of, 389.

Gildas on the character of the English conquest, 104, 108.

Glacial period, the, 407; the relation of palæolithic man to, 409.

Glaciation in Britain, two periods of, 401.

Glaciers of Alps, 403; of Anatolia, 383; of Lebanon, 382; in Mediterranean area caused partly by elevation, 387; of Pyrenees, 404.

Glutton, the, 206, 275, 396; jaw of, from Plas Heaton cave, 287.

Goat, the (_see_ _Capra hircus_).

Goatchurch cave, 31, 32; legend of the dog at, 34.

Goldfuss cited, 18, 273.

Godwin-Austen, Mr., cited, 263, 388, 405; on the fresh-water mussel, 364; researches of, 15.

Gosse, M., cited, 170, 193, 350.

Gower, caves of, 288.

Great Britain, cave-exploration in, 13; historic period in, 75.

Green, Rev. J. R., on the conquest of Britain, 96.

Greenwell, Rev. Canon, discoveries of, in tumuli, 195.

Grey clays in Victoria cave, 116.

Grotto di Maccagnone, 376; dei Colombi inhabited by cannibals, 258; thigh-bone of child from, 260.

Guanches of the Canary Isles, the, 211.

Gunn, Rev. John, cited, 418.

H.

Harkness, Professor, cited, 402.

Hamy, Dr., cited, 349, 352; on the cave-bear, 352.

Hare, the, at Perthi-Chwareu, 150, 166; in Suabia, 395; mentioned, 266, 348; used for food in neolithic times, 165, 217, 373.

Harpoons used by palæolithic hunters, 342.

Heathery Burn, cave of, 141; bronze articles in, 144.

Heaton, Mr., cited, 287.

Heer, Professor, on vegetables used in Swiss lake dwellings, 137.

Helln Pot, descent into, 41; description of, 45; exploration of, 43.

Hipparion found in Suffolk, 422; _gracile_, 424.

Hippopotamus, 266; _amphibius_, 138, 370, 394, 395, 417; _liberiensis_, 377; _major_, 377, 418; _namadicus_, 428; _palæindicus_, 427; _Pentlandi_ (pigmy), 267, 377, 378, 400.

Historic animals, 75, 78; period, definition of, 75; period, difference between, and prehistoric, 134.

History, the evidence of, as to the peoples of Gaul and Spain, 220.

Hooker, Dr., cited, 386; on the cedars of Lebanon, 382, 383.

Horse, the, 136, 150, 166, 399, 418.

Horseflesh, the use of, 132.

Howel Dha, the laws of, 77.

Hughes, Professor, cited, 287.

Hull, Professor, cited, 402.

Hunting grounds of palæolithic tribes, 367.

Hutton, cave of, 292.

Huxley, Professor, cited, 144, 155, 179; on brachy-cephalic skulls, 193; on dolicho-cephalic skulls, 195; on the classification of crania, 190; on the skull from Engis cave, 235; on the skull from Neanderthal cave, 241.

Hyæna, the, animals at Wookey Hole introduced by, 310; bones gnawed by, 282, 316; gnawed jaw of, from Wookey, 313; man coeval with, in Somerset, 300; _Perrieri_, 421; the, pleistocene occupation of, in Victoria cave, 118; _spelæa_ (spotted), 138, 266, 372, 375, 394; striped, 266, 336, 394.

Hyæna-den, characters of a, 314; Kirkdale, 279.

I.

Iberian peoples, 225; peninsula, the mammals in, 372.

Iberic dolicho-cephali, the, 212.

Ice period in Britain, 402, 406, 408.

Implements used by palæolithic hunters, 340, 366.

India, man in, in pleistocene age, 426.

Ingleborough cave, 36, 37.

Ireland, caves in, 335; dolicho-cephalic skulls in, 194-197.

Irish-Celtic art, 97.

Irish Elk, the, 79, 137, 278, 401.

Iron age, the, cave of, 140, 141.

