CHAPTER III.

DIVISION I.--THE CARINATE BIRDS (CARINATÆ).

THE ACCIPITRINE ORDER--BIRDS OF PREY.

VULTURES AND CARACARAS.

The Birds of Prey--Distinctive Characters--The Cere--How the Birds of Prey are Divided--Difference between a Hawk, an Owl, and an Osprey--The three Sub-orders of the Accipitres--Sub-order FALCONES--Difference between the Vultures of the Old World and the Vultures of the New World--THE OLD WORLD VULTURES--Controversy as to how the Vultures reach their Prey--Waterton on the Faculty of Scent--Mr. Andersson’s, Dr. Kirk’s, and Canon Tristram’s Views in Favour of Sight--THE BLACK VULTURE--THE GRIFFON VULTURE--Its Capacity for Feeding while on the Wing--THE EARED VULTURE--One of the Largest of the Birds of Prey--Whence it gets its Name--THE EGYPTIAN VULTURE--A Foul Feeder--THE NEW WORLD VULTURES--THE CONDOR--Its Appearance--Power of Flight--Habits--THE KING VULTURE--THE TURKEY VULTURE--THE CARACARAS--Distinctive Characters--Habits--THE SECRETARY BIRD--How it attacks Snakes--Habits--Appearance--THE ÇARIAMA.

The first order of birds to be considered is the birds of prey (_Accipitres_). They are all remarkable for strong and sharply-hooked bills, and most of them have sharp and powerful talons. In the Eagles and Falcons these characters are developed in the highest degree, although many modifications of their structure take place in the order--the Vultures, for instance, and other carrion-feeding birds, not having such a hooked bill as the true Falcons and Eagles, while their feet are larger and more adapted for holding their prey than for striking it down in full career, as the Falcons do. In most of the birds of prey the female is larger than the male, and is much the more powerful bird. This fact is always recognised in falconry, especially in the short-winged Hawks, such as Sparrow-Hawks or Goshawks, whose females are always preferred, as possessing the greater power for holding ground game, such as Rabbits, Hares, &c. The difference in size is not very noticeable in the Vultures, but is unmistakable in the long-legged Sparrow-Hawks, Eagles, and Falcons. The form of the breast-bone, which plays such an important part in the classification of other birds, is a character of less value in the birds of prey, as it varies to a great extent even in those species which, by their habits and general structure, are most closely allied. Another character possessed by these birds is the distinct _cere_, which is present in all, though much hidden by bristles in the Owls: it is a waxy covering to the base of the bill, often hard, but generally fleshy in substance.

Birds of prey are of three kinds: Hawks, Ospreys, and Owls. Under the first name is included every rapacious bird which is not an Osprey or an Owl, and, therefore, the first thing to find out is--how to tell an Owl from a Hawk. At one time it was supposed that all Owls came out by night and all Hawks by day, and so they were separated into two great divisions, which were called diurnal birds of prey[143] and nocturnal birds of prey.[144] Now, however, that the habits of birds are getting better observed, these divisions have to be abandoned as not being entirely true, for there are Owls which are quite at home in the daylight, when they hunt for their food like any other bird of prey, and at least one kind of Hawk is known, whose habit it is to feed on Bats in the evening. This is Andersson’s Pern,[145] a kind of Kite, allied to the Honey-kite of England. It is found only in the Damara Country, in South-western Africa, and in Madagascar. A far better way to distinguish Hawks from Owls is seen in the foot, as the latter have the outer toe reversible--that is to say, they can turn their outer toe backwards or forwards as they please. This is easily observed in the living birds; and any one examining a caged Owl in the Zoological Gardens will see that it sits with its toes in pairs--two in front and two behind. A Hawk cannot do this, all his toes being arranged as in a little perching bird, such as a Sparrow or a Canary, three in front and one behind. Then, again, Owls have no “after-shaft” to the feathers, a structure which most Hawks possess. The “after-shaft” is the small accessory plume, which springs from the under-side of the main feather. In some birds it is very large, in others small. It occurs on the body feathers only, and is never found in the quills or tail feathers (see p. 238). Lastly, in addition to the reversible outer toe, and the absence of an accessory plume or after-shaft, Owls may be distinguished from all other birds of prey, save one, by the proportions of their leg-bones. In the skeleton figured on p. 241 the three principal leg-bones are pointed out; and it is the length which the tarsus bears in proportion to the tibia that is here insisted on. In the Owls the tarsus is only about half the length of the tibia; this is never the case in a Hawk, in which these two bones bear different proportions the one to the other, according to the sub-family. Thus in Sparrow-Hawks and Harriers[146] the tibia and the tarsus are equal in length. In Eagles and Buzzards, Kites and true Falcons, the tibia is always much longer than the tarsus, but is never double its length, as it is in the Owls. The term “Hawk,” which has been employed throughout the foregoing sentences, is intended to apply to every bird of prey excepting the Owls, with the sole exception of the Osprey. The habits of the Osprey are noticed later on, but they may be briefly stated to be similar to those of a Sea-Eagle, its prey consisting entirely of fish, while its plumage and general appearance are also those of an Eagle, so that in many places it is popularly known as the “Fish Hawk,” or “Fishing Eagle;” but here the resemblance of the Osprey to the Eagle ends, and in its other characters it is very like an Owl. The tibia is more than double the length of the tarsus, as in the Owls; the feathers of the body have no after-shaft, as in the Owls, and the outer toe is reversible, as in the Owls. Possessing, therefore, as it does, some of the most prominent features of the Eagles, as well as some of the most striking peculiarities of the Owls, the Osprey holds an intermediate position between these two sub-orders of birds.

