CHAPTER IV.

ARTIODACTYLA--THE HIPPOPOTAMUS FAMILY.

Present Representatives--Two Species--THE COMMON RIVER HORSE--General Appearance--Characteristics: Skin, Head, Nostrils, Eyes, Ears, Legs, Tail, Mouth, Tusks, Dentition, Skeleton, Stomach--Habits--Food--Under Water--Behemoth of the Bible--Used in the Roman Sports--As described by the Ancient Naturalists--As portrayed by the Ancient Artists--The First Hippopotamus in England--Subsequent Inmates of the Zoological Gardens--Herds of Hippopotami--Harpoon for Hunting--Sir Samuel Baker’s Accounts of Hippopotamus Hunts--Various Methods of Capture--Occasional Fits of Blind Fury--A Night Attack upon a Diahbeeah--Uses of the Hippopotamus--THE LIBERIAN HIPPOPOTAMUS--Fossil Forms--THE ANOPLOTHERES.

II.--THE HIPPOPOTAMUS FAMILY (HIPPOPOTAMIDÆ).

The Hippopotami, or River Horses, constitute the second family to be considered next after the Hogs, among the non-ruminant hoofed animals possessing an even number of toes on each foot. They are represented at the present time by two closely-allied species found only in Africa, the _Hippopotamus amphibius_, or Common River Horse, which haunts the rivers of Africa from the Sahara desert to the Cape Colony; and the much smaller Liberian animal, living on the west coast and on the rivers flowing into Lake Tchad.

THE COMMON RIVER HORSE (_Hippopotamus amphibius_) is a large, unwieldy-looking animal, sometimes as much as eleven or twelve feet long, with a massive body and enormous head, and short stout legs. Nevertheless, it is capable of moving swiftly on the land and of swimming with perfect ease. Its skin is naked, thick, and penetrated by pores which exude a thick fatty secretion, which may perhaps be useful to it while in the water. The front part of the head is massive, and broader than that of any other living quadruped; the nostrils are comparatively small slits, which are closed and water-tight during the frequent dives beneath the surface of the water; the eyes are prominent, and placed far back in the head and the ears are so short that they look as if they had been cropped. They, too, have a special arrangement of muscles by which they can be closed. The short legs are terminated by four hoof-bearing toes; and the short tail is adorned with bristles arranged laterally and on opposite sides, which are the only traces of hair found on the animal. The mouth is very large, and armed with tusks and grinders, that present a fearful appearance when the animal opens its mouth with a gape, which is unsurpassed in width by that of any other animal. The tusks are enormous, especially those in the lower jaw, which are curved upwards as in the Hogs, and meet those of the upper jaw close to their sockets. By the attrition of their surfaces together their tips are reduced to a chisel edge. Between these great teeth are four front or incisor teeth, of conical shape, in both upper and lower jaws, those in the latter being the larger. The grinders in each jaw are three in number, and of a trefoil pattern on their worn surfaces; while the false grinders in front of them, four in number in each jaw, are conical, sharp-edged, and resemble those of the Hogs. The skeleton is very Hog-like, and the stomach is divided into four compartments. The liver has a gall-bladder, and the kidneys are divided into lobes.

The River Horse is nocturnal in its habits, frequenting rivers and lagoons, and rarely leaving them or their immediate neighbourhood except at night, when it will go considerable distances in search of food, sometimes causing great damage to cultivated crops, which may be estimated from the fact that its stomach is capable of holding from five to six bushels. Its food consists principally of grass, young shrubs, and water plants, and it is particularly fond of green corn. When in the water its slow respiration enables it to remain for a long time beneath the surface without coming up to breathe; and the means of closing both its ears and nostrils against the access of water, before alluded to, is admirably suited for its aquatic habits.

The first and only time in which any animal at all answering the description of the Hippopotamus is mentioned in the Bible is under the designation of Behemoth (Job xl. 15-24), and even then there is room for doubt as to whether the description may not be nearly as applicable to the Elephant, though on the whole it certainly suits the Hippopotamus better.

It is interesting to know that Milton evidently considered Behemoth to mean the Elephant, or any rate, not the Hippopotamus, for in “Paradise Lost,” in writing of the Creation, he says:--

“Scarce from his mould Behemoth, biggest born of earth, upheaved His vastness: fleeced the flocks, and bleating, rose As plants: ambiguous between sea and land The _river horse_ and scaly crocodile.”

According to Pliny, the Hippopotamus was first seen in Europe in the curule ædileship of Scaurus, 58 B.C., when the exhibition in the circus surpassed anything the Romans had ever seen. Among other novelties, he exhibited a Hippopotamus and five Crocodiles. But according to Dion Cassius, the Hippopotamus was first shown in the games celebrated by Augustus, 29 B.C. So great was the demand for Hippopotami in the Roman sports at a later period, that according to Marcellinus Ammianus, they had disappeared from Egypt since the time of the Emperor Julian. Favourable circumstances, however, must have again restored them, as we learn, from the accounts given by Zerenghi and others, of their being plentiful about the year 1600 and later. In some parts of Egypt the Hippopotamus seems to have been sacred, as we learn from Herodotus. Sonnini relates that the Hippopotami laid bare whole countries by their terrible ravages, and from the terror they inspired they were generally looked upon as the symbol of Typhon, that giant who spread death and destruction among the deities which were worshipped, and were the emblem of mischance and cruelty, and that the worship of them at Papresius was practised with the view of appeasing and averting their anger.