Issoire, pseudo-pleiocene mammalia of, 420.

Italy, animals in the museums of, 422.

J.

Jackson, Mr. Joseph, discovers the Victoria cave, 81, 84.

Jamieson, Mr., cited, 405.

Jeanjean, M., cited, 18.

Jewellery in Victoria cave, 95.

Jones, Professor Rupert, cited, 350.

K.

Kelko cave, 101.

Kent’s Hole cavern, 14, 17, 324, 325; age of _machairodus_ of, 330; deposits in, 326, 327; the breccia in, 328, 329.

King, Rev. S. W., researches of, 246.

King’s Scar, cave in, carinate human femur in, 112, 195.

Kirkdale cave, 14, 279.

Kirkhead cave, 125.

Kühloch cave, 276, 277.

L.

Laing, Mr., cited, 178; skulls obtained by, 195, 196.

Lagneaux, M., cited, 238, 239.

Lances used by palæolithic hunters, 342.

Laugerie Basse, cave at, 339.

Lartet, Professor E., cited, 19, 340, 414; explorations of, 244; on fossil remains found near Madrid, 372; on the cave of Aurignac, 243; on the cave of Périgord, 337; on palæolithic caves, 351.

Lartet, Professor Louis, on the cave of Cro-Magnon, 250-252.

Lastic, Vicomte de, cited, 247.

Lebanon, the glaciers of, 382, 383.

Ledbury Hill, skull found near, 242.

Leibnitz, cited, 12.

Lemming, the, 138, 237, 266, 348.

_Lepus cuniculus_, 146, 150, 166, 373; _timidus_ (_see_ Hare).

Ligurian tribes, the, 220, 222.

Limestone, caverns in, 26; composition of, 51; erosion of, 52.

Lion, the, 266, 348, 373; extinct in Europe, 80; range of, 393.

_Littorina littorea_ found in Cro-Magnon cave, 254.

Llanamynech, caves at, 34.

Llandebie, cave of, 194.

Lloyd, Mr., cited, 15, 286.

Lombrive, cave of, 256.

Longberry Bank, cave of, 133.

Long Churn cavern, the, 41.

Lortet, M., cited, 344.

Luard, Captain, discovers fossil mammals at Windsor, 365.

Lubbock, Sir John, cited, 243, 359; on the stone age, 139.

Lunel-viel, cave of, 336, 375.

Lunier, Dr., cited, 170.

Lyell, Sir Charles, cited, 19, 235, 257, 267, 333, 402; on the cave of Aurignac, 243, 245; on the glacial period, 408.

Lynx, the, 146, 266.

M.

Maccagnone, Grotto di, 376.

_Machairodus cultridens_, 266; _latidens_, 400, 417; a pleiocene species, 332; at Kent’s Hole, 324, 334; in the cave at Baume, 337; probable age of, 330.

Mackay, Mr., cited, 195.

Madras, flint implements found near, 426.

Madrid, fossil animals near, 372.

Maghlak cave, 377.

Malham Cove, 55.

Malta, bone-caves of, 377.

Mammalia, classification of pleistocene strata by means of, 412-415; early pleistocene, 417; evidence of, as to climate, 392; in Algeria, 379; in Britain during the second ice-age, 406; in the Iberian peninsula, 372; the pleiocene, 420.

Mammoth, the, 266, 278, 359, 401; figure of, 346.

Man, antiquity of, in Europe, 424; coeval with hyænas in Somerset, 300; in India in pleistocene age, 426; in Palestine, 429.

Manchester Museum, mammoth from Bacton in the, 420.

_Mangousta Widdringtoni_, the, in Spain and Africa, 380.

Marcel de Serres, cited, 18, 336, 375.

Marmot, the, 337, 395; the pouched, 395.

Marion, M., cited, 373.

Martinez, Don Manuel Gongaray, on the prehistoric antiquities of Andalusia, 209.