The birds of prey, then, may be separated into three sub-orders:--

(_a_). Outer toe _not_ reversible; tibia varying in length in proportion to the tarsus, sometimes equal to it, but never double the length of the latter; body feathers _with_ an after-shaft or accessory plume. (American Vultures excepted.)

I. Hawks (_Falcones_).[147]

(_b_). Outer toe _reversible_; tibia double the length of tarsus; body feathers _without_ an after-shaft or accessory plume; plumage compact, as in an Eagle; no facial disk.

II. Ospreys (_Pandiones_).[148]

(_c_). Outer toe _reversible_; tibia double the length of tarsus; body feathers _without_ an after-shaft; plumage soft and fluffy; a facial disk.

III. Striges;[149] Owls.

The Falcones, or Hawks, include in their number more kinds of rapacious birds than the other two sub-orders. All the Vultures, the Caracaras, the Harriers, the Sparrow-Hawks, the Buzzards, Eagles, Kites, and Falcons, together numbering some four hundred different species, are classified as _Falcones_. Only one species of Osprey is known, which is found nearly all over the world; and about two hundred different kinds of Owls remain to represent the STRIGES.

ORDER ACCIPITRES.--SUB-ORDER FALCONES.

The first sub-order is divided into two families, the first to be noticed being the Vultures (_Vulturidæ_), which is again sub-divided into two sections, the Vultures of the Old World (_Vulturinæ_) and the Vultures of the New World (_Sarcorhamphinæ_).

THE FIRST SUB-FAMILY OF THE VULTURIDÆ.--THE OLD WORLD VULTURES (_Vulturinæ_).

These Vultures are neither to be recommended for their habits nor for their personal appearance. In fact, in both these respects they are rather repulsive birds, but useful withal in hot climates, where they act as scavengers, and clear away much putrid matter and decaying substances, which but for their intervention would prove most offensive. They are all inhabitants of tropical, or at least of warm, countries; and it is only on rare occasions that they wander into the North of Europe or occur in the British Islands. Both the Old and the New Worlds have their Vultures, but the naturalist has no difficulty in telling at a glance to which hemisphere the bird he is looking at belongs, for all the Vultures of the New World have _a hole through their nose_--or, in other words, want the wall of bone which divides one nostril from the other; in the Vultures of the Old World this bony wall is present so that the nostrils resemble those of other ordinary birds.

Besides their perforated nostril, the American Vultures differ from the Old World species in having no after-shaft to the feathers, therein resembling the Owls. This character has led some naturalists to consider the New World Vultures as constituting a separate family, which bears the name of _Cathartidæ_; but although the absence of an after-shaft is a striking feature, yet the habits of the birds so closely resemble those of their Old World cousins, that it seems unnatural to separate them widely in any scheme of classification. The head of a Vulture, whatever locality he may be from, proclaims the nature of the bird at once, as it is always bare of feathers, or nearly so: sometimes a few scattered tufts of down are seen on the head and neck, but never any true feathers, as in the case of the other birds of prey. The Vultures feed on the ground, where they walk with comparative ease, their large feet being fitted for progression on the earth, and their toes not being prehensile or capable of bending to the same extent as in the other Hawks. This formation of the foot prevents them from striking down or snatching their prey, as an Eagle or a Hawk would do; and they do not carry food to their young, but devour the carcase or carrion where it falls, and then feed the nestlings by throwing up food from their crop. They are all birds of powerful flight, and are capable of sustaining a prolonged soar in the air without any apparent motion of the wings.