The descriptions given by early writers of the Hippopotamus are in many instances most ludicrous. Aristotle, borrowing from Herodotus, states that “the Hippopotamus of Egypt has a mane like a Horse, a bifurcated hoof like an Ox, a flat visage or muzzle, an astragalus like the animals with cloven feet, projecting teeth which do not show themselves much, the tail of a Hog, the voice of a Horse, and in size it resembles an Ass. Its skin is of such a thickness that spears are made of it.” It is pretty clear from this description that Aristotle meant the Hippopotamus, but also that he never saw one. Diodorus approaches nearer to the truth as to the size of this animal when he says that it is five cubits in length, and that the bulk resembles that of the Elephant. However, he still retains the cloven hoof and Horse’s mane. Pliny speaks of it as living in the Nile, and also gives it the bifid hoof of the Ox, the back, mane, and neigh of the Horse, a flattened muzzle, the tail and teeth of the Boar; evidently following the descriptions given of it by Aristotle. He also adds that helmets and bucklers are made of its skin, and that the animal feeds on the crops, and is very cautious in avoiding snares; but he goes on to say that it is covered with hair like the Seals. It is difficult to conceive how he could have fallen into so great an error after having spoken of its being exhibited in Rome by M. Scaurus, with five Crocodiles. He finishes his account by stating that when the animal gets too fat, and is diseased, it bleeds itself by pressing a vein of its leg against some sharp object, and then plastering up the wound with mud, so that it may speedily heal. The ancient artists appear to have been more faithful in their portraits of the Hippopotamus than the ancient authors and naturalists in their descriptions; indeed, with very few exceptions, the animal has been pretty faithfully portrayed. One exception is a figure copied by Hamilton from one of the caves of Beni-Hassan, in which the feet are displayed as cloven and the lower tusks made to appear so excessively large as to prevent all possibility of their being hidden when the animal closed its jaws. In the figure on the plinth of the statue of the Nile, which was formerly in the Vatican, although the teeth and feet are not correct, the general idea is good; and in many other sculptures and mosaics it is very well represented, also on some of the medals and coins of Roman Emperors: sometimes it is represented as holding a Crocodile in its mouth, which probably may have given rise to the stories of the enmity the Hippopotamus bears towards the Crocodile. In more modern times we have more or less fabulous descriptions given by Isidore of Seville and Vincent de Beauvais, neither of whom appears to have seen the animal. Belon and Gillius, it would seem, are the first of the moderns who actually saw the Hippopotamus alive, and this was at Constantinople, although Sonnini appears to doubt the identity of the animal which Belon saw. This is hardly justifiable, as Belon was a very accurate observer, and even points out with much truth the differences between the one he saw and those he had seen pictured on ancient works of art.

The first Hippopotamus ever seen alive in Great Britain, or indeed in Europe in modern times, was brought to England on the 25th of May, 1850, and placed in the Gardens of the Zoological Society. Mitchell gives the following account of its capture and habits:--“Since the Imperial Exhibitions in the Circus of Rome, no living Hippopotamus has been imported into Europe, except the young male which the Society possesses. The difficulty of obtaining such an animal may be conjectured from the fact that after the Viceroy of Egypt had determined to present one to the Society, it became necessary for his Highness to despatch an expedition to the Upper Nile for the purpose of making the capture, and that success was only achieved after two thousand miles of the river had been ascended. In the month of July, 1849, the chief huntsman of the party, in searching the reedy margin of an island in the White Nile, called Obaysch, at last discovered a little Hippopotamus calf, which, as he conjectured, had been born about two days. It was so small that, in his delight at having accomplished the Pasha’s order, he seized it in his arms, and would have carried it to the boat which waited on him, had not the slimy exudation which is lavishly poured forth from innumerable pores in the skin of the young Hippopotamus rendered it so slippery that he was entirely unable to retain his hold. The animal having thus slipped from his grasp, all but escaped into the Nile, where the mother doubtless was lying near at hand. The hunter, however, with the presence of mind which characterises a good sportsman, seized his spear, and with the sharp side-hook, which has been in fashion in Egypt for three thousand years or more, he succeeded in arresting the headlong plunge of his prize, without inflicting greater injury upon him than a skin wound, the scar of which he bore to the day of his death. The long voyage down the river was successfully accomplished in a boat which had been built for the purpose by the Viceroy’s order, and ‘Obaysch,’ as they named the Hippopotamus, from his birthplace, was safely delivered in November, 1849, after a journey of four months, into the care of the Hon. C. A. Murray, through whose powerful influence the Viceroy had been prevailed upon to exert his power and assist the Society in an object for which all exertions of their own had failed. Obaysch spent his first winter in Cairo, under the charge of his intelligent keeper, Hamet Saaffi Canaana, a Nubian Arab, whom Mr. Murray engaged for the purpose. In May, 1850, proper preparations were made, with the obliging co-operation of the directors, in the Peninsular and Oriental Steam Navigation Company’s ship _Ripon_, for the transport from Alexandria, and on the 25th of that month the first Hippopotamus which had breathed on English soil within this period of history was landed successfully on the quay at Southampton, and liberated in the Gardens from his travelling-house at ten o’clock the same evening. On emerging from the door of it he followed Hamet, who had scarcely ever left him during the whole voyage from Cairo, into the building which had been prepared for him, and instantly indulged in a long-continued bath. The ten hours which elapsed between his removal from the steamer at Southampton, and his arrival in the Regent’s Park, is the longest period during which he has ever been without access to water.”

For the first year Obaysch was fed almost entirely on Cow’s milk and finely-ground Indian corn, and as he grew older he consumed about 100 lbs. weight of hay, chaff, corn, roots, and green food a day. He rapidly grew, until he reached the enormous weight of about four tons, and he was one of the chief attractions of the Gardens at the time of his death in March, 1878.

In 1853 a young female, Adhela, was obtained from the same district, and in the spring of 1871 the first calf was born, and a second in January, 1872, both of which were lost shortly after their birth, in spite of every care and precaution. The third was born on the 5th of November, 1872, and called “Guy Fawkes,” and has been successfully reared. Little Guy Fawkes sucked freely shortly after its birth, and has continued to thrive up to the present time, now rivalling her mother in size. When she chooses to disport herself in her huge tank, her vast bulk and enormous gape combine to keep the crowd of onlookers in a proper state of subjection not unmixed with awe.

Hippopotami roam together in herds, and where they have not been disturbed come fearlessly to the top of the water, often lazily basking on the surface, and on the banks; but in places where they have been hunted and shot at they become very wary, and content themselves by just showing their noses among weeds, and sometimes they are so carefully concealed that but for their footprints on the bank of the river their presence would be unsuspected. Cumming, in his African hunting experiences, gives a description of seeing an entire colony of these animals on the banks of the Limpopo. He says:--“Presently in a broad and deeply shaded pool of the river we heard the Sea Cows bellowing, and on approaching somewhat nearer beheld a wonderful and interesting sight. On a sandy promontory of the island stood about thirty cows and calves, whilst in the pool opposite and a little below them stood about twenty more Sea Cows, with their heads and backs above water. About fifty yards farther down the river, again showing out their heads, were eight or ten immense fellows, which I think were all bulls, and about a hundred yards below these, in the middle of the stream, stood another herd of eight or ten cows with calves, and two large bulls. The Sea Cows lay close together like Pigs, and as they sprawl in the mire have not the least objection to their neighbours pillowing their heads on their backs and sides.”

Livingstone also gives a description of seeing a herd of Hippopotami as follows:--“On a shallow sand bank, under a dyke crossing the River Zambesi near the mouth of the Sinjere, lay a herd of Hippopotami in fancied security. The young ones were playing with each other like young puppies, climbing on the backs of their dams, trying to take hold of one another by the jaws, and tumbling over into the water. Mbia, one of the Makotols, waded across to within a dozen yards of the drowsy beasts, and shot the father of the herd, who being very fat soon floated, and was secured at the village below. The men then gorged themselves with meat for two days, and cut large quantities into long narrow strips, which they half dried and half roasted on wooden frames over the fire.”