_Mastodon arvernensis_, 331, 332, 422-424; _Borsoni_, 423, 424; _brevirostris_, 422.

Maw, Mr. George, on coast of Mediterranean, 389; on glaciers of the Atlas, 386; on level in the Sahara, 390.

McEnery, Rev. J., discovers the _Machairodus latidens_ in Kent’s Hole cavern, 330; manuscripts of, 15.

McPherson, Mr., cited, 210.

Mediterranean area in meiocene age, changes of level in, 369, 390.

Mediterranean, the, physical condition of, in pleistocene age, 381, 388; the shores of, 382.

Medlicott, Mr., cited, 427.

_Meles taxus_, 131, 144, 150, 166.

Mendip Hills, the, 59; the caves of, 292; the district of, 314.

Mentone, bone-caves of, 373.

Metcalfe, Mr., cited, 35; descends into Helln Pot, 43.

Mineral condition of deposits in caves, 273.

Moggridge, Mr., cited, 373; on the exploration of Mentone, 374.

Montpellier, the fauna of, 421.

Moraines in Anatolia, 384.

Morris, Mr. J. P., explores Kirkhead cave, 125.

Mortillet, M. de, on palæolithic caves, 353; on pottery in the palæolithic age, 347.

Moustier, cave of, 341.

Murcièlagos, Cueva de los, description of, 209.

Musk sheep, the, 138, 266; at Crayford, 416; range of, 396.

_Myoxus Melitensis_, 377.

N.

Naulette, Trou de, remains found in the, 349.

Neanderthal cave, the, 21; human skull found in, 240.

Neolithic age, interments of, 158.

Neolithic caves of France, 198; of Gibraltar, 204; of Spain, 208; of Wales, 159, 166.

Neolithic races, range of, 189.

Nilsson, Professor, cited, 163; on dwarfs, 2; on origin of chambered tombs, 164, 165.

North Wales, the caves of, 286.

O.

Oban, remains in a cave at, 195.

Oreston cave, 13, 317; _Rhinoceros megarhinus_ of, 415.

Orrouy, the sepulchral cave of, 202.

Owen, Professor, cited, 196, 324; on the cave of Bruniquel, 247, 248.

Oxford Museum, the, human skull from cave of Llandebie in, 194; molar of pigmy hippopotamus in, 378.

P.

Palæolithic art, 257; caves, classification of, 351, 352; hunters, instruments used by, 340; hunters, not cannibals, 347; implements, 354, 366; man in Europe, 395, 429; man, relation of, to glacial period, 409; man in India, 426; man in Palestine, 429; man of the river-gravels, 351; tribes, hunting grounds of, 367.

Palestine, palæolithic man in, 429.

Palgrave, Mr. Gifford, on glaciers of Anatolia, 383-385.

Panther, the, 266, 400.

Parker, Mr. James, cited, 30, 141, 194.

Paviland cave, 232.

Peak, cavern of the, 34.

Pembrokeshire, caves in, 289.

Pengelly, Mr., cited, 333; on Brixham cave, 16, 323; on Cavillon cave, 258; on Devonshire caves, 317.

Pennington, Mr., cited, 126, 285.

Périgord, caves of, 19; articles found in the, 337-339.

Perthes, M. Boucher de, on flint implements, 16, 17.

Perthi-Chwareu, pottery and implements from, 157; Professor Busk on human bones from, 167-179; refuse heap at, 149; remains of animals at, 151, 153-155, 187; remains of man at, 153-155; sepulchral caves at, 152.

Phahlbauten, the Swiss, 165.

Phillips, Professor, cited, 284, 405, 411; on formation of caves, 53; on stalagmite, 39, 40; on the Ingleborough cave, 36; on the origin of caves, 26.

Physiography of Great Britain in late pleistocene age, 363; of Mediterranean in pleistocene age, 381.

Picts and Scots, raids of, in Britain, 105.

Pickermi, fossil remains at, 369.