As to the way in which Vultures discover their prey, the opinion of naturalists has for a long time been divided, and controversy has waxed hot upon the subject, the question being whether the Vulture possesses a more than usually keen sense of sight, or whether his sense of smell is so powerful as to enable him to scent a decaying carcase at a greater distance than other birds can do. The experiments of various travellers seem to prove that both the senses of sight and smell are possessed by the Vulture in no ordinary degree; but the balance of evidence seems to prove that it is by their keen sight that they generally find their food. Supposing that an animal is wounded, and escapes from the hunter, his course is marked by a Vulture soaring high in the air; another circling far away on the horizon sees the first bird fly down, and follows in his track; and so on, until a large company is feeding on the carcase. This action of the Vultures is well described by Longfellow:--

“Never stoops the soaring Vulture On his quarry in the desert, On the sick or wounded Bison, But another Vulture, watching From his high aërial look-out, Sees the downward plunge, and follows; And a third pursues the second, Coming from the invisible ether, First a speck, and then a Vulture, Till the air is dark with pinions.”[150]

The power of the Vulture’s sight was long disputed by the former generation of naturalists, and the celebrated Waterton wrote an article on the “Faculty of Scent in the Vulture,”[151] to prove that it was more by this means than by sight that the bird was able to discover a carcase. Waterton was well acquainted with Vultures in Demarara and in Southern Spain, and he sums up his argument as follows:--“After the repeated observations I have made in the country where it abounds, I am quite satisfied that it is directed to its food by means of its olfactory nerves coming in contact with putrid effluvium, which rises from corrupted substances through the heavier air. Those are deceived who imagine that this effluvium would always be driven to one quarter in the tropics, where the trade-winds prevail. Often, at the very time that the clouds are driving from the north-east up above, there is a lower current of air coming from the quarter directly opposite. This takes place most frequently during the night-time, in or near the woods; and it often occurs early in the morning, from sunrise till near ten o’clock, when the regular trade-wind begins to blow. Sometimes it is noticed in the evening, after sunset; and now and then during the best part of the day in the rainy season.... Vultures, as far as I have been able to observe, do not keep together in a large flock when they are soaring up and down in quest of a tainted current. Now, suppose a Mule has just expired behind a high wall, under the dense foliage of evergreen tropical trees; fifty Vultures, we will say, roost in a tree a mile from this dead Mule. When morning comes, off they go in quest of food. Ten fly, by mere chance, to the wood where the Mule lies, and manage to spy it through the trees; the rest go quite in a different direction. How are the last-mentioned birds to find the Mule? Every minute carries them farther from it. Now reverse the statement; and instead of a Mule nearly dead, let us suppose a Mule in an offensive state of decomposition. I would stake my life upon it that not only the fifty Vultures would be at the carcase next morning, but also that every Vulture in the adjacent forest would manage to get there in time to partake of the repast.” It will be seen from the above that Mr. Waterton allowed the keen sight of the Vultures to play, on some occasions, a part in their discovering food. Another observation on this subject is contained in the late Mr. C. J. Andersson’s work on the ornithology of South-western Africa. Writing on the Sociable Vulture (_Otogyps auricularis_), he says:--“I believe naturalists are not quite agreed as to whether Vultures hunt by sight, by scent, or by both faculties combined. I have myself no doubt that they employ the one sense as well as the other in finding their prey, though I feel inclined to give sight the preference; and I once had a very striking proof of how they employ their vision in guiding them to carrion--in this instance, however, not so much by the actual sight of the carrion (though the first discovery probably originated in that way) as by another singular contrivance. Early one morning, as I was toiling up the ascent of a somewhat elevated ridge of hills, with the view of obtaining bearings for my travelling map, and before arriving at the summit, I observed several Vultures descending near me: but thinking I had merely disturbed them from their lofty perch, I did not take any particular notice of their appearance, as the event was one of usual occurrence; but on gaining my destination, I found that the birds were not coming merely from the hill summit, but from an indefinite distance on the other side. This circumstance, coupled with the fact that I had wounded a Zebra on the preceding day in the direction towards which the Vultures were winging their way, caused me to pay more attention. The flight of the Vultures was low--at least five hundred to a thousand feet below the summit of the mountain; and on arriving near the base, they would abruptly rise without deviating from their direct course; and no sooner was the obstacle in their way thus surmounted than they again depressed their flight. Those Vultures which I saw could not have themselves seen the carrion, but simply hunted in direct sight of one another. There was a numerous arrival; and although I could not always detect the next bird as soon as I had lost sight of the previous one, yet, when at length it did come into view, it never seemed uncertain about its course. Having finished my observations, I descended, and proceeded in the direction which the Vultures had pursued; and after about half an hour’s rapid walking, I found, as I anticipated, the carcase of a Zebra, with a numerous company of Vultures busily discussing it.”[152]

Dr. Kirk, the companion of Livingstone, in his paper on the “Birds of the Zambesi Region of Eastern Tropical Africa,”[153] says that to the inexperienced hunter the Griffon is “a great annoyance. If game be left for an hour in the open plain while the men come to carry it off, the birds will descend, and in a very short time completely devour it. This is not so if it be covered over with a little grass or with branches, clearly proving that sight alone is the sense by which the birds discover their prey. If part of the animal be exposed it matters not--probably owing to its being mistaken for one asleep; nor does the presence of blood seem to guide the birds if the carcase be concealed from view.”