The harpoon is the weapon usually used by the natives of Africa for catching the Hippopotamus. One kind of harpoon consists of a shaft about twelve feet long, at one end of which is a combination of spear and fish-hook, the spear being let into a socket of the shaft and also attached to the shaft by means of cords. At the other extremity is a coil of rope, to which is attached a large float, so that when a Hippopotamus is harpooned the float shows the position of the animal. When an animal is struck, it is followed either by men in canoes or on land, who by means of ropes get possession of the line to which the float is attached, which they entwine round a tree, and every time the animal comes up to breathe he is greeted with a shower of spears until finally finished.

Livingstone in his “African Travels” gives the following interesting account of this instrument and its makers. He relates that on the Zambesi River “beyond Pita lies the little island Nyamotobsi, where we met a small fugitive tribe of Hippopotamus hunters, who had been driven by war from their own island in front. With the civility so common among them, the chief ordered a mat to be spread for us under a shed, and then showed us the weapon with which they kill the Hippopotamus. It is a short iron harpoon inserted in the end of a long pole, but being intended to unship, it is made fast to a strong cord of milola, or hibiscus bark, which is wound closely round the entire length of the shaft, and secured at its opposite end. Two men in a swift canoe steal quietly down on the sleeping animal. The bowman dashes the harpoon into the unconscious victim, while the quick steersman sweeps the light craft back with his broad paddle. The force of the blow separates the harpoon from its corded handle, which, appearing on the surface, sometimes with an inflated bladder attached, guides the hunters to where the wounded beast hides below until they despatch it.” Livingstone then goes on to say:--“These Hippopotamus hunters form a separate people called Akombwi, or Mapodzo, and rarely--the women, it is said, never--intermarry with any other tribe. The reason for their keeping aloof from certain of the natives of the Zambesi is obvious enough, some having as great an abhorrence of Hippopotamus meat as Mohammedans have of swine’s flesh. Our pilot, Scissors, was one of this class; he would not even cook his food in a pot which had contained Hippopotamus meat, preferring to go hungry until he could find another, and yet he traded eagerly in the animals’ tusks, and ate with great relish the flesh of the foul-feeding Marabout.”

Sir Samuel Baker relates from personal observation the capture of a Hippopotamus with the harpoon above described. He says:--“At length we arrived at a large pool, in which were several sand-banks covered with rushes, and many rocky islands. Among these rocks was a herd of Hippopotami, consisting of an old bull and several cows; a young Hippo was standing, like an ugly little statue, on a protruding rock, while another infant stood upon its mother’s back that listlessly floated on the water. This was an admirable place for the hunters. They desired me to lie down, and they crept into the jungle out of view of the river. I presently observed them stealthily descending the dry bed about two hundred paces above the spot where the Hippos were basking behind the rocks. They entered the river, and swam down the centre of the stream towards the rock. This was highly exciting. The Hippos were quite unconscious of the approaching danger, as steadily and rapidly the hunters floated down the strong current; they neared the rock, and both heads disappeared as they purposely sank out of view; in a few seconds later they reappeared at the edge of the rock upon which the young Hippo stood. It would be difficult to say which started first, the astonished young Hippo into the water, or the harpoons from the hands of the howartis! It was the affair of a moment. The hunters dived directly they had hurled their harpoons, and swimming for some distance under water, they came to the surface, and hastened to the shore lest an infuriated Hippopotamus should follow them. One harpoon had missed; the other had fixed the bull of the herd, at which it had been surely aimed.

“This was grand sport! The bull was in the greatest fury, and rose to the surface, snorting and blowing in his impotent rage; but as the ambatch float was exceedingly large, and this naturally accompanied his movements, he tried to escape from his imaginary persecutor, and dived constantly, only to find his pertinacious attendant close to him upon regaining the surface. This was not to last long. The howartis were in earnest, and they at once called their party, who, with two of the aggageers, Abou Do and Suleiman, were near at hand. These men arrived with long ropes that form a portion of the outfit for Hippo hunting. The whole party now halted on the edge of the river, while two men swam across with one end of the long rope. Upon gaining the opposite bank, I observed that a second rope was made fast to the middle of the main line; thus upon our side we held the ends of two ropes, while on the opposite side they had only one. Accordingly, the point of junction of the two ropes in the centre formed an acute angle. The object of this was soon practically explained. Two men upon our side now each held a rope, and one of these walked about ten yards before the other. Upon both sides of the river the people now advanced, dragging the rope on the surface of the water until they reached the ambatch float that was swimming to and fro, according to the movements of the Hippopotamus below. By a dexterous jerk of the main line the float was now placed between the two ropes, and it was immediately secured in the acute angle by bringing together the ends of these ropes on our side. The men on the opposite bank now dropped their line, and our men now hauled in upon the ambatch float that was held fast between the ropes. Thus cleverly made sure, we quickly brought a strain upon the Hippo; and although I have had some experience in handling big fish, I never knew one pull so lustily as the amphibious animal that we now alternately coaxed and bullied.

“He sprang out of the water, gnashed his huge jaws, snorted with tremendous rage, and lashed the river into foam; he then dived, and foolishly approached us beneath the water. We quickly gathered in the slack line, and took a round turn upon a large rock within a few feet of the river.

“The Hippo now rose to the surface about ten yards from the hunters, and jumping half out of the water, he snapped his great jaws together, endeavouring to catch the rope, but at the same instant two harpoons were launched into his side.

“Disdaining retreat, and maddened with rage, the furious animal charged from the depths of the river, and gaining a footing, he reared his bulky form from the surface, came boldly upon the sandbank, and attacked the hunters open-mouthed. He little knew his enemy: they were not the men to fear a pair of gaping jaws, armed with a deadly array of tusks, but half a dozen lances were hurled at him, some entering his mouth from a distance of five or six paces; at the same time several men threw handfuls of sand into his enormous eyes. This baffled him more than the lances: he crunched the shafts between his powerful jaws like straws, but he was beaten by the sand, and, shaking his huge head, he retreated to the river. During his sally upon the shore, two of the hunters had secured the ropes of the harpoons that had been fastened in his body just before his charge. He was now fixed by three of these deadly instruments; but suddenly one rope gave way, having been bitten through by the enraged beast, who was still beneath the water. Immediately after this he appeared on the surface, and without a moment’s hesitation, he once more charged furiously from the water straight at the hunters, with his huge mouth open to such an extent that he could have accommodated two inside passengers. Suleiman was wild with delight, and springing forward lance in hand, he drove it against the head of the formidable animal, but without effect. At the same time, Abou Do met the Hippo sword in hand, reminding me of Perseus slaying the sea-monster that would devour Andromeda; but the sword made a harmless gash, and the lance, already blunted against the rocks, refused to penetrate the tough hide. Once more handfuls of sand were pelted upon his face, and again repulsed by this blinding attack, he was forced to retire to his deep hole, and wash it from his eyes. Six times during the fight the valiant bull Hippo quitted his watery fortress, and charged resolutely at his pursuers; he had broken several of their lances in his jaws; other lances had been hurled, and falling upon the rocks, they were blunted and would not penetrate. The fight had continued for three hours, and the sun was about to set; accordingly the hunters begged me to give him the _coup de grâce_, as they had hauled him close to the shore, and they feared he would sever the rope with his teeth. I waited for a good opportunity, when he boldly raised his head from the water about three yards from the rifle, and a bullet from the little Fletcher between the eyes closed the last act.”