Plas Heaton, the tunnel-cave of, 160, 287.

Platycnemic leg-bones, 173-176.

Platycnemism, Professor Busk on, 177-179.

Pleiocene and pleistocene characteristic animals, 423; species in Europe, mixture of, 418.

Pleiocene mammalia, the, 420; period, the, 424; species, _machairodus_ a, 332, 333.

Pleistocene age, the, 10; animals living in, 359-361; physiography of Mediterranean in, 381, 388; remains of animals before the, 60; climate and geography, 395; coast-line of North-Western Europe, 362; divisions, early, 417; divisions, late, 414; divisions, middle, 415; relation of, to prehistoric period, 264, 265; strata, classification of, 412.

Po, the river, 389.

Poole’s cavern, 34, 126.

Pot-holes and “cirques” in calcareous rocks, 56.

Porcupine, in Spain and Africa, 380; found in Belgium, 395.

Prehistoric period, the, archæological classification of, 138; conditions of life in, 262; difference between the historic and, 134; relation of pleistocene to, 264.

Prestwich, Mr., cited, 267, 271, 416; on Brixham cave, 321, 322; on carbonate of lime in Thames water, 69; on the discoveries in the valley of the Somme, 17; on the denudation of the Mendips and Ardennes, 61; on palæolithic man, 410.

Provence, bone-caves of, 373.

Pruner-Bey, Dr., cited, 193.

Prunières, Dr., cited, 200.

_Purpura lapillus_ in cave of Cro-Magnon, 254.

Pyrenees, the, animals living to the North of the Alps and, 359-361; glaciers of, 403.

Q.

Quatrefages, M. de, cited, 238.

R.

Rabbit, the (_see_ _lepus cuniculus_).

Ramsay, Professor, cited, 402.

Rat, the common, migrations of, 76.

Rattonneau, island of, 373.

Ravines, 54.

Reggio, cave of, in Modena, 148.

Reindeer, the, 76, 79, 278; absence of, in middle pleistocene division, 416; engraving of, 345, 356; in the cave of Lombrive, 256; in the caves of Périgord, 338; in the Trou du Frontal, 237; --period of M. Lartet, 414; range of, 396.

Rhætic age, fossils of, 59.

_Rhinoceros etruscus_, 418, 419, 424; _hemitœchus_, 281, 288, 372, 400, 417; _megarhinus_, 266, 334, 400, 404, 415, 416-418; _tichorhinus_ (woolly), 119, 138, 278, 400.

Rhosdigre cave, 188; contents of, 166; greenstone celt from, 156.

Rians, cave of, 373.

Richard, the Abbé, cited, 429.

Rivière, M., explorations of, 257, 373, 375.

Roedeer, the, 76.

Rolleston, Dr., cited, 195; discovery of pigmy hippopotamus by, 378.

Roman dominion in Britain, 103, 104.

Rosenmüller, cited, 12, 13, 273.

Rütimeyer, Professor, cited, 136, 404.

S.

Sahara, the, changes of level in, 309.

Samian ware in the Victoria cave, 92; in the Dowkerbottom cave, 102.

San Ciro, cave of, 376.

Schaaffhausen, M., cited, 147; on the skull from Neanderthal, 241.

Schmerling, Dr., cited, 395; researches of, 20, 234, 347.

Sclaigneaux, cave of, 218; platycnemic tibia from, 219.

Sanford, Mr., Ayshford, cited, 31, 63, 140, 293, 307, 394.

Second ice or glacial period, 406.

Selsea, remains found at, 405.

Serres, M. de, cited, 19.

Serval, the, 21, 372, 394.

Sicily, bone-caves of, 21; the Iberians in, 222; species from, 376.

Skulls, measurements of brachy-cephalic and dolicho-cephalic, 199; from Perthi-Chwareu, 171; of doubtful antiquity, 236; table of dolicho-cephalic, found in Britain and Ireland, 197.