Lastly, to quote from Canon Tristram’s interesting essay on the “Ornithology of the Sahara:”[154] “As, happily for the traveller, Camels do not die every day under the weight of their water-skins, the Griffon does not habitually visit the desert. Still, he occasionally gives it a passing call, though, if his meal be deposited near an oasis, he is usually forestalled by the Hyæna (‘Dubba,’ Arab.), who lurks in the ‘weds.’ On one occasion a Camel in our caravan having become footsore had to be slaughtered on the spot. Our attendants selected the tenderest morsels for ‘kouskous,’ the Arab broth; and it was not until the next morning that a Vulture scented, or rather descried, his prey. That the Vulture uses the organ of sight rather than that of smell, seems to be certain from the immense height at which he soars and gyrates in the air. In this instance one solitary bird descended, and half an hour afterwards was joined by a second. A short time elapsed, and the Nubian Vulture (_Otogyps nubicus_) appeared, self-invited, at the feast; and before the bones were left to the Hyæna no less than nine Griffons and two Nubians had broken their fast. I should hesitate to assert that they had satisfied their appetites. I have observed the same regular succession of diners out on other occasions. May we not conjecture that the process is as follows? The Griffon who first descries his quarry descends from his elevation at once; another, sweeping the horizon at a still greater distance, observes his neighbour’s movements and follows his course; a third, still farther removed, follows the flight of the second; he is traced by another; and so a perpetual succession is kept up as long as a morsel of flesh remains over which to consort. I can conceive no other way of accounting for the numbers of Vultures which in the course of a few hours will gather over a carcase, when previously the horizon might have been scanned in vain for more than one, or at the most two, in sight. Does not this explain the immense number of Vultures who were congregated in the Crimea during the siege of Sebastopol, where the bird was comparatively scarce before? May not this habit of watching the movements of their neighbours have collected the whole race from the Caucasus and Asia Minor to enjoy so unwonted an abundance? The Arabs believe that the Vultures from all North Africa were gathered to feed on Russian Horses in the Crimea, and declare that during the war very few ‘Nissr’ were to be seen in their accustomed haunts.”

The above extracts from authentic works have been made at some length, as exhibiting the general habits of the Vultures. It remains now to notice some of the most striking forms of these birds.

THE BLACK VULTURE[155]

This is an inhabitant of Southern Europe, whence it extends on both sides of the Mediterranean to North-western India, where it is a cold weather visitant, and even to China. In its habits this bird is rather unsociable, and keeps more to the wooded districts, seldom venturing into the open country, except when attracted by the presence of some carcase, on which it feasts in company with the Griffon Vulture. It breeds on trees, constructing a large bulky nest, and only selects a rock for its breeding home when there are no trees to be found in the neighbourhood. It lays one egg, of a richly mottled red colour, two eggs being an extremely rare occurrence. In appearance they are very like those of the Golden Eagle. A story is told of the rescue by a pair of old birds of their young ones, which were in danger from the felling of the tree on which the nest was situated. It is thus related by Count von Tshusi Schmidthofen:--“The royal forester, A. Fikker, found in 1860, on the top of a giant beech in the valley of Dobrabach, in the Sinnaer district, the nest of this Vulture. When the young birds were large enough to be able to save themselves as the tree fell, orders were given to cut the beech down. The wood-cutters had worked at the tree some time, when the old birds appeared, uttering loud cries, and suddenly pounced on the nest, caught hold of the young ones in their claws and disappeared like lightning, carrying off the young (who loudly complained of the unusual mode of locomotion) before the gaze of the astonished spectators.”

The Black Vulture measures three feet and a half in length, and is entirely black, the bare places on the head and neck being of a livid flesh colour when the bird is alive.

THE GRIFFON VULTURE.[156]

The Griffon, or Fulvous Vulture (so called from its colour), is found all over Southern Europe, and occurs occasionally at different points in Central Europe, having once been taken in the British islands off Cork Harbour; it therefore figures in the list of British birds. It ranges all over North-eastern Africa, and extends eastwards into Turkestan, Central Asia, and North-western India. As it goes eastwards the Griffon becomes a more rufous bird, and is by some naturalists considered to be a different species. In the British Museum is a very interesting specimen of this Vulture, collected by Major Denham in Bornou during his travels across Africa, being one of the comparatively few birds that have been brought from Central Africa, about the ornithology of which we do not even yet know much. Like other Vultures, the Griffon feeds on carrion, but is also stated to frequent the sea-shore in search of Crustacea and dead fish; while the South African Griffon is said to feed on Locusts and small Tortoises, the latter of which it swallows whole.[157]