Another interesting account is also given by Sir S. Baker of the capture of a Hippopotamus by means of the spear. The description conveys a good idea of the habits and wariness of these animals.

“Hippopotami had trodden a path along the margin of the river, as these animals came out to feed, shortly after dark, and travelled from pool to pool. Wherever a plot of tangled and succulent herbage grew among the shady nabbuks, there were the marks of the harrow-like teeth, that had torn and rooted up the rank grass like an agricultural implement.

“After walking about two miles, we noticed a herd of Hippopotami, in a pool below a rapid, where the rush of water had thrown up a bank of pebbles and sand. Our old Neptune did not condescend to bestow the slightest attention when I pointed out these animals--they were too wide awake; but he immediately quitted the river’s bed, and we followed him quietly behind the fringe of bushes upon the border, from which we carefully examined the water.

“About half a mile below this spot, as we clambered over the intervening rocks through a gorge which formed a powerful rapid, I observed, in a small pool just below the rapid, an immense head of a Hippopotamus close to a perpendicular rock that formed a wall to the river, about six feet above the surface. I pointed out the Hippo to old Abou Do, who had not seen it. At once the gravity of the old Arab disappeared, and the energy of the hunter was exhibited as he motioned us to remain, while he ran nimbly behind the thick screen of bushes for about a hundred and fifty yards below the spot where the Hippo was unconsciously basking, with his ugly head above the surface. Plunging into the rapid torrent, the veteran hunter was carried some distance down the stream, but breasting the powerful current, he landed upon the rocks on the opposite side, and retiring some distance from the river, he quickly advanced towards the spot beneath which the Hippopotamus was lying. I had a fine view of the scene as I was lying concealed exactly opposite the Hippo, who had disappeared beneath the water. Abou Do now stealthily approached the ledge of rock beneath which he had expected to see the head of the animal; his long sinewy arm was raised, with the harpoon ready to strike, as he carefully advanced. At length he reached the edge of the perpendicular rock. The Hippo had vanished, but far from exhibiting surprise, the old Arab remained standing on the sharp ledge, unchanged in attitude. No figure of bronze could have been more rigid than that of the old river king, as he stood erect upon the rock, with the left foot advanced, and the harpoon poised in his ready right hand, above his head, while in the left he held the loose coils of rope attached to the ambatch buoy. For about three minutes he stood like a statue, gazing intently into the clear and deep water beneath his feet. I watched eagerly for the reappearance of the Hippo. The surface of the water was still barren, when suddenly the right arm of the statue descended like lightning, and the harpoon shot perpendicularly into the pool with the speed of an arrow. What water fiend answered to the summons? In an instant an enormous pair of open jaws appeared, followed by the ungainly head and form of the furious Hippopotamus, who, springing half out of the water, lashed the river into foam, and, disdaining the concealment of the deep pool, he charged straight up the violent rapids. With extraordinary power he breasted the descending stream; gaining a footing in the rapids, about five feet deep, he ploughed his way against the broken waves, sending them in showers of spray upon all sides, and upon gaining broader shallows he tore along through the water, with the buoyant float hopping behind him along the surface, until he landed from the river, started at full gallop along the dry shingly bed, and at length disappeared in the thorny nabbuk jungle.”

“I never could have imagined that so unwieldy an animal could have exhibited such speed; no man would have had a chance of escape, and it was fortunate for our old Neptune that he was secure upon the high ledge of rock, for if he had been in the path of the infuriated beast, there would have been an end of Abou Do.

“The old man plunged into the deep pool just quitted by the Hippo, and landed upon our side, while in the enthusiasm of the moment I waved my cap above my head, and gave him a British cheer as he reached the shore. His usually stern features relaxed into a grim smile of delight; this was one of the moments when the gratified pride of the hunter rewards him for any risks. I congratulated him on his dexterity; but much remained to be done. I proposed to cross the river, and to follow upon the tracks of the Hippopotamus, as I imagined that the buoy and rope would catch in the thick jungle, and that we should find him entangled in the bush; but the old hunter gently laid his hand upon my arm, and pointed up the bed of the river, explaining that the Hippo would certainly return to the water after a short interval.

“In a few minutes later, at the distance of nearly half a mile, we observed the Hippo emerge from the jungle, and descend at full trot to the bed of the river, making direct for the first rocky pool, in which we had noticed the herd of Hippopotami. Accompanied by the old howarti (Hippo hunter), we walked quickly towards the spot; he explained to me that I must shoot the harpooned Hippo, as we should not be able to secure him in the usual method by ropes, as nearly all our men were absent from camp, disposing of the dead Elephants. Upon reaching the pool, which was about a hundred and thirty yards in diameter, we were immediately greeted by the Hippo, who snorted and roared as we approached, but quickly dived, and the buoyant float ran along the surface, directing his course in the some manner as the cork of a trimmer with a pike upon the hook. Several times he appeared, but as he invariably faced us, I could not obtain a favourable shot; I therefore sent the old hunter round the pool, and he, swimming the river, advanced to the opposite side, and attracted the attention of the Hippo, who immediately turned towards him. This afforded me a good chance, and I fired a steady shot behind the ear, at about seventy yards, with a single-barrelled rifle. He disappeared beneath the water at the shot. The crack of the ball and the absence of any splash from the bullet told me that he was hit; the ambatch float remained perfectly stationary upon the surface. I watched it for some minutes; it never moved. Several heads of Hippopotami appeared and vanished in different directions, but the float was still; it marked the spot where the grand old bull lay dead beneath.”

In addition to the ordinary means of harpooning, a harpoon is also used as a sort of trap, it being well known to the hunters that the Hippopotamus has certain roads or tracks which it habitually uses, preferring a quiet gully with tall trees and grass overhanging. The hunter finding such a road prepares a harpoon within six feet of a moderate-sized tree-trunk, to which he attaches heavy stones. Having found a suitable tree overhanging the path of the Hippopotamus, he throws the rope which is attached to the shaft of the harpoon round a branch, and hauls up his weighted instrument, having done which he drives a stake on one side of the path and turns the rope round it. He then drives another stake on the other side of the path, stretches his rope across, and fastens it to the other stake. The unsuspecting animal, taking his usual evening stroll, strikes his foot against the rope, which dislodging the stakes, the harpoon comes thundering down and the Hippopotamus is transfixed, to be found in the morning by the trapper, probably dead or dying, a long way from the scene of the trap.

