Part 2
In selecting an oval piece for working, care should be taken to get one without flaw. This is a difficult matter, and requires a great deal of experience. Beginners should select pieces tolerably smooth; but practised workers prefer those which are irregular in their surface, because they furnish more scope for the exercise of their skill. In cutting these, the design follows the convolution of the shell. It is dangerous to lower any one portion, because the white surface does not preserve the same relative thickness all over the piece; and unless care is taken the ground will show through. This is not a disadvantage in the ear or the neck, but would be serious if it was apparent on the forehead or in the cheek. A skilful Cameo-cutter will, however, so arrange his design as to produce the blush of the ground in such portions as to enhance the value of his work. In drawing the face, avoid, if possible, the rough, rotten-looking patches. These are signs of decay which may only be superficial, and disappear at the first cut; but, on the contrary, they are more likely to penetrate deeply, and may necessitate the lowering of the whole face before they can be got rid of altogether.
Sometimes, when the face has been modelled, and nothing remains but the finishing, a crooked line appears, which Cameo-cutters believe is caused by the presence of a worm in the early development of the shell. This is very difficult to get rid of; hence extreme care is necessary in selecting the piece for working.
A third fault is “flaking,” when, by a single cut, the whole of the forehead chips off, or half the nose disappears. There is no remedy then; the whole face must be cut in low relief, or the piece be thrown aside altogether; the latter is often the more preferable course. But all these risks are minimised by experience. Having got a satisfactory piece mounted, the Stick is held in the left hand, and the face drawn upon it in lead-pencil, a little larger than the size actually required.
If a whole shell is to be carved, care must be taken in the first instance to cleanse it. To do this, get a small quantity of muriatic acid and wash with a brush; this will bring away all the dirt; then add to some fresh muriatic acid hot water, immerse the shell for one or two minutes; then rinse the shell in cold water.
Holtzaffpel, referring to the outlining of the design, recommends that every portion be left rather in excess, so that there may be ample room for improving the outline in finishing off. Be very careful not to injure the ground, as the natural surface is superior to any that can be given artificially.
Drawing the Design.
Beginners should draw the design or figure first upon a piece of paper, or model it in clay or wax, and then draw the pattern upon the shell.
If the surface of the shell is irregular, do not attempt to make it level, but follow the irregularities, remembering that the white stratum is of the same thickness all through the piece, and that if the surface is filed down the ground will show through, disfiguring the appearance of the design, and preventing the pattern being modelled in proper proportions. When the design is settled upon, copy it on the shell with the help, if necessary, of a star, as in the head (Fig. 2). Draw the outline slightly larger than the design, so as to allow of the proper proportions being secured on cutting. Skilful Cameo engravers never use a pencil, but sketch the desired outline with one or other of the cutting-tools; and many of them could not draw the figure on a piece of paper which they readily cut with their tools.
The Tools.
There are at present none specially made for the use of the Cameo engraver in England, but all that are required may be selected from those kept in stock for the use of engravers.
Mr. G. Buck, 242 Tottenham Court Road, London, W., keeps the tools most suitable for Cameo-work separate, and can supply them on request. They are of two kinds, round and flat Scawpers and Spit-stickers, and cost, handled, 3d. each. To these may be added a Fine File, and the stock is complete, exhibiting in this respect a striking contrast to the price of tools necessary for practising many other useful arts. The Round Scawpers are used for first cutting the figure and developing the several parts, the Flat Scawpers for smoothing the work, and the Spit-sticker for putting in the finishing touches.
The following diagrams show the exact size of the several tools:--
The following diagrams show the Flat and Round Scawper, handled, and sections of each (Figs. 4 and 4a, 5 and 5a).
The Use of the Holdfast.
The piece of shell having been mounted on a Stick, a grip is wanted in which to hold the Stick with the left hand, while work is carried on with the right hand. This may be obtained by using a piece of wood, like that in the illustration (Fig. 6), and screwing it to the top of a wooden table, so that the notch is projected a couple of inches in advance of the edge of the table; or, if no special table is available, a Holdfast should be purchased, such as is shown in Fig. 6. This is screwed to the edge of a table from below, and fits any kind of table, leaving no mark whatever. The price of a Holdfast varies from 1s. to 2s. 6d., and the article may be purchased at any tool-shop. A simpler form of Holdfast may be obtained by purchasing an iron screw-clip, which may be had from any ironmonger, and getting a notched piece of wood, as shown in the above cut, and this is considered preferable by many as furnishing a steadier grip while work is going on.