Smith, Mr. Roach, on Roman coins, 83.

Smith, Rev. G. N., on Tenby bone-caves, 289.

Solutré, horse’s skeleton from, 344.

Somerset, hyænas in, 301; mammalia in the caves of, 366.

Soreil, M., on the cave of Chauvaux, 216.

Soundings, evidence of, in Southern Europe, 380.

South Wales, caves of, 288; mammalia in, 366.

Southern Europe, bone-caves of, 21.

Spain, articles found in a copper-mine in, 208; historical evidence as to the peoples of Gaul and, 220-222.

Spratt, Admiral, explorations of, 21, 377.

Spring, Dr., discoveries of, 20; on the cave of Chauvaux, 215, 216.

Stag, the, 76, 138.

Stalagmite, rate of the accumulation of, 39.

Stanley, Rev. E., cited, 286.

_Sus Indica_, the, 137.

_Sus palustris_, 262.

_Sus scrofa_, 131, 150, 166.

Switzerland, caves of, 350.

Symonds, Rev. W. S., explores King Arthur’s cave, 290, 291.

T.

Tapir, the 423.

Temperature of caves, 71.

Tenby, cave of Caldy near, 62; the Black Rock near, 68.

Thames water, carbonate of lime in, 69, 70.

Thomas, Rev. D. R., on chambered tomb at Cefn, 163.

Thor’s cave, near Ashbourne, 127; occupied by Brit-Welsh, 129.

Thurnam, Dr., cited, 144; on classification of crania, 190; on craniology of Britain in neolithic age, 191; on dolicho-cephalic skulls, 192; on skulls from cave of Orrouy, 202.

Tiddeman, Mr., on the Victoria cave, 85, 122.

Troglodytes, name of, 6.

_Trogontherium cuvieri_, 419, 424.

Tropical and cold climates, animals common to, 400.

Trou du Frontal, 236; crania in, 238.

Tunbridge Wells, rocks at, 25.

Turner, Professor, on remains in a cave at Oban, 195.

_Turritella communis_ in cave of Cro-Magnon, 254.

Tuto, islands of, caves in, 59.

Tyddyn Bleiddyn, cairn of, 188.

U.

Ultz, burial-places of, in Westphalia, 147.

_Unio pictorum_ dredged from bottom of English Channel, 364.

Uphill, cave of, 294; skull from, 194.

Urus, the, 77, 80, 136, 373, 399.

_Ursus arctos_, 166, 335.

_Ursus arvernensis_, 418, 419, 422, 424.

_Ursus spelæus_, 375.

V.

Val d’Arno, fauna of the, 422.

Valleys, change in physical conditions of, 271; deposits in caves and, 272; in limestone districts, 54; strata of sand and gravel in, 267, 268.

Victoria cave, the, bones of animals in, 88; Brit-Welsh stratum in, 87; bronze articles in, 90; coins in, 93; date of neolithic occupation in, 115; discovery of, 81; exploration of, 85; grey clays in, 116; human bone from oldest ossiferous stratum in, 411; implements and ornaments in, 83, 95; miscellaneous articles in, 90; period of Brit-Welsh occupation in, 110; pleistocene occupation by hyænas in, 118, 284; pre-glacial age of pleistocene stratum in, 121-123, 411.

Vivian, Mr., cited, 15.

Virchow, Professor, cited, 238; on dolicho-cephalic skulls, 217.

Vogt, Professor, cited, 257.

W.

Water, action of, in caves, 62.

Water caves of Derbyshire, 34; of Somersetshire, 29; of Yorkshire, 35, 50.

Weathercote, caves at, 47.

Whidbey, Mr., cited, 13.

Whitcombe’s Hole, a cave of the Iron Age, 140, 141.

Willett, Mr., cited, 295, 303.

Williams, Rev. D., explorations of, 292.

Williams, Rev John, on caverns in island of Tuto, 59.

Williamson, Rev. J., cited, 295, 296.

