Part 1

_DARTON’S MANUALS FOR HOME WORK._

CAMEO CUTTING

BY

AUTHOR OF “THE REFERENCE SHAKESPEARE,” “VENICE AND THE VENETIANS,” ETC.

With Original Illustrations.

LONDON: WELLS GARDNER, DARTON, & CO. 2 PATERNOSTER BUILDINGS, E.C. AND 44 VICTORIA STREET, WESTMINSTER, S.W.

Dedicated

[_BY GRACIOUS PERMISSION_]

TO

HER ROYAL HIGHNESS THE _PRINCESS LOUISE, MARCHIONESS OF LORNE_,

WHOSE INTEREST IN TECHNICAL EDUCATION IS GRATEFULLY ACKNOWLEDGED.

INTRODUCTION.

The art of cutting Cameos in shell is of so very recent birth, compared with that of working in precious stones, that a claim to consideration in setting forth the method and practice may justly be preferred. Yet my little treatise, which is based upon practical experience, has been found, even in more limited form, a sufficient guide for the practice of the art, by a large number of amateurs in England, Wales, and Switzerland, to produce good work; these were all of them skilled in the use of the brush, the pencil, or the chisel. To all similarly proficient in any department of art, Cameo-cutting will be found a pleasant and interesting employment.

CONTENTS.

PAGE SHELL CAMEO-CUTTING 11

SHELL CAMEOS IN THE MUSEUMS 19

APPEARANCE OF THE CONCH-SHELL 19

ADAPTABILITY OF THE ART 22

COST OF PIECES OF SHELL 25

CARVED PUMICE-STONE 26

MOUNTING PIECES OF SHELL 26

DRAWING THE DESIGN 29

THE TOOLS 30

THE USE OF THE HOLDFAST 32

PROCESS OF WORKING 34

WORKING BY NIGHT 41

POLISHING 41

SHARPENING THE TOOLS 42

COST OF APPLIANCES 43

DECLINE IN THE FASHION OF WEARING CAMEOS 44

CAMEO-CUTTING HIGHLY RECOMMENDED 47

DERIVATION OF THE WORD “CAMEO” 51

A TEACHER AT WORK 55

LESSONS BY CORRESPONDENCE 57

IS THERE A MARKET? 58

DESIGNS 60

HANDBOOK

TO

CAMEO-CUTTING.

Shell Cameo-Cutting.

The discovery of the adaptation of the Conch-shell to the art of the Cameo engraver is traceable no farther back than the beginning of the reign of Her Gracious Majesty the Queen. The working of Cameos in precious stones, however, goes back beyond the earliest historical records; history contains no reference to the beginning or progress of the development. Tradition declares that the art was of Asiatic origin, and that it was practised by the Babylonians, from whom the Phœnicians carried it into Egypt. Thence the progress of the work is clearly traced to Greece and Italy, and in our own time to France and England. Those who have practised Cameo engraving in England may be numbered on the fingers of one hand. But it is not with the carving of precious stones this handbook deals, but with the youngest of all the processes discovered in connection with the production of the Cameo, that of working the beautiful Conch-shell.

The use of this shell for the purpose of Cameo-cutting was first practised in Italy, about the year 1820, and it was then believed to be of Sicilian origin. For many years all the shells used were exported from England, and the number averaged about three hundred per annum; these were valued at 30s. each. They soon became a favourite medium in Rome with the workmen, and the art was taken thence to Paris, where it flourished. In 1847 the sale of shells was reported to have reached 100,500, and their declared value was £8900, while the Cameos which were produced were estimated to be worth at least £40,000.

The prices of shells have since been very much reduced owing to an increased importation, so that shells of great beauty may now be purchased for 10s.; while they may be had in quantities as low as 1s. 6d. each. Choice black shells, however, still command a higher price.

The colour of the ground in these shells varies from pink and orange to an absolute black: this is called the Black Helmet (_Cassis Tuberosa_), and comes from the West Indian Seas. The shell with a pink ground is called the Queen Conch (_Strombus Gigas_), and is also brought from the West Indies. A favourite variety is the Bull’s Mouth (_Cassis Rufa_), found in the East Indian Seas, which has a sard-like ground. Another class is the Horned Helmet (_Cassis Cornuta_), which is brought from Madagascar; in this the ground is dark claret in colour. Occasionally shells are made use of having three layers, the upper, always dark-coloured, serving for the hair, or a wreath, or for armour; the second layer, which is always white, is used for carving the figure; and the third layer is the ground.