Livingstone gives an account in his “African Travels” of a Hippopotamus captured by means of this trap, of whose working he was himself an eye-witness. He says that “both banks of the River Zambesi near the Mboma village are dotted with Hippopotamus traps, over every track which these animals have made in going up out of the water to graze. The Hippopotamus feeds on grass alone, and where there is any danger only at night. Its enormous lips act like a mowing-machine, and form a path of short-cropped grass as it feeds. We never saw it eat aquatic plants or reeds. The tusks seem weapons of both offence and defence. The Hippopotamus trap consists of a beam five or six feet long, armed with a spear-head, or hard-wood spike covered with poison, and suspended to a forked pole by a cord, which, coming down to the path, is held by a catch, to be set free when the beast treads on it. Being wary brutes, they are still very numerous. One got frightened by the ship as she was steaming close to the bank. In its eager hurry to escape it rushed on shore, and ran directly under a trap, when down came the heavy beam on its back, driving the poisoned spear-head a foot deep into its flesh. In its agony it plunged back into the river, to die in a few hours, and afterwards furnish a feast for the natives. The poison on the spear-head does not affect the meat, except the part around the wound, and that is thrown away. In some places the descending beam is weighted with heavy stones, but here the hard heavy wood is sufficient.”

The Hippopotamus is also captured by means of pitfalls placed in the animal’s tracks. The mouth of the pit is carefully concealed by means of boughs of trees, grass, rushes, &c. Usually two and sometimes three of these pits are dug in close proximity to each other, the extreme wariness of the Hippopotamus causing it to be suspicious of danger, and whilst carefully avoiding one trap it falls into another.

Sometimes these pits catch a very different kind of animal from that for which they were intended. A good story is told in a book of African travels of a Frenchman who had the misfortune to fall into one, and after spending the whole of the morning in getting out, whilst congratulating himself on his success, and brushing off the mud, he tumbled into another close by, from which he did not escape until late in the evening.

The Hippopotamus has been considered by travellers and naturalists to be of a mild and inoffensive disposition, retiring and shy in its habits, and unless provoked rarely attacking man. Probably this to a great extent is true of the animal, but numerous instances are recorded of most ferocious and quite unprovoked attacks, and when this is the case few animals are capable of showing such blind rage.

Canoes are sometimes overturned and crunched between the jaws of this powerful animal without any apparent reason, and even on dry land it occasionally attacks man. Sir S. Baker relates an account of a bull Hippopotamus attacking the proprietor of a melon-garden, and killing him by one crunch of his huge jaws; and Dr. Moffat, the father-in-law of Livingstone, speaks of a man being literally bitten in half by one which chased him on dry land. The Hippopotamus does not seem at all particular as to the size or nature of the objects it assaults, several instances having been recorded of its charging steamers. Sir S. Baker gives the following account of one of these onslaughts on the _Bahir Giraffe_:--“At one p.m., as we were steaming easily, I happened to be asleep on the poop-deck, when I was awakened by a shock, succeeded by the cry, ‘The ship’s sinking!’ A Hippopotamus had charged the steamer from the bottom, and had smashed several floats off her starboard paddle. A few seconds later he charged our diahbeeah, and striking her bottom about ten feet from the bow, he cut two holes through the iron plates with his tusks. On examination two clean holes were found punched through the iron as though driven by a sharp pickaxe.”

Another attack of this kind is also related by Sir S. Baker in a lake communicating with the White Nile, which for ferocity and pertinacity is probably unequalled. He says:--“The night was cold, and the moon clear and bright. Every one was wrapped up in warm blankets, and I was so sound asleep that I cannot describe more, until I was suddenly awoke by a tremendous splashing quite close to the diahbeeah, accompanied by the hoarse wild snorting of a furious Hippopotamus. I jumped up, and immediately perceived a Hippo, which was apparently about to attack the vessel. The main deck being crowded with people sleeping beneath their thick Mosquito-curtains, attached to the stairs of the poop-deck, and to the rigging in all directions, rendered it impossible to descend. I at once tore away some of the ties, and awakened the sleeping people. My servant, Suleiman, was sleeping next to the cabin door. I called to him for a rifle. Before the affrighted Suleiman could bring the rifle the Hippopotamus dashed at us with indescribable fury. With one blow he capsized and sank the zinc boat with its cargo of flesh. In another instant he seized the dingy in his immense jaws, and the crash of splintered wood betokened the complete destruction of my favourite boat. By this time Suleiman appeared from the cabin with an unloaded gun in his hand, and without ammunition. This was a very good man, but he was never overburdened with presence of mind; he was shaking so fearfully with nervousness, that his senses had entirely forsaken him. All the people were shouting and endeavouring to scare the Hippo, which attacked us without ceasing, with a blind fury that I have never witnessed in any animal except a Bulldog.

“By this time I had procured a rifle from the cabin, where they were always kept fixed in a row, loaded and ready for action, with bags of breech-loading ammunition on the same shelf. The movements of the animal were so rapid, as he charged and plunged alternately beneath the water in a cloud of foam and wave, that it was impossible to aim correctly at the small but fatal spot upon the head.

“The moon was extremely bright, and presently, as he charged straight at the diahbeeah, I stopped him with a No. 8 Reilly shell. To my surprise, he soon recovered, and again commenced the attack. I fired shot after shot at him without apparent effect.

“The diahbeeah rocked upon the waves raised by the efforts of so large an animal; this movement rendered the aim uncertain. At length, apparently badly wounded, he retired to the high grass; there he lay by the bank, at about twenty-five yards’ distance, snorting and blowing. I could not distinguish him, as merely the head was above water, and this was concealed by the deep shadow thrown by the high grass. Thinking he would die, I went to bed; but before this, I took the precaution to arrange a white paper sight upon the muzzle of my rifle, without which night shooting is very uncertain. We had fallen asleep; but in about half an hour we were awoke by another tremendous splash, and once more this huge beast came charging directly at us as though unhurt. In another instant he was at the diahbeeah; but I met him with a ball in the top of his head which sent him rolling over and over, sometimes on his back, kicking with his four legs above the surface, and again producing waves which rocked the diahbeeah. In this helpless manner he rolled for about fifty yards down the stream, and we all thought him killed.

