Part 15

The original Roman city was rectangular in form and of considerable dimensions. It is supposed to have been laid out in imitation of ancient Rome, on the east bank of the Ouse. A temple to Bellona was erected as well as a praetorium, in which the emperors sat, for Eboracum was honoured by the great heads of Rome. The first to reside here was Hadrian, in 120, whilst Severus died in the city in 211. This last had come over with his sons, Caracalla and Geta, and a large army, and the attendance of his whole court. His time was busily engaged in reducing the troublesome Britons to proper submission. The two sons nobly helped their aged father. Caracalla completed the erection of a strong wall of stone nearly eighty miles long, close to the rampart of earth raised by Hadrian, in accordance with the wish of Severus, to form a more effectual barrier against future incursions of the natives. During the residence of the court, Eboracum reached to the highest state of splendour. The constant visits of tributary kings and foreign ambassadors, who came to pay their allegiance to Rome, caused it to be unsurpassed among the cities of the world, so much so that it came to be called "Altera Rome." The remains of the Emperor Severus, though he died here in 212, were enclosed in an urn and sent to Rome.

The Emperor Constantius Chlorus died also in Eboracum in 307. His son, Constantius the Great, was present at his father's death, and by the army proclaimed emperor.

After 409 the Greek and Latin writers tell us that Britain was no longer ruled by the Romans. Their statements are borne out by the Saxon Chronicle. This did not mean that there was a general exodus of the Latin race or civilisation, for the connection of Rome with its British provinces did not cease suddenly, though the tie gradually became weakened, because from 409 Roman officials probably ceased to be sent regularly. Britain still considered itself to be Roman, and the inhabitants, or rather the upper classes, continued to speak Latin. Even in the sixth century they were pleased to call themselves "Romani," and held themselves aloof from the surrounding barbarians--a term which we know was applied by the Romans to tribes, not necessarily because they were uncivilised, but rather as a convenient mark of distinction from themselves. Since their departure from Britain, archaeologists have found rich mines of Roman remains in every place of their occupation, and none more so than at York; but to enumerate the many discoveries would require more space than can here be allotted. Suffice it to say that the "multangular tower" is a notable evidence of the Roman occupation, though it is much dilapidated.

The city was frequently assailed by the Picts and Scots, and after the arrival of the Saxons it suffered considerably from the many wars that arose between the Britons and their new allies, as well as in the struggle for supremacy during the establishment of the several kingdoms of the Octarchy, and other minor wars. Early in the seventh century Eboracum underwent a change. By the Saxons the city was called Euro wic, Euore wic, and Eofor wic, which by Leland is supposed to have been borrowed from its situation on the river Eure, now known as the Ouse; but by what process these titles came to be contracted into its present name of York seems rather difficult to account. However, under the name of Eoforwic, the city flourished as the capital of the Bretwaldas early in the seventh century. Consequent on the conversion of Edwin, King of Northumbria, to Christianity, resulting from his marriage to Ethelburga, daughter of King Ethelbert of Kent, the city was erected in 624 into an archiepiscopal see, over which Paulinus, the confessor of the Queen, was made primate. In addition to this, Edwin had constituted the city as the metropolitan of his kingdom. Edwin's work upon the church, which he dedicated to St. Peter, and the missionary work of Paulinus, were suddenly suspended by an attack of the Britons under Cadwallo in 633. Edwin was killed, whilst Ethelburga escaped into Kent with Paulinus. The church in the meantime was allowed to decay until it was restored by Oswald, successor to Edwin. He managed to regain possession of his kingdom after a sanguinary conflict with Cadwallo, who, with the chief officers, was killed during the fight.