Wilson, Professor, cited, 196.

Winterbourne Stoke, the barrow of, 192.

Winwood, Rev. H. H., cited, 163; discovers remains of animals at Freshford, 269; explores the cave at Longberry Bank, 133.

Wolf, the, 400; in Britain, 131; in Spain, 146; last, in Scotland, 76.

Woman’s cave, the, near Alhama, 210.

Wood, Colonel, cited, 17.

Wookey Hole, hyæna den of, 17, 295, 301, 302; ashes and implements found at, 308; bone-beds at, 305; flint implements found at, 298; hyæna den of, inhabited by man, 313; legend of the dog at, 34; the water cave of, 29.

X.

Xenophon on the panther, 80.

Y.

Yorkshire, caves in, 101, 278.

THE END.

LONDON: R. CLAY, SONS, AND TAYLOR, PRINTERS.

FOOTNOTES

[1] The Natural History of the Hartz Forest (Hercynia Curiosa), translated from the German of H. Behrens, M.D., by John Andree, 1670, p. 41.

[2] Florus, lib. iii. c. x. Delphin. 4to. 1714, p. 112.

[3] Since this was written, Sir C. Lyell has withdrawn his term “Post-pleiocene” in favour of Pleistocene. (“Antiquity of Man,” 4th edition, 1873.)

[4] Hist. Anim. vol. i. Folio, 1603. Article “Monoceras.”

[5] Described by Professor Owen, Quart. Geol. Journ. p. 417. See Hanbury on “Chinese Materia Medica,” 1862, 8vo. p. 40. Some of the dragons’ teeth were found in caves by Mr. Swinhoe.

[6] Hercynia Curiosa.

[7] See Cuvier, Oss. Foss. vol. iv. pp. 290 et seq.

[8] The references are to be found in Cuvier, top. cit. and in Buckland, “Reliquiæ Diluvianæ,” 4to. 1822. Most of them I have verified.

[9] Phil. Trans. 1817, p. 176.

[10] Pengelly, “Literature of Kent’s Cavern,” Devonshire Association. 1868-9. “Kent’s Hole,” Lecture, delivered in Hulme Town Hall, 1872.

[11] Comptes Rendus, 1847, pp. 649-50, et 1864, p. 230.

[12] Prestwich, Phil. Trans. 1860. Proceed. Royal Soc. 1859.

[13] Quart. Geol. Journ. Jan. 1861.

[14] Falconer, Palæont. Mem. vol. ii. p. 498.

[15] Rep. Brit. Assoc. 1865-72.

[16] The authorities for this paragraph are Cuvier (Oss. Foss.), Desnoyers (Article “Grottes,” Dictionnaire Univ. d’Histoire Naturelle), Marcel de Serres (Cavernes à Oss. Foss. du Département de l’Aude, 1839), Gervais (Paléontologie Française, 1859, and Nouvelles Recherches sur les Animaux Vertébrés, Vivants et Fossiles, 1868-9-70).

[17] An. des Sc.: Nat. Zool. iv. sér. t. xv.

[18] Reliquiæ Aquitanicæ.

[19] Recherches sur les Oss. Foss. découverts dans les Cavernes de la Province de Liège, 4to. atlas folio.

[20] Bull. de l’Académie Royale de Belgique, 1 sér. t. xx. p. 427, 1853; 2 sér. t. xviii. p. 479, 1864; xxii. p. 187, 1866.

[21] L’Homme pendant les Ages de la Pierre dans les Environs de Dinant sur Meuse. Bruxelles, 1871. 2nd edit., 1872.

[22] Ice-caves, 8vo. 1865, Longmans.

[23] D’Orbigny, Dictionnaire Universel d’Histoire Naturelle, Article “Grottes.”

[24] Quart. Geol. Journ. xxvii. 312.