Process of Working.
Whatever may be the figure or pattern to be cut, the process is the same with respect to the handling of the tools. The wooden handle lies in the palm of the right hand, and all the power is imparted by the palm. As the material operated upon is almost as hard as marble, power is required to make a cut; but if the tools are well-tempered and very sharp, a little experience will soon teach the cutter how to work. The thumb of the right hand should be protected by a finger-stall from injury by the edge of the tool. In the illustration (Fig. 7) the method of holding the stick is shown in conjunction with the method of holding the tool. The thumb of the left hand rises the height of the nail above the top of the Stick; against this the thumb of the right hand is placed, which furnishes the necessary resistance to the power created by the palm of the right hand; the finger and thumb then direct the cut which is to be made by the Scawper.
Supposing the figure drawn to be a face, cut outline with tool Fig. A; block out and model features roughly with D; form ornaments on head and outline hair with C; develop more clearly with A and B. The face can next be prepared with C, by one cut from brow to nose, and another from nose to chin. With B separate the hair from the forehead, outline the ear, divide the mouth and nose from the cheek by an upward cut to the eyebrow; from the corner of the nose cut a triangle--this will form the eye. Make two cuts for nostril and chin; midway between these another cut will mark the mouth; sink the neck, outline the collar and dress; the face is then “roughed.” The eye, nostrils, and mouth are cut with B, and further developed with A. The hair is divided into masses with B, separated into tresses with A, the whole sharply cut with the Spit-sticker G, and finally smoothed with E and F.
When the whole face has been roughed, it is interesting to watch a Cameo engraver at work. With a Scawper in his hand, he makes cuts all over the face, indents the cheek, smooths the ear, fashions the nostrils, lowers the nose, works at the mouth, forms the lips, cuts the chin, rounds the little triangle which contains the eye, marks the arrangement of the hair with a cut here and there, trims the beard, and so passes over the whole face again and again, bringing every portion into harmony before finishing any one feature. After the triangle has been duly rounded, and the eyebrow formed, a single cut separates the two lids of the eye, and lowers the eyeball at the same moment. When the eye is open the likeness is complete; a portrait becomes apparent when the nose and mouth are cut, but the fashioning of the eye is necessary to make it perfect. The ear and hair play important parts in completing the face. To fashion the hair requires a great amount of skill, and the beginner is timid in making cuts, but is aided in forming the curved tresses by turning the Stick with the left hand to meet the Scawper used in the right hand. A fine Scawper is necessary to cut the whiskers and beard, and the cuts should be short and curved. When the whole face has been modelled to the satisfaction of the worker, the third process begins--that of Finishing. In this operation the Spit-sticker plays a very important part. The upper eyelid is under-cut, which adds very much to the appearance of the eye; the hair is also traversed by the Spit-sticker, as well as the beard, and the tool smooths while it cuts. Finally, a Flat Graver is used to smooth forehead, cheeks, nose, and chin, taking out all marks of cuts, and softening the appearance of the whole. The hand soon becomes accustomed to the use of the tools, and the timid cut of the learner is exchanged for the graceful and vigorous stroke of the artist.
Holtzaffpel impresses upon all Cameo engravers the importance of cutting all the edges of the figure quite square from the ground, and not gradually rounding them down to the surface. This is effected by under-cutting the edge where it rests upon the ground.
Let the beginner try a few floral outlines such as shown in Figs. A, B, and C.
When sufficient progress has been made to justify attempting to cut a face, the learner should begin with separate features--the ear, the mouth, the nose, or the eye, as in the following sketches:--
Or the features alone, as below:--
The next stage would be to form a head complete; and the following would be suitable for trial. The hair will require a considerable amount of care at first, but by perseverance all difficulties vanish; and when the features can be cut to the satisfaction of the engraver, then a whole face should be tried where no likeness is necessary.
Before attempting any portion of a face, one who is learning should first cut a few simple patterns, such as the following, which would serve as buttons for the mantle which is worn. The tools should be used in the order given for the several processes already mentioned.
The faces below will give an idea of the effect produced by the process of “roughing;” and the same face when finished off.
The depth of white upon a piece of shell is insufficient to cut a face in relief, except for very small heads, which would be quite beyond the skill of a beginner. There is a beauty as well as character in the profile completely lost in the full face; yet photographers are greatly disinclined to make a _carte-de-visite_ of the profile.