We have it by Bede that on the site of the wooden church, in which the baptism was conducted by Paulinus, Edwin erected "a large and more noble basilica of stone," dedicated to St. Peter; but, as we have seen, the work was interrupted by the untimely death of the founder. Finally it was repaired by Archbishop Wilfrid, the third prelate to succeed to the government of the See and provinces. His predecessor had been Cedda, who had been appointed on the death of Paulinus in Kent. The establishment was continued on its original lines by Wilfrid and his successors till the Norman Conquest. In the meantime York, under Archbishop Egbert, from 730 to 766, became a most celebrated centre of learning, and reached to its height under Alcuin. The former had repaired the ravages caused by fire in 741 to the Cathedral, which is described by Alcuin as "a most magnificent basilica." The city fell into the hands of the Danes. They soon made it an important seat of commerce, and constituted it the capital of the Danish jarl. In 1050 the Abbey of St. Mary's was founded by Siward, who is supposed to have died at York five years later and to have been buried in St. Olave's Church. William the Conqueror then seized York in 1068 and erected a tower. The new condition of things was not allowed to remain long. Sweyn, in the following year, sent his two sons, Harold and Canute, with a numerous following of Danes. They disembarked on the shores of the Humber, and, joined by Edgar Atheling and his army, advanced to York, laying waste the land they passed through. To prevent the enemy from fortifying itself, the garrison fired the houses in the suburbs; but the flames were fanned by a strong wind into a devastating conflagration, in the midst of which the Danes entered and put to the sword the whole Norman garrison. This slaughter was eventually punished by the Conqueror, who, harbouring a suspicion of treachery on the part of the citizens, reduced them to his idea of submission by burning the city about their ears and desolating the neighbouring country from the Humber to the Tyne. Nevertheless the city gradually recovered in the two succeeding reigns. Archbishop Thomas endeavoured to patch up the Cathedral, but eventually pulled it down and rebuilt it. The city continued to advance in prosperity in spite of many attacks from the Scots. In 1088 William Rufus laid the first stone for a large monastery for the Benedictine Order, which was dedicated to St. Mary.

In 1137, during the reign of Stephen, a terrible fire broke out which destroyed, it is said, the Cathedral, the monastery, and some forty parish churches. On the accession of Henry I. the city received its first charter of incorporation, whilst in 1175 Henry II. held here one of the first meetings which came to be afterwards called Parliament. It also served as an occasion for William of Scotland to pay his homage to the King in the Cathedral. In the reign of Richard I. the fury of the populace was excited against the Jews for having mingled with the crowd at the Coronation in London. In spite of a royal proclamation in their favour, they were terribly persecuted throughout the country, especially in the big towns. York was by no means behind the times in 1190. Many of the Jews, having defended the castle in which they had taken refuge, put their own wives and children to death, and then committed suicide. Those who did not were cruelly tortured to death by the Christians. In the meantime it is pleasing to note that certain portions of Yorkshire had been reclaimed from its wild state wherever the Cistercians and other orders of monks had settled. They introduced sheep-farming, besides tilling the reclaimed wilderness. The subsequent history of York is taken up with the many visits of royalty and benefits conferred, till we get to the year 1569, when the Council of the North was established, after the suppression of the rebellion known as the "Pilgrimage of Grace." This was consequent on the dissolution of the monasteries, the demolition of ten parish churches, and the wholesale appropriation of revenues and materials by Henry VIII. The principal leader was Robert Aske, who, with 40,000 men attended by priests with sacred banners, seized this city and Hull. They were soon dispersed, Aske being brought to York and hanged upon Clifford's Tower. Though suppressed for a time, public feeling broke out into an insurrection during Elizabeth's reign to restore Roman Catholicism. It ended in their discomfiture, Thomas Percy, Earl of Northumberland, being beheaded at York as the chief ringleader, and his head stuck on the Micklegate Bar as a warning to others. History records a Parliament held here by Charles I. in 1642, when he promised to govern legally. In fact, he seems to have removed his entire court here, or rather those willing to follow him. However, as all attempts at negotiation had failed, he advanced to Nottingham and there erected his standard. After the battle of Marston Moor, which is about six miles out, York was taken for the Parliament by Sir Thomas Fairfax in 1644.

After the Restoration, Charles II. was royally welcomed. James II. aroused public indignation by attempting to introduce Roman Catholicism at York, which only led to the persecution of the followers of that religion. Subsequent events have been principally the visits of royalty. In 1829 terrible consternation arose at the sight of smoke issuing from the roof of the Cathedral. The act was afterwards proved to have been that of a madman who had secreted himself for that purpose in the Cathedral after the evening service was over. The whole of the choir was gutted by the flames. The Cathedral, after Sweyn's visitation, had been rebuilt by Archbishop Thomas of Bayeux.