This bird’s capacity for feeding is illustrated in a most amusing anecdote of Canon Tristram’s:--“For some months we possessed two Griffons taken from the nest, who at length arrived safely in England. They never attempted to leave us, differing in this respect from our Lämmergeiers, but remained contentedly about the tents or perched on the backs of the baggage-camels _en route_. They took a peculiar interest in taxidermy, scrutinising, head on one side, the whole operation of bird-skinning, and perfectly aware of the moment when a morsel would be ready, exhibiting a more than ordinary excitement when they saw the skin drawn back over the head, and knew that the whole carcase would soon be cut off for them. One of these birds was of a desponding, querulous disposition, the other of a very different natural temperament, always contented and cheerful, a universal favourite in the camp, while his fellow received, I fear, many a sly kick for his complaints. They were able to fast for days; but, whenever such an opportunity as a Camel’s carcase presented itself, would be revenged on their Lent. I have seen our pet, ‘Musha Pasha,’ attack the entrails of a Camel, and, as his crop became distended, sink upon his breast, unable to stand, till at length, even this position being too much for him, he lay on his side, still eating, until, overpowered and helpless, he fell asleep. This enormous capacity for food, combined with the power of long abstinence, is a wonderful provision of creative wisdom for carrion-feeders, whose supply is so uncertain, while the necessity for the immediate removal of offensive matter is so urgent. The strength of the Vulture’s stomach is equal to its capacity, for on one occasion one of our Griffons devoured a half pound pot of arsenical soap, with no further inconvenience than a violent fit of vomiting.”

The Griffon nests on rocks, sometimes several building in company in the same neighbourhood. Its flight is majestic, and Mr. Salvin says that it is a fine sight to watch the ease with which the Griffon sails through the air; the apparently effortless extension of the wing seems amply sufficient to sustain its huge body; no flapping motion is necessary to enable it to mount to a great height. It is only on leaving a rock that a few strokes are requisite to attain the necessary impulse, after which, with primaries bent upwards by the force of the air, it performs its stately evolutions by soaring only. In alighting, the bird drops its legs some distance from the rock, and, sailing to within a few yards, it checks its velocity by two or three heavy strokes of the wing.

Among the ancient Egyptians the Griffon appears to have been a sacred bird, and its remains have been found embalmed. It is also figured on their monuments, sometimes in its natural form, sometimes with the head of a Snake. In size the European Griffon stands about three feet and a half high, and is of a general ashy fulvous colour, with black quills and tail; the under surface is creamy-brown, with a darker brown mark on the crop; the head and neck are bare, or with loosely scattered tufts of white down; and round the neck there is a white ruff.

Besides the Griffon Vulture of Europe there are four others, which seem to be distinct species, the Himalayan Griffon, the South African Griffon, Rüppell’s Griffon from Abyssinia, and the Long-billed Griffon from India. In addition to these there are the two White-backed Griffon Vultures, which have only fourteen tail-feathers, and belong to the genus _Pseudogyps_.

THE EARED VULTURE (_Otogyps[158] auricularis_[159]).

This is one of the largest species of the birds of prey found in the Old World, being exceeded in size only by the Great Condor of the Andes. It is an inhabitant of Africa, being plentifully spread over the southern portion of the Continent, and also occurring in North-Eastern Africa, whence it ranges in small numbers to Lower Nubia and the Sahara, and has even been said to occur accidentally in Europe. It has received the name of Eared Vulture on account of the folds of skin on the sides of the neck, which are found only in one other species, the Indian Vulture (_O. calvus_). These two kinds of Eared Vultures appear to play the part of the King Vulture of South America, the smaller Vultures, such as the _Neophrons_, always giving place to them, and allowing them to finish their feast before venturing to approach.

The Egyptian Vulture (_Neophron[160] percnopterus_[161]) is also familiarly known as Pharaoh’s Chicken. It is a small bird about two feet and a half in length, white in plumage, with black wings. A great part of the face is bare and of a yellow colour. The young birds are brown. In Europe the Egyptian Vulture is a migratory bird, but it breeds in many localities in the Mediterranean region, and has even occurred once or twice on the shores of the British islands. In winter it takes itself to the Cape of Good Hope. It is much valued in certain places as a scavenger, as it devours excrementary matter, but Mr. Gurney states that its food also consists of carrion of various descriptions, and in default of such food it occasionally preys upon rats, field mice, small lizards, snakes, insects, and even earthworms. Colonel Irby observes that it is probably the foulest-feeding bird that lives, and that it is very omnivorous, devouring any animal substance, even all sorts of excrement; nothing comes amiss to it, and he has sometimes seen them feeding on the sea-shore on dead fish thrown up by the tide. The same gentleman[162] says that on their migrations they pass Gibraltar, which is one of their lines of passage, about the end of February, and they breed in the neighbourhood of that place, beginning to lay about the 1st of April. The nest is composed of a few dead sticks, always lined with wool, rags, or rubbish; and Colonel Irby states that he found about a pound of tow in one nest, and the sleeve of an old coat; while another observer says that on a foundation of branches Pharaoh’s Hen heaps rags, patches, old slippers, and whole basketfuls of camels’ hair and wool for the comfort of its offspring. The Egyptians frequently represented this species on their monuments, but do not appear to have attached any particular significance to it.