“To our amazement he recovered, and we heard him splashing as he moved slowly along the river through the high grass by the left bank. Ultimately he was killed, and on making a _post-mortem_ the following morning, I found he had received three shots in the flank and shoulder, four in the head, one of which had broken his lower jaw, and another had passed through his nose, and passing downward, had cut off one of his large tusks.”

The uses to which the Hippopotamus can be applied cannot be considered as many; certainly the flesh is much eaten by the natives of Africa, and even by Europeans it is not to be despised, although travellers seem to disagree as to its merits. Cumming says the flesh is excellent eating, and Baker appears to agree with him, while Dr. Livingstone speaks of it as being pretty good food when one is hungry and can get nothing better, and that it is a coarse-grained meat, having something of the flavour between pork and beef. Probably the Hippopotamus is of considerable use in clearing the rivers of huge water-plants, which abound in African rivers, and which might otherwise in time so choke them up as to convert them from running streams to little else than swamps.

The whips made of Hippopotamus hide are in much request, and are highly esteemed in the neighbouring countries for their elasticity and durability; but the parts of the Hippopotamus most in request, especially by dentists, are the canine teeth, no other ivory keeping its colour so well.

THE LIBERIAN HIPPOPOTAMUS.--The second living species of Hippopotamus (_H. liberiensis_) is a much smaller animal than the common Hippopotamus; according to Dr. Morton, not being larger than a middle-sized heifer, though possessing the relative proportions of the common species. It rarely attains a weight exceeding four hundred pounds, or a quarter of a ton, as distinguished from the four tons’ weight of Obaysch of whom we have already spoken. One of the more important differences between them consists in the fact that the Liberian Hippopotamus possesses only two incisors in the lower jaw. A young animal belonging to this species was brought over to Great Britain in 1873, and is stated by Dr. Sclater to have been obtained on the West Coast, from the little Scarcies River. Unfortunately it died shortly after its arrival at the Zoological Gardens in Dublin.

* * * * *

The Hippopotamus ranged in the later Tertiary period far beyond its present home in the African rivers. In the Pliocene age it was very abundant in Italy, and has been met with as far north as Norfolk and Suffolk. In the succeeding, or Pleistocene age, also, it haunted the rivers of France and of England, having been found from the valley of the Ribble northwards. Its remains are from time to time dredged up from the bottom of the German Ocean, and are met with in the dens of Hyænas, as, for example, at Kirkdale, under conditions which prove that it fell a prey to the wild beasts then inhabiting the country. Strange to say, remains of this animal, now flourishing only under a tropical climate, are met with side by side with the remains of the Reindeer, which now flourishes only in a cold temperature, under circumstances which compel us to believe that both animals were living in the same region at approximately the same time. This singular fact can only be accounted for on the supposition that in those days the summer heat was great, and the winter cold severe, such as we find to be the case in Central Asia. These climatic extremes would allow of the same district being inhabited by these animals at different seasons of the year.

An extinct species of Hippopotamus (_Hexaprotodon_), which is characterised by the possession of six instead of four incisors in the upper and lower jaws; lived also in India in the later Tertiary age.

We have seen that at the present time Africa is inhabited by two kinds of Hippopotami, respectively of large and small size. We have also seen that in the Pleistocene age the larger animal inhabited Europe. It is a singular fact that abundant remains of a smaller fossil species, or Pentland’s Hippopotamus, should abound in the bone caves of Sicily, and that this dwarfed species should range from that island to Malta, Crete, and the Morea. It is closely allied to the Liberian species, although it is pretty clear that it differed from it in certain details, such as in the form of its molar teeth. A small species of Hippopotamus has been found fossil in Madagascar.

THE ANOPLOTHERES (ANOPLOTHERIDÆ).

Certain extinct animals living in the Eocene times, included by Cuvier in his division of the Pachyderms, and closely allied to the Hogs and Hippopotami, constitute the family of Anoplotheres. They were first revealed by the genius of Cuvier from the study of the remains discovered in the gypsum quarries at Montmartre; and they owe their name and their most distinguishing character to the fact that their teeth, which in all number forty-four, form an even, unbroken series, like those in man, the canines not standing out sharp and prominent above the rest, as in the case of the Carnivores and the Palæotheres found in association with them. These animals presented remarkable variations in size, some being as large as a Pony, while others were about the size of a Gazelle. They varied also in their proportions, some being heavily built, as in the restoration given above, while others were slender and elegant like the Antelopes. They are of peculiar interest, because they are the parent stock from which in succeeding geological ages the Ruminants are derived.

W. BOYD DAWKINS. H. W. OAKLEY.

FOOTNOTES:

[1] _Fissipedia._

[2] From the Greek, αἴλουρος, a Cat, and εἶδος, form.

[3] From κύων, a Dog.

[4] From ἄρκτος, a Bear.

[5]

Section I.--ÆLUROIDEA (Cat-like animals).

Family 1. _Felidæ_ (the Cat family).

_Examples_: Cat, Lion, Tiger, Leopard, Jaguar, Puma, Ocelot, Serval, Lynx, Cheetah, &c.

Family 2. _Hyænidæ_ (the Hyæna family), contains the Hyænas only.

Family 3. _Cryptoproctidæ_, the Cryptoprocta only.

Family 4. _Protelidæ_, the Aard-Wolf only.

Family 5. _Viverridæ_ (the Civet family).

_Examples_: Civet, Genette, Ichneumon, Suricate, Binturong, &c.

Section II.--CYNOIDEA (Dog-like animals).

Family 6. _Canidæ_ (the Dog family).

_Examples_: Dog, Wolf, Fox.

Section III.--ARCTOIDEA (Bear-like animals).

Family 7. _Ursidæ_ (the Bear family).

_Examples_: The various kinds of Bear.

Family 8. _Procyonidæ_ (the Racoon family).

_Examples_: Racoon, Coati, Kinkajou, Cacomixle.

Family 9. _Ailuridæ_, contains the Panda only.

Family 10. _Mustelidæ_ (the Weasel family).

_Examples_: Weasel, Stoat, Ferret, Badger, Skunk, Ratel, Glutton, Marten, Polecat, Otter.

[6] _Felidæ._

[7] _Felis leo._

[8] “Tower Menagerie.”

[9] Judges xiv. 5, 6.

[10] 1 Samuel xvii. 34-36.

[11] 2 Samuel xxiii. 20.

[12] Humboldt: “Views of Nature.”

[13] Livingstone.

[14] Mr. Bartlett, the able Superintendent of the Zoological Gardens.

[15] _Felis tigris._

[16] Sir Joseph Fayrer: “The Royal Tiger of Bengal: his life and death.”

[17] _Felis pardus._

[18] Sir James Emerson Tennent, “Sketches of the Natural History of Ceylon.”

[19] _Felis onca._

[20] “Naturalist’s Voyage.”