Working by Night.
If the work is done at night, an Engraver’s glass is requisite in order to concentrate the light without glare upon the shell. There are two kinds of these glasses; one is filled with water in which sulphate of copper is dissolved, and clarified with oil of vitriol; the other, which costs 10s., consists of a large green glass eye, which moves up and down a brass rod, and is screwed to the required height. This is the better glass to use, as the oil of vitriol, however much diluted, would, by the accidental breakage of the globe, cause the destruction of any carpet over which the liquid ran. But no glass is required during the day-time, and no artificial light is equal to the natural light of day; work should therefore be confined to hours before dark.
Polishing.
When the face or figure has been finished, the ground must be cleared for polishing. Great care must be taken during the work not to cut down into the natural ground, marks being very difficult to efface. Use the Round Scawper to remove the white, and then the Flat tool to remove all traces of the white. Next cut up a bit of firewood into small lengths, point each length, and rub the surface of the Cameo with powdered pumice-stone and water, then wash with warm water and soap, with the aid of a nail-brush. With a fresh piece of wood, rub the ground with pumice-powder and oil until the surface is perfectly smooth and without a trace of cut or mark of any kind; wash once more, then apply the final polish. Take a fresh bit of wood, and mix on a plate as much dust of Rotten-Stone as will lie on a shilling, with a few drops of Sulphuric Acid, forming a yellow paste. Rub a small portion of the ground at a time, and remove the paste while still wet; if the paste is allowed to dry, it destroys the texture of the ground. After the ground has been gone over, rinse the Cameo in cold water. To remove the shell from the Stick, cut away the cement from the edge, then hold the Stick upright against the edge of a table, and give it a smart rap with a small hammer; the Cameo will slip off the top unhurt.
Sharpening the Tools.
The Cameo-worker should always have a small oilstone at hand, and a few rapid strokes will restore the fine cutting edge of his tool, but the tool must be held the reverse way of working when applied to the oilstone. Hold the tool with the cutting edge downwards on the oilstone, at the same angle as a pen is held for writing, and move rapidly to and fro five or six times; this will restore the edge immediately.
Cost of Appliances.
Holdfast or Clip, from 6d. to 2s. 6d.; four Rounded and two Flat Scawpers, 1s. 6d.; one Spit-sticker, 3d.; one File, 3d.; Cake of Cement, 1d.; Broom-handle, 2d.; one dozen pieces of Shell, various sizes, 5s.; Oilstone, 1s. to 2s.
If the cost of the tools is compared with the expenditure necessary on many occupations to which thousands devote their talents in spare hours, it will be admitted that Cameo-cutting carries the palm for cheapness. When it is further considered that this may be resorted to for an hour at any time, and does not involve the use of any machinery for its pursuit, nor the exclusive possession of any special table; while it is absolutely free from any dirt or dust injurious to furniture, to the carpet, or to the dress; that it is not trying to the sight, and not attended with risk to the hands, it must be apparent that in Cameo-cutting an occupation is presented which has undoubted claims to consideration. All who engage in the art become fascinated by the results which are obtained. Children of tender years quickly become absorbed in the work, which not only trains the eye and the hand, but elevates and corrects the taste. To what more pleasant use could a child put the knowledge it has gained at school? But it is not principally as an occupation for children that Cameo-cutting should be considered. Between the simple forms which a child may cut and the classic groups, such as abound, there is scope for the exercise of every degree of talent. There are artists in Cameo now in Rome and Paris whose touches are readily identified whatever they treat, in the same way that the strokes of a famous sculptor are recognised.
Decline in the Fashion of Wearing Cameos.
There were two principal causes for the decline of fashion in the wearing of Cameos in England. The first arose from paucity of designs; and the second from the bad workmanship engendered by overwhelming orders being thrust upon a market in which only a limited number of operatives were engaged. With regard to the first cause, modern Cameo-cutters found no other models than those which had been handed down from the times of the ancient workers in gems. The cutters were copyists merely, not true artists, and modern taste was not satisfied with the representation of classic deities, however daintily wrought. There was no variety in the pose of figure, and the minutest detail was settled one or two thousand years before. Thus Apollo, Diana, Jupiter, Mercury, Sappho, and Venus were represented in precisely the same manner they had been a thousand times before, and the Cameo worn by a noble lady only differed in the quality of execution from that worn by a greengrocer’s daughter.