In India the place of the present species is taken by the Indian Scavenger Vulture (_Neophron ginginianus_), and in Africa the Pileated Vulture (_N. pileatus_), an entirely brown bird, occurs nearly all over the continent.

THE SECOND SUB-FAMILY OF THE VULTURIDÆ.--THE AMERICAN VULTURES (_Sarcorhamphinæ_).

THE CONDOR (_Sarcorhamphus[163] gryphus_[164]).

As before mentioned, all the American Vultures can be readily distinguished by the perforation of their nostrils. The Condor is a very unmistakable species, being the largest of all the Vultures, and the male has a large comb on the head which is not developed in the female. The hind toe also is extremely small, scarcely touching the earth, and on this account the foot is less prehensile than in any other Vulture. The home of this magnificent bird is the chain of the Andes in South America, and the neighbouring countries to the west, and it is found inhabiting these mountains from Ecuador and Colombia, down to the Strait of Magellan, and again extending on the east coast as far as the mouth of the Rio Negro in Patagonia. It bears confinement well, examples being generally to be seen living in the Zoological Gardens; and some idea of the extent of wing in the Condor can occasionally be obtained when the birds are sunning themselves on their perch. The expanse in large individuals is said to reach as much as eight or nine feet. All observers agree that when seen in a wild state the flight of the Condor is truly majestic, and it is capable of ascending to an immense height, at which a man could not breathe on account of the rarefaction of the air, a state of things which does not seem to affect the Condor, who is often lost to sight amidst the clouds. The most exaggerated stories of the strength and prowess of this Vulture were circulated by the old authors, and it was even said to attack full-grown oxen. The careful observations, however, of recent travellers, have dispelled many of the fabulous stories respecting it, and it is now a well ascertained fact that the Condor does not attack full-grown animals of any size, but will devour newly-born and helpless offspring, and several of them will unite to kill the mother should she appear in a weak and sickly condition. The supposed habit, attributed to these birds, of carrying off prey in their feet, is disproved by the weakness of the last-named organs, and their utter incapacity for grasping anything: in fact the feet play a very insignificant part in the bird’s economy, the powerful bill being the chief factor in tearing a carcase to pieces. The Condor measures about three feet and a half in length, the closed wing being about twenty-nine inches. The general colour of the bird is black, the secondary quills and most of the wing-coverts being externally grey. Round the neck is a ruff of soft white down. The bare parts of the head and neck are not remarkable for any bright colour, but are blackish with traces of livid flesh colour here and there. That the Condor lays sometimes in confinement is shown by a specimen in the British Museum, which was hatched by a common hen, who sat on the egg for six weeks and two days. The nestlings are usually covered with white down.

THE KING VULTURE (_Cathartes[165] papa_[166]).

This is by far the handsomest of the whole family, its head and neck being covered with caruncles, which in life are orange, purple, and crimson in colour; the general plumage of the bird, too, is a delicate fawn or cream colour. It is an inhabitant of Central and Southern America, from Mexico southwards to Brazil, where it is found a little below the twentieth degree of south latitude. It appears to be rather a cleaner feeder than the Condor or other American Vultures, and frequents wooded countries instead of those rocky places in which the Condor delights. It is rarer than the last-named bird, and from its forest-loving habits is less easily observed, and it is altogether a more active and lively species. It is shy and suspicious, and is most difficult to obtain, from its habit of sitting on the tops of trees, whence it scans with ease the country around. On this account it is seldom shot, and D’Orbigny, from whose works much of the above information is derived, says that it is only captured by attracting it to a carcase, and then shooting it from an ambush. Another mode of capture, which he says is followed by the natives of Santa Cruz de la Sierra,[167] is by finding out the tree on which the King Vulture roosts, and to which it returns night after night, and then to climb up and capture the bird with gloved hands. The same observer says that it is not from any innate respect, but from fear of its powerful bill, that the Turkey Vultures pay such deference to this present bird, not venturing to commence their repast until he is satisfied, whereby he is popularly known as the “King” of the Vultures.

THE TURKEY VULTURE (_Rhinogryphus[168] aura_).