[25] When the English conquered Somerset from the Brit-Welsh, they translated the Celtic Ogo into Hole, whence the cave and village of Wookey Hole were named, just as they translated a neighbouring hill, called Pen, into Knowle, the generic Celtic term in each case being used to specify a particular object. There are many other instances of the like use of a Celtic name by the English conquerors of the Celts. In the Limestone plateau of Llanamynech, near Oswestry, there is a cave called “The Ogo.”

[26] Phil. Trans. 1680, p. 1.

[27] The cave is accessible, and can be examined without any climbing.

[28] Both of these caves are kept in excellent order, and the latter is lighted with gas.

[29] The cave is admirably preserved by the care of the owner, J. Farrer, Esq., and may be visited without any difficulty.

[30] Rivers, Mountains, and Sea-coast of Yorkshire, 8vo. 1854, p. 34.

[31] On the Ordnance Maps it is wrongly printed Alum Pot.

[32] Op. cit. Article Grottes.

[33] L’Homme pendant les Ages de la Pierre dans les Environs de Dinant sur Meuse, Bruxelles, 1871.

[34] The bare pavements above Malham Cove are worthy of a careful examination.

[35] I have used the term incretionary as implying an accumulation of mineral matter from the circumference of a cavity towards its centre, as in the case of an agate. Concretionary action, with which it is generally confused, ought to be defined as the deposition of successive layers of matter round a nucleus or centre. The one action operates from the circumference to the centre, the other from the centre to the circumference.

[36] Corals and Coral Islands, 1872, p. 361.

[37] Prestwich, Ann. Address Geol. Soc. 1872, p. 84.

[38] Phil. Trans. April 7th, 1680, p. 731.

[39] “Ice-Caves in France and Switzerland.” Longmans, 1865, p. 296.

[40] Leges Walliæ.

[41] Bell, “British Quadrupeds,” 8vo. p. 386.

[42] The authorities for the preceding paragraphs will be found in Chapter II. of my Preliminary Treatise on the “Relation of the Pleistocene Mammalia to those now living in Europe” (Palæont. Soc. 1874).

[43] Benedict. ad Mensas Ekkehardi Monachi Sangallensis, l. 129.

[44] Buffon, Quadrupeds, l. v. p. 52; l. x. p. 67. Sir G. C. Lewis, “Notes and Queries,” 2nd series, l. ix. pp. 4, 5.

[45] See Rolleston, Journ. Anat. and Phys., 1868, pp. 51-2. Lenz, “Zoologie der Alten.”

[46] Fig. 19, A.

[47] Roach Smith, “Collectanea Antiqua,” vol. i. No. 5, p. 72, 1844. It is noticed by Eckroyd Smith, Trans. Historic Society of Lancashire and Cheshire, May 11, 1865; and by Mr. Denny, Trans. Geol. and Polytechnic Soc. of West Riding, 1859.

[48] “Collectanea Antiqua,” vol. i. No. 5, pp. 69, 70.

[49] The Victoria Cave has engaged the attention of the following writers:--Farrer, Proceed. Soc. Antiquaries, vol. iv.;--Roach Smith and Jackson, “Collectanea Antiqua,” vol. i. No. 5, 1844;--Denny, Proceed. Geol. and Polytechnic Society of the West Riding of Yorkshire, 1859;--Eckroyd Smith, Trans. Historic Society of Cheshire, May 11, 1865;--Boyd Dawkins, “Nature,” April 21, 1870; British Assoc. Reports, 1870; Macmillan’s Magazine, Sept. 1871; Journ. Anthrop. Institute, 1871;--Tiddeman, “Nature,” 1872;--Boyd Dawkins and Tiddeman, British Assoc. Reports, 1872;--Tiddeman, Geol. Mag., Jan. 1873;--Boyd Dawkins, Proceed. Manch. Philosophical Soc., Feb. 1873;--Brockbank, Proceed. Manch. Philosophical Soc., March 1873.

[50] See Palæont. Society, 1874--Boyd Dawkins’ Preliminary Treatise,