[21] _Felis concolor._

[22] A weapon used by the Gauchos, and consisting of three cords, knotted together at one end, and having each a ball or stone attached to the other. The smallest of these is held in the hand, and the Gaucho “whirls the other two round and round his head, then taking aim, sends them like chain shot rushing through the air.”

[23] _Felis uncia._

[24] _Felis macrocelis._

[25] _Felis pardalis._

[26] Buffon.

[27] _Felis marmorata._

[28] _Felis viverrina._

[29] _Felis pajeros._

[30] _Felis macrura._

[31] _Felis tigrina._

[32] _Felis ferox._

[33] Brehm.

[34] _Felis jaguarondi._

[35] _Felis eyra._

[36] _Felis serval._

[37] _Felis rubiginosa._

[38] _Felis bengalensis._

[39] Jerdon.

[40] _Felis aurata._

[41] _Felis torquata._

[42] Scott, quoted by Jerdon.

[43] _Felis manul._

[44] _Felis maniculata._

[45] _Felis catus._

[46] Brehm.

[47] _Felis domestica._

[48] Pennant, “British Zoology.”

[49] “Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals.”

[50] “Natural History of Selborne.”

[51] White’s “Selborne.”

[52] _Felis chaus._

[53] _Felis lynx._

[54] Tschudi, quoted by Brehm.

[55] _Felis pardina._

[56] _Felis canadensis._

[57] _Felis rufa._

[58] _Felis caracal._

[59] _Felis jubata._

[60] “Mammals of India.”

[61] _Hyænidæ._

[62] The dental formula is--incisors, (3-3)/(3-3), canines, (1-1)/(1-1), premolars, (4-4)/(3-3), molars, (1-1)/(1-1) = 34.

[63] _Lycaon._

[64] _Hyæna crocuta._

[65] Andersson.

[66] Harris.

[67] _Hyæna brunnea_ or _fusca_.

[68] _Hyæna striata._

[69] Canon Tristram.

[70] _Cryptoproctidæ._

[71] _Cryptoprocta ferox._

[72] _Protelidæ._

[73] _Proteles Lalandii._

[74] _Viverridæ._

[75] The dental formula is, therefore, incisors, (3-3)/(3-3), canines, (1-1)/(1-1), premolars, (4-4)/(4-4), molars, (2-2)/(2-2) = 40.

[76] _Viverra civetta._

[77] _Viverra Zibetha._

[78] _Viverra pallida_ seu _rasse_.

[79] _Genetta vulgaris._

[80] _Herpestes griseus._

[81] A plant allied to that which produces the well-known _nux vomica_. It is used by Indian physicians in fevers, and as an antidote to poisons.

[82] A tree allied to that which produces Peruvian bark. It is called the Mungo, or “Earth-gall,” by the Malays. It is also supposed to be an antidote to poisons.

[83] The “birth-wort.” It is used in India as a remedy for gout, and in England is given to Cows after calving.

[84] A tree allied to the acacias and to the sensitive plant.

[85] _Pharsalia_, lib. iv. 729.

[86] The nux vomica plant.

[87] _Urva cancrivora._

[88] _Paradoxurus musang._

[89] _Arctictis binturong._

[90] N.B.--The description of some members of the Viverridæ, or Civet family, has been inadvertently omitted from our chapter on that group, and will be found at the end of the article on the Land Carnivora (pp. 206-208).

[91] _Canidæ._

[92] _Canis familiaris._

[93] 2 Kings xvii. 31.

[94] Darwin’s “Animals and Plants under Domestication.”

[95] Youatt: “The Dog.”

[96] Darwin, “Animals and Plants under Domestication.”

[97] “Proceedings of the Zoological Society,” 1875.

[98] Darwin’s “Origin of Species.”

[99] Dr. Huggins, _Nature_, Vol VII.

[100] Youatt.

[101] Youatt.

[102] Darwin’s “Expression of the Emotions.”

[103] Moles.

[104] _Quarterly Journal of Science_, April, 1876.

[105] “St. Ronan’s Well.”

[106] From the _Globe_ newspaper.

[107] “Animal Depravity,” _Quarterly Journal of Science_, 1875.

[108] Quoted from the _Daily News_ in the article on “Animal Depravity” in the _Quarterly Journal of Science_ for 1875.

[109] See Sir Thomas Watson: “Hydrophobia and Rabies,” _Nineteenth Century_, December, 1877.

[110] Sir J. Richardson’s “_Fauna Boreali-Americana_.”

[111] Hayes, quoted by Jesse.

[112] Youatt.

[113] Tristram.

[114] Youatt.

[115] Youatt.

[116] “The Straits of Malacca, Indo-China, and China.”

[117] _Canis primævus._

[118] Williamson, quoted by Youatt.

[119] _Canis dingo._

[120] Youatt.

[121] Youatt.

[122] _Canis lupus._

[123] Virgil, Ec. ix., 53:--

“All, all forgotten now, those youthful lays; My voice will follow, ay, my voice decays; The Wolf hath eyed me first, hath Mœris eyed.”

[124] L. Énault, quoted by Brehm.

[125] Jesse: “History of the British Dog.”

[126] Richardson: “Fauna Boreali-Americana,” 1829.

[127] _Canis latrans._

[128] Richardson.

[129] _Canis aureus._

[130] _Canis vulpes._

[131] _Canis lagopus._

[132] _Canis zerda._

[133] _Megalotis Lalandii._

[134] The dental formula is, therefore, incisors, (3-3)/(3-3); canines, (1-1)/(1-1); premolars, (4-4)/(4-4); molars, (4-4)/(4-4) = 48.

[135] _Nycterentes procyonides._

[136] _Lycaon pictus._

[137] Gordon Cumming quoted by A. Murray: “Geographical Distribution of Mammals.”

[138] _Ursidæ._

[139] _Ursus arctos._

[140] “Lake ’Ngami.”

[141] _Ursus americanus._

[142] _Ursus ferox._

[143] _Ursus syriacus._

[144] _Ursus isabellinus._

[145] _Ursus tibetanus_ and _U._ (_Helarctos_) _malayanus_.

[146] Jerdon: “Mammals of India.”

[147] _Ursus_ (or _Melursus_) _labiatus_.

[148] Tickell, quoted by Jerdon.

[149] Tannent: “Ceylon.”

[150] _Ursus_ (or _Helarctos_) _ornatus_.

[151] _Ursus_ (or _Thalassarctos_) _maritimus_.

[152] R. Brown, quoted from “Arctic Manual.”

[153] Quoted by Jesse: “History of the British Dog.”

[154] _Procyonidæ._

[155] The dental formula is--Incisors, (3-3)/(3-3); canines, (1-1)/(1-1); premolars, (4-4)/(4-4); molars, (2-2)/(2-2) = 40.