This is an inhabitant of North America, whence it ranges throughout Central America and the West Indian Islands down the Andean chain to the Strait of Magellan. Their habits vary somewhat with locality, for whereas in the Southern United States they act as scavengers in the towns, in Guatemala and other places in Central America they are not seen in flocks, but occur in pairs only in the forests. As in the case of the other Vultures, their food consists of carrion, and they are found in large numbers in deserts, where they obtain an ample supply of food in the animals which perish. The Turkey Vulture is about two feet and a half in length. The plumage is black with a purplish gloss, and in life the bare head and neck are of a bright red colour, which soon fades after death.

FAMILY FALCONIDÆ.--THE FALCON-LIKE HAWKS.

THE FIRST SUB-FAMILY.--THE CARACARAS (_Polyborinæ_).

All the members of this sub-family are more or less Vulturine in their habits and appearance, and many of them are carrion feeders. The name “Caracara” with which these birds are here designated is of Brazilian origin, and all the species included under the present heading are inhabitants of Central and Southern America, with the exception of the Secretary Bird of Africa. They all seem to be at home on the ground, and they differ from all other birds of prey in having a membrane which joins the base of the two outer toes to the middle one, a feature which is doubtless useful to the birds when wallowing in the marshy ground, which many of them frequent in quest of frogs, &c. The Southern Caracaras (_Ibycter australis_) are said to run with extreme quickness, putting out one leg before the other, and stretching forward their bodies very much like Pheasants. Mr. Darwin, who became acquainted with these birds during his voyage in the _Beagle_, says that their flesh is good to eat, and he gives a very interesting account of the habits of the Southern Caracara in the Falkland Islands, where they were extraordinarily tame and very mischievous, frequenting the neighbourhood of the houses to pick up all kinds of offal. If a beast were killed they congregated from all quarters like so many Vultures, and they did not hesitate to attack and capture wounded birds, on one occasion pouncing on a Dog which was lying asleep. They would also carry off miscellaneous articles which were lying on the ground. “A large black glazed hat was carried nearly a mile, as were a pair of heavy balls, used in catching wild cattle. Mr. Usborne experienced during the survey a severe loss in a small Kater’s compass, in a red morocco case, which was never recovered.” According also to Mr. Darwin, these birds were quarrelsome and extremely passionate, and it was curious to behold them, when impatient, tearing up the grass with their bills, from rage. It may be owing to their strong feelings, as described by the last-named naturalist, that the colour of the face changes in the Brazilian Caracara, concerning which a somewhat amusing incident may be related. There arrived from Patagonia at the Zoological Gardens two Caracaras, which were white instead of brown, like the Brazilian species (_Polyborus tharus_), and the question which troubled naturalists was, whether these Patagonian birds were a distinct species, or whether they were simply a white variety of the ordinary Brazilian bird. The latter had the bare skin of the face lemon-yellow, whereas the white birds had this part purple, and this was looked upon as one sign of their belonging to a distinct species. But one memorable day an ornithologist went up to describe the new arrivals, and to bestow on them a name, which should mark the character of the purple face. No doubt existed in his mind, for the white birds had now lived for a whole year in the Gardens, and were still white and had a purple visage, but, happening to turn his head away for one moment, he was not a little surprised, on looking back at his supposed new species, to find that the facial character had disappeared, and that the bird’s visage was now yellow. At the same moment the face of one of the Brazilian birds in the adjoining den had turned red, and hence it became clear that the Caracaras can change the colour of the bare face at will, and that the lighter-coloured specimen was only an albino after all! Besides the Caracaras, at least one other species of bird of prey changes colour in a somewhat similar way--the Bateleur Eagle,[169] which, if irritated, flushes up to the roots of its feathers, and its bare face, which is usually scarlet, becomes a deep blood-red or crimson. In the case of the latter bird the change of colour is visible not only in the visage but in the feet also, which likewise acquire a darker red than before.

THE SECRETARY BIRD (_Serpentarius[170] secretarius_[171]).