It was commenced in 1070 and finished by 1100. Of this building little now remains, it having been destroyed by an accidental fire in 1137. It remained in a desolate state till Archbishop Roger rebuilt the apsidal choir and crypt (1154-1191). To this was added the south transept by Archbishop Walter de Grey (1215-1255) in the reign of Henry III., whilst the north transept and the central tower were erected by John le Romaine, who was at that time treasurer of the Cathedral. The two transepts, besides the crypt, are the oldest portions of the present building. They belong to the best years of the Early English style. The south transept has a distinctive feature in its magnificent rose window, whilst the north transept is adorned with a series of beautiful worked lancet windows, known as the Five Sisters. The son of the treasurer, who became also Archbishop, laid the foundation of the nave about 1290, which was completed about forty years later by Archbishop Melton, who also built the west front and the two western towers. The Chapter House also belongs to the same period. In 1361 Archbishop Thoresby commenced to erect the Lady Chapel and presbytery after the Early Perpendicular style. He also in eight years completed the central tower, which he had taken down in 1370, whilst previous to this he had started to rebuild the choir in 1361 to render it more in accordance with the character of the nave, though it was not finished till about 1400. It is a very fine example of the Late Perpendicular style. By this time all traces of the ancient Norman architecture, with the exception of the eastern portion of the crypt by Archbishop Roger, which still remains, had been eliminated. To keep in character it was decided to recase the central tower and alter it into a perpendicular tower with a lantern, which was completed in 1444. With the erection of the south-west tower in 1432, and the north-west tower in 1470, the church was completed, and two years later was reconsecrated. Besides the fire of the madman in 1829, when the woodwork was entirely destroyed, another one broke out in 1840 in the south-west tower, reducing it to a wreck. Since then it has undergone the usual restoration. The whole resembles a Latin cross, and constitutes a glorious minster, the beauty of which can be more readily appreciated by a glance at Mr. Collins' work than by any amount of word-painting. The other illustrations give also a faithful description of the old gateways. They are the four principal gates or "bars" to the walls of the city--walls which contain Norman and Early English work, but principally belong to the Decorative style. Micklegate Bar is the south entrance, upon which were exposed the heads of traitors, and is Norman. Monk Bar leads on to the Scarborough Road, and probably belongs to the fourteenth century. It was formerly called Goodramgate, which was changed after the Restoration to Monk Bar, in honour of General Monk. Walmgate Bar dates from the reign of Edward I., and still retains the barbican rebuilt in 1648, whilst Bootham Bar, with a Norman arch, is the main entrance from the north. Stonegate is situated practically in the heart of the city, not far from the minster. It is a curious piece of architecture. York has been most happy with regard to the birth of men who have distinguished themselves. It has yielded to the Church of Rome eight saints and three cardinals, and to England no less than twelve lord chancellors, two lord treasurers and lord presidents of the north. But the earliest recorded birth of an eminent native takes us out of the ordinary ranks of men. If any name is well known it is certainly that of the first Roman emperor who embraced Christianity. He is Constantine the Great. Flaccus Albanus was also born here. He was a pupil of the great ecclesiastical historian, the Venerable Bede. Waltheof, Earl of Northumberland and son of Siward; Thomas Morton, in turn Bishop of Chester, Lichfield, Coventry, and Durham, first came into the world at York; whilst of more recent times there was Gent, an eminent painter and historian; Swinburn, a distinguished lawyer; and Flaxman, one of England's most celebrated sculptors, who is perhaps as well known by his beautiful designs for the Wedgwood pottery as by any other work of his. Not to know who Flaxman was is almost as bad as to admit ignorance of the existence of Michael Angelo.

Winchester

This ancient city on the river Itchen in Hampshire is inseparably bound with William of Wykeham. He it was who rebuilt a great part of the magnificent cathedral now extant, and who founded the great public school of Winchester, at which so many celebrated men have received their education. These form the great attraction of the city, and rescue it from oblivion. It is with sorrow we foresee that the inevitable restoration will take place in the east end of this venerable structure. For many years past the foundations were known to be in an unsafe condition, but recently great alarm was caused by the appearance of large cracks in the upper masonry and of the bulging in of the groining of the crypt. There was no doubt that the foundations were slowly subsiding, and speculation was rife as to the cause. With a view to ascertaining the state of the foundations, excavations were made. It was discovered that the original builders had rested them on marshy ground, strengthened with oak piles, which have gradually decayed during the lapse of centuries. At the same time the presence of an underground stream, thought to be part of the river Itchen, was seen to be bubbling up through the gravel, saturating the upper soil of peat.

In much the same way as the site of St. Paul's Cathedral in London probably was covered, in the first instance, with buildings for pagan worship, so we find that the Romans at Winchester erected temples to Apollo and Concord upon the ground that eventually came to be the precincts of the Cathedral. The presence of a Christian church appears to have been in the third century, when the city is said to have become one of the chief centres of the Christian Britons. This first church, however, was destroyed during the persecution of Aurelian and was rebuilt in 293, to be made a wreck in 495 by the Saxons, who fired it. What with the religious convulsion of England, which, with the exception of Kent, fluctuated with the rise and fall of circumstances chiefly controlled by the policy of kings either heathen at one time and Christian at another, or the deposition and death of a Christian monarch, caused by one more powerful and deeply imbued with heathenism, the See of Winchester does not appear to have come into existence till about the middle of the seventh century. The establishment of its bishopric in a way marks the commencement of a new epoch in the English Church.