[156] _Procyon lotor._

[157] _Nasua narica._

[158] _Cercoleptes caudivolvulus._

[159] _Bassaris astuta._

[160] _Ailuridæ._

[161] _Ailurus fulgens._

[162] _Mustelidæ._

[163] “Fur-bearing Animals: a Monograph of North American Mustelidæ.”

[164] _Gulo luscus._

[165] The dental formula is--Incisors, (3-3)/(3-3); canines, (1-1)/(1-1); premolars, (4-4)/(4-4); molars, (1-1)/(2-2) = 38.

[166] _Mustela martes._

[167] _Mustela Pennantii._

[168] _Mustela zibellina._

[169] Coues.

[170] _Putorius vulgaris._ The Weasel is very commonly referred to the genus _Mustela_, but this name properly belongs to the Martens.

[171] _Putorius erminca._

[172] _Putorius fœtidus._

[173] _Putorius furo._

[174] _Putorius lutreola_ and _P. vison_.

[175] _Galictes vittata._

[176] _Galictes barbara._

[177] _Mellivora capensis_ and _M. indica_.

[178] _Meles vulgaris._

[179] _The Times_, Oct. 24th, 1877.

[180] _Taxidea americana._

[181] _Mydaus meliceps._

[182] _Ictonyx zorilla._

[183] _Mephitis mephitica._

[184] Coues.

[185] _Mephitis (or Spilogale) putorius._

[186] _Mephitis (or Conepatus) mapurito._

[187] _Lutra vulgaris._

[188] The dental formula is--Incisors, (3-3)/(3-3); canines, (1-1)/(1-1); premolars, (4-4)/(3-3); molars, (1-1)/(2-2) = 36.

[189] “Malacca, Indo-China, and China.”

[190] _Lutra canadensis._

[191] _Pteronura Sandbachii._

[192] _Enhydra lutris._

[193] Dental formula--Incisors, (3-3)/(2-2); canines, (1-1)/(1-1); premolars, (3-3)/(3-3); molars, (1-1)/(2-2)=32.

[194] Capt. C. M. Scammon, “American Naturalist,” Vol. IV., 1870.

[195] H. W. Elliott, quoted by Coues, “Fur-bearing Animals.”

[196] The dental formula is--Incisors, (3-3)/(3-3); canines, (1-1)/(1-1); premolars, (2-2)/(2-2); molars, (1-1)/(1-1) = 28.

[197] The dental formula is--Incisors, (3-3)/(3-3); canines, (1-1)/(1-1); premolars, (4-4)/(4-4); molars, (3-3)/(3-3) = 44.

[198] “Les Enchaînements du Monde animal, dans les temps géologiques.” Paris, 1878.

[199] _Cynogale Bennettii._

[200] _Cynictis penicillata._

[201] _Crossarchus obscurus._

[202] _Suricata zenick._

[203] _Pinna_, a fin; _pes_, a foot.

[204] _Pinna_, a fin; _gradus_, a step.

[205] From the Greek, θρίξ, a hair, and ἔχω, I have.

[206] From the Greek, οὖς, ὠτός an ear.

[207] From the Greek, φώκη, a seal.

[208] _Trichechus rosmarus._

[209] _Otaria ursinus_, the genus _Callorhinus_ of certain authorities.

[210] _Otaria Stelleri_, the genus _Eumetopias_ of Gray and others.

[211] _Otaria Gilliespii._

[212] _Otaria Hookeri_, the genus _Arctocephalus_ and _Phocarctos_ of Gray.

[213] _Otaria albicollis_, the _Neophoca lobata_ of Gray.

[214] _Otaria jubata._

[215] _Otaria falklandica_, placed under the genus _Arctophoca_ by Peters, and _Euotaria_ by Gray.

[216] _Otaria pusilla_, the _Arctocephalus antarticicus_ of Gray.

[217] _Otaria Forsteri_, the _Gypsophoca tropicalis_ of Gray.

[218] _Otaria (Euotaria) cinerea._

[219] _Phoca vitulina_, the genus _Callocephalus_ of some authorities.

[220] _Phoca fœtida, or Phoca hispida_; the genus _Pagomys_ of Gray.

[221] _Phoca groelandica_; the genus _Pagophilus_ of Gray.

[222] _Phoca barbata._

[223] _Halichœrus gryphus._

[224] _Monachus albiventer._

[225] _Cystophora cristata._

[226] _Macrorhinus elephantinus_; the genus _Morunga_ of Gray.

[227] _Ommatophoca Rossii._

[228] _Stenorhynchus leptonyx._

[229] _Stenorhynchus (Leptonyx) Weddellii._

[230] _Lobodon carcinophaga._

[231] _Platanista gangetica._

[232] _Inia Geoffrensis._

[233] _Pontoporia Blainvillii._

[234] _Z. cavirostris._

[235] _Z. indicus._

[236] _M. Sowerbiensis._

[237] _Berardius Arnouxi._

[238] _Hyperoodon rostratus._

[239] _Physeter macrocephalus._

[240] _Kogia breviceps_; the _Physeter simus_ of Owen.

[241] _K. (Euphysetes) Grayii_ of MacLeay.

[242] _Globiocephalus melas._

[243] _Grampus griseus._

[244] _Phocœna communis._

[245] _Orca gladiator._

[246] _Delphinus delphis._

[247] _D. tursio._

[248] _Beluga leucas._

[249] _Monodon monoceros._

[250] _Balæna mysticetus._

[251] _Megaptera_; μέγας, great, and πτερόν, fin.

[252] _Rhachianectes glaucus_ of Cope.

[253] _Balænoptera_; φάλαινα, a whale, and πτερόν, fin.

[254] _Rhytina Stelleri._

[255] _Halicore dugong._

[256] παχὺς, thick; δέρμα, skin.

[257] _Elephas indicus._

[258] _Graphic_, June 12, 1875.

[259] _Elephas africanus._

[260] From the Latin _unguis_, _ungula_, a hoof.

[261] περισσός, uneven; δάκτυλος, toe.

[262] ἄρτιος, even; δάκτυλος, toe.

[263] _Tapirus americanus._

[264] _Tapirus villosus._

[265] _Tapirus malayanus._

[266] _Philosophical Transactions_, xlii.

[267] _Rhinoceros Oswellii._

[268] The numbers in each figure refer to the digits, the thumb being always absent. The seven square-shaped bones above the digits in each figure constitute the wrist or carpus. Above these are the large radius, and the small ulna in some.

[269] ἀ, without; ὀπλή, a hoof; θηρίον, wild beast; wild beast without hoof.

[270] _Sus scrofa._

[271] _Sus scrofa_ (Indian variety).

[272] _Phacochœrus Ælianus._