This is the only African representative of the Caracaras, or web-footed birds of prey, and from its general look and from its habits, no less than from some peculiar anatomical characters, it is by many good authorities considered to be a game bird, and not a Hawk at all. No one, however, who has seen a Secretary kill a Rat, and the prodigious force with which, by repeated blows of his powerful legs, sometimes springing into the air and bringing both feet down at the same moment upon his victim, he quickly reduces it to a shapeless pulp, would consider him anything but a bird of prey. Standing before a Cobra which rises to attack him, the Secretary spreads his wings out in front as a shield to guard his body, and then from behind this protection he strikes his enemy down. On account of their prowess in destroying venomous Serpents, they are protected with care by both the European and Native Governments in South Africa, and in the Cape Colony a penalty is inflicted upon any one who ventures to kill one of these useful birds. Sometimes the Secretary does not win in the fight with the Snake, for a good observer has stated that on one occasion he saw a bird suddenly leave off fighting and run to a pool of water, where he fell down dead. If the Snake bites a feather, the bird immediately pulls it out, but in the above instance the reptile had drawn blood from the point of the pinion. It is somewhat remarkable that the Secretary should have such striking power in his legs, as they are long and slender for the size of the bird, and are so brittle that it is said that, if suddenly started into a quick run, their legs will snap. The Secretary Bird is a most voracious feeder, devouring Rats, Lizards, Locusts, Snakes, Tortoises, &c., and Levaillant states that he took from the stomach of one of these birds three Serpents as long as his arm and an inch in thickness, eleven Lizards of seven or eight inches in length, and twenty-one small Tortoises of about two inches in diameter, besides a large quantity of Grasshoppers or Locusts, and other insects.

A spirited and truthful account of the habits of the Secretary was published in 1856 by the late M. Jules Verreaux, who spent upwards of fifteen years in South Africa engaged in a study of the natural history of that part of the world, and a few extracts from this paper cannot be resisted.[172] “As Nature exhibits foresight in all that she does, she has given to each animal its means of preservation. Thus the Secretary Bird has been modelled on a plan appropriate to its mode of life; and it is therefore for this purpose that, owing to the length of its legs and tarsi, its piercing eye is able to discover at a long distance the prey which, in anticipation of its appearance, is stretched on the sand or amongst the thick grass. The elegant and majestic form of the bird becomes now even more graceful; it now brings into action all its cunning in order to surprise the Snake which it is going to attack; therefore it approaches with the greatest caution. The elevation of the feathers of the neck and back of the head shows when the moment for attack has arrived. It throws itself with such force on the reptile that very often the latter does not survive the first blow. But if the bird does not succeed, and the enraged Snake draws itself up and expands, at the same time, the skin of its neck, as is the way with the more dangerous Serpents, the bird is forced to retreat, and takes a spring backwards, waiting to seize a favourable moment for recommencing the attack. Raising itself, the furious reptile moves its tongue with the quickness of lightning, and gives forth the most vehement hisses, which keep back the enemy and seem to force some respect from it: but the bird, whose courage redoubles in the same ratio that the difficulties increase, opens out its wings, and, returning to the charge, assails the reptile afresh with blows from its terrible feet, such as no one would believe, and which are not long in putting the Snake _hors de combat_. We have, however, sometimes seen the Snakes launch themselves on the Secretary, but, either by opening its wings, whose long primaries serve it as a kind of shield, or by jumping backwards or on one side, the bird is certain to parry the attack of its antagonist, who at last, overcome by fatigue, falls at full length on the ground. The moment is seized by the Secretary to redouble its massive blows, which, by dislocating the vertebral column, soon cause the reptile to give up the ghost. It is then that the victorious Hawk darts like an arrow, and placing its foot on the Serpent’s neck, just at the back of the head, commences to swallow it, which it does by beginning at the tail first. Nor is this a long operation, even with reptiles five or six feet in length and more than four inches in diameter; and as soon as it arrives at the head it completely smashes the skull by several blows of its bill before swallowing it.”

“Both sexes work at the construction of the nest, which is always placed on the summit of a high dense bush, more often a mimosa. It is added to each year, and it is easy to see the age of a nest by the number of fresh layers which have been added year by year. The young birds remain for six months before leaving the nest, their legs not being strong enough to support the weight of the body. During the whole of this time they are fed with great assiduity by both parents.”

The Secretary Bird stands more than four feet high, when fully grown. The general colour of the plumage is grey, with black quills; the lower back and rump are black, the upper tail-coverts white; the tail is grey, tipped with white, and crossed with two black bands; below, the colour is ashy-white, the thighs and abdomen black. From the hinder part of the crown and occiput springs an elegant crest of plumes, which the bird can raise or depress at will; they are either entirely black, or grey with a black tip. It is from these long plumes that the bird has got the name of the Secretary, from some fancied resemblance in the bird’s head to the quills which a secretary places behind his ear.

In America, the Secretary is represented by the Çariama (_Çariama cristata_), a bird which looks so like a game bird that, as we have said, many ornithologists place both it and the Secretary among the Gallinaceous birds, and not among the Hawks. From a consideration of its anatomy, however, both Professor Parker and Professor Sundevall determined that the Çariama is an accipitrine bird, though of a very aberrant form. Those who differ from them admit that where the Secretary is placed in the natural system the Çariama must also be located, and no one who has studied the habits of the former, either in a wild state or in captivity, can doubt for a moment that it is a veritable bird of prey, and so it follows that the Bustard-like Çariama must also be included in the same order.