The mission of St. Augustine, backed with the royal countenance of Ethelbert, had, though not completed, done much towards conversion; but on their death practically the whole of the Christian territory, excepting Kent, relapsed into heathenism, and to such an extent that Augustine's successor, Laurentius, was on the point of giving up the whole mission and taking refuge in Gaul. Not until 625 did a mission again venture forth from the Kentish kingdom, and then their tentative efforts were rendered abortive by the battle of Hatfield in 633, which for a while seems to have crushed all hope at Rome. But a couple of years later an independent missionary, Birinus, was consecrated in Italy, and was sent by the people to make fresh attempts to break down the barriers of heathenism in England. Through his influence Cynegils became the first Christian king of the West Saxons. To inaugurate his conversion the monarch decided to establish a bishopric, and immediately began to collect materials for building, at his capital of Winchester, a cathedral, which was eventually constructed by his son Cenwahl in 646. The Danes in 867 broke up the establishment, and the year following, secular priests were substituted. They remained till 963, when Ethelwold, by command of King Edgar, expelled them to make room for the monks of the Benedictine Order from Abendon. They enjoyed uninterrupted possession, and were richly endowed with royal donations, as the dissolution revealed the extent of its revenue. Henry VIII. then refounded it for a bishop, dean, chancellor, twelve prebendaries, and other subordinate officers. The Cathedral was first dedicated to St. Amphibalus, then jointly to St. Peter and St. Paul, and afterwards to St. Swithin, once bishop here. With Henry VIII.'s regime the title was altered to the Holy and undivided Trinity. The church of Cynegils having become entirely ruined, a new cathedral was commenced in 1073-98 by Bishop Walkelyn. The two Norman transepts and the low central tower, as also the very early crypt, still exist. The church is a spacious, massive, and splendid cruciform building of Norman architecture with subsequent additions in the Gothic style. The whole of the Norman nave was demolished and re-erected on a far grander scale by William of Wykeham at the end of the fourteenth century, though not quite completed till after his death. The choir was much restored in the fourteenth century, whilst it underwent considerable alteration by Bishop Fox from 1510 to 1528. Here is the tomb of William II. A great feature is the magnificent reredos behind the altar. It extends the full width of the choir, with two processional entrances pierced through its lofty wall, and covered with tier upon tier of rich canopied niches. They once contained colossal statues. Behind this reredos there is a second stone screen, which enclosed the small chapel in which stood the magnificent gold shrine studded with jewels. It contained the body of St. Swithin, and was the gift of King Edgar. The Cathedral, in fact, received at one time and another great treasures of gold and jewels by many of the early kings of England. Canute is said to have caused his crown of gold and gems to be suspended over the great crucifix above the high altar.

The magnificent chantry of Cardinal Beaufort is of the Later style of English architecture. Bishop Waynfleet's chantry is in the same style, and has been kept in excellent repair by the trustees of his foundation at Magdalene College. Both chantries contain tombs of their founders. There are several other chapels, all deserving close study of their beautiful architecture. The most notable of the many examples of mediaeval recumbent effigies are those of the monuments to Bishops Edingdon, Wykeham, Langton, and Fox. The famous authoress, Jane Austen, is buried here.

The black marble font is an interesting relic of eleventh-century skill. The sides are composed of scenes taken from the life of St. Nicholas. The Cathedral, situated in an open space near the centre of the city towards the south-east, is a marvellous combination of beauty and dignity, surpassed, if at all, by few. It is the central feature of Winchester, and will always command the greatest admiration. One of England's great public schools is that founded by William of Wykeham and built between 1387 and 1393. The foundation originally consisted of a warden, ten fellows, three chaplains, seventy scholars, and sixteen choristers. The prelate had previously established a school here in 1373. Thus the oldest of England's great schools was called "Seinte Marie College of Wynchester," the charter of which was dated October 1382. The ancient statutes were revived in 1855, and were still further influenced by the Public Schools Act of 1868. The establishment has a fine chapel, hall, cloister, and other necessary buildings, all in excellent preservation. Another interesting structure is that afforded by the hospital of St. Cross, founded in 1136 by Henry de Blois, Bishop of Winchester. It lies about a mile out of town. Its general plan can be readily seen by a glance at Mr. Collins' drawing. Henry de Blois intended it to provide board and lodging for thirteen poor men, and a daily dinner for one hundred others. It was mostly rebuilt by Cardinal Beaufort between 1405 and 1447. The whole has undergone much restoration, which was not entirely happy, though it has certainly kept the buildings in a good state of preservation. On the precincts is also the very stately cruciform chapel, dating roughly from the year 1180. The city of Winchester was at one time proverbial for its splendour, which was owing to the many kings that preferred to reside within its walls than elsewhere.