How the sudden demand for Cameos arose it is difficult to say, but orders were poured into Paris houses, and the little colony of Italian and French workers found themselves unexpectedly flooded with wealth. They were men possessed of most skilful hands, but very ignorant and untutored economists, and they worked hard for a portion of the week only, and too often shut themselves up in low wine-houses, and with cards and dominoes whiled away their time. Their wages were soon exhausted by drink and gambling; and when masters wanted workmen, they had first to settle the scores they had run up, for the payment of which the landlords detained them. The natural result followed, the quality of work deteriorated, and prices fell considerably; then houses undersold each other, and Cameos were cut at per dozen instead of per piece. When the Franco-German war commenced the Cameo trade was at its lowest point, and the outbreak of hostilities dispersed the major number of the workers.
Now that the Cameo is again coming into favour, there has been produced an imitation in some hard vitreous substance, which is constantly palmed off as the genuine article to careless purchasers. I bought two of these imitation Cameos in a jeweller’s shop for a few pence one day; they were both mounted and pinned for brooches. One, which was an imitation stone Cameo, bore Raphael’s angels--those lovely little figures which appear at the foot of the “Madonna and Infant Christ” now in Dresden. This measures one by one and a half inches. The other was an oval, measuring one and a half by one and three-quarter inches, bearing the head of Ceres, and was an imitation shell Cameo. In this piece the ground was coloured yellow, and in exact imitation of a real piece of shell, the colour increased in depth of shading from the face to the back of the head. The face only was white, and the ornaments about the hair, three ears of corn, five roses, five forget-me-nots, tress on the neck, and necklet of pearls were in exact imitation of the well-known face. I have seen cards on which half-a-dozen “Real Roman Cameos” were mounted exhibited in shop windows, and the price asked was 2s. 6d. each. These scandalous imitations of lovely ornaments will only be superseded when English workers send into the market the genuine articles.
Cameo-Cutting Highly Recommended.
The question of the pursuit of Cameo-cutting as an industrial occupation for ladies was probably first suggested by Mrs. Henry Mackarness, the well-known authoress of “A Trap to Catch a Sunbeam,” who strongly recommended the art of Cameo-cutting in shell to the notice of ladies. In an admirable work entitled “The Young Lady’s Book,” published in 1876, she thus speaks of the work:--
“It is sufficiently simple to be within the scope of many who possess taste, patience, and deft fingers.... It cannot be acquired without some instruction, and considerable perseverance; but the instruction is within reach, and the perseverance will be amply repaid by the results.” This Cameo-cutting will “give young ladies a new and elegant pursuit.” It will “raise their thoughts from knitting and netting, and cultivate a taste for higher pursuits.... It can be practised with half-a-dozen small tools that take up scarcely any room; and, with a little care and instruction, the art can be readily acquired. Some knowledge of figure-drawing is necessary, and a correct eye; and it is needless to say that the more skilful the artist in this respect, the better her Cameo-work is likely to be.” The _Queen_ was the first paper to devote a special illustrated supplement to the question.
The _Lady_, the _Jewish World_, the _Housewife_, the _Manchester Courier_, and other papers as widely separated in their pursuits and politics, have urged the consideration of this work upon public attention.
“In the _Society of Arts Journal_, eighteen months ago”--we quote from the _Jewish World_--“a paper read by Mr. Marsh before that Society was published at length, and copied into journals far and near. Almost at once the work was tried by ladies who had a knowledge of modelling and of wood-carving, and the results obtained furnish the highest possible expectation that in the near future this fascinating art will find a home amongst the ladies of England. There is no machinery required; no dust or dirt is created; there is no risk of soiling dress or carpet; and it is not at all trying to the sight; while the prospects of remuneration are of the brightest possible character. There are an enormous number of Cameos worn as pins, brooches, ear-rings, finger-rings; and the uses to which the Cameo could be put are infinite--as, for instance, for buttons, or for insetting into book-covers, or for wall ornaments. The old fashion was to wear vulgarly large brooches, with heads of abnormal size, so as to show as much ornamentation as possible; but the new fashion is to make them small, and to cut modern figures, rejecting those classic heads associated at times with most questionable stories. Why ever should ladies run after the face of Venus or Juno? Is there not as much beauty and infinitely more poetry to be got out of the faces of Rebekah or Ruth? Why should men wear Jupiter or Apollo in preference to Moses or David? Surely all that art can ever impart would fail to exhaust the tenderness or the grandeur that could be embodied in one of these faces.”