Messrs. Francati & Santamaria,[1] of Hatton Garden, were the largest and almost the only dealers in shells for Cameo work in the Metropolis, and they cut them up to the exact size required for engraving. I have seen in their cellars many thousands of Conch-shells brought from foreign seas for the purpose of being cut up for export to Italy or Paris. Mr. Santamaria, upon one occasion, showed me a magnificent Black Helmet shell, which he said was the only one that had been discovered out of about ten thousand. A shell of ordinary size only produces, on being cut up, three or four large workable pieces, and these are worth from 3s. to 5s. each; but the Bull Mouth, of small size, may be purchased for a shilling. A face or figure engraved upon a shell looks well, particularly when the taste of the artist enables him to cover every knob with figures, and form an appropriate border of leaves round the whole; even the circles round the apex of the shell lend themselves to ornamentation, and shells carved all over are much sought after. An experienced workman will often employ his leisure in covering a large shell with work in this way. In the centre he places the principal design, always a classic figure or group of figures, and around, such ornamentation as his taste approves. One of these, cut in Hatton Garden, was sold recently for a hundred guineas; and another, almost entirely cut by Mr. W. King, a young Englishman then in the employment of Messrs. Francati & Santamaria, sold for £80.

[1] Partnership now dissolved.

The most celebrated Cameo engraver of modern times was Benedetto Pistrucci, who designed the “George and Dragon” of our coinage, which is acknowledged to be the finest work that has ever appeared in modern currency. Of himself he says that he was in a manner born to the work he took up from choice, and he mentions in proof of this that he had square thumbs, and the palm of his right hand was covered with horny skin. This had been a characteristic with certain of the males in the family for several generations. He was the son of a judge, and was born at Rome in May 1784. His eldest brother was a painter, and every member of the family was endowed with artistic tastes. Italy, in his youth, was overrun by the French, which caused his parents to make frequent changes of residence. At fourteen years of age, being then proficient in drawing, he was first put to a master, one Signor Mango, who, perceiving his genius, employed him to make designs for his Cameos. This provoked much jealousy among the other workmen, one of whom stabbed Benedetto with a dagger. During his illness he amused himself by modelling the figures he drew, and so perfected himself in the stages necessary for becoming a thorough artist; less than this in training will only make a workman. Upon his recovery he was sent to two masters in succession, the second of whom, noticing the superiority of his designs, exclaimed, “With one who has genius there is very little for a master to teach.” At sixteen years of age he began work on his own account; and, after a brief courtship, at eighteen years of age, married a girl of sixteen, of gentle family. There were born to them two daughters, Victoria and Eliza, and one son, Vincenzio. Eliza and her brother were endowed with the paternal characteristic, a horny palm, and became celebrated as workers in Cameo. At twenty-four years of age Benedetto had succeeded in establishing a reputation as an engraver of precious stones, having taught himself the process, and constructed with his own hands the wheel with which he worked. For several years he had sold Cameos worked in stones to one Angelo Bonelli, a travelling dealer in gems; and discovering one day that a specimen of his work had been stained to represent an antique, and sold for a high price, he resolved for the future to place a secret mark upon those he sold. On one of these, the head of Flora, he cut two Greek letters in the hair. The condition of Italy at that time induced him to consider the advantage of proceeding to England; but before emigrating he executed several orders for one of Napoleon’s sisters, one portrait being cut in stone, much smaller than a fly. Pistrucci brought to London a letter of introduction to Mr. Konig, mineralogist of the British Museum, and by Lord Fife he was introduced to Sir Joseph Banks. The latter afterwards introduced him to Mr. Payne Knight, who produced at their interview what he called the finest Greek Cameo in existence, a most choice gem, a fragment of the head of Flora, for which he had paid Bonelli 500 guineas. Pistrucci did not even take the stone from the extended palm of Mr. Knight; a glance disclosed the fact that it was that head of Flora in whose hair he had cut two Greek letters, and for which Bonelli had paid him £5. An unpleasant scene resulted. The letters were plainly visible; but Bonelli, realising that his trade was at an end, boldly denounced Pistrucci. He pointed to the wreath of flowers about the head in proof of his conceit that it was an antique, asserting that no such flowers were then in existence; but Sir Joseph Banks, examining them with a microscope, exclaimed, “The flowers are roses, as I am a botanist!” Pistrucci offered to carve another Flora exactly similar without looking again at the “antique.” This challenge was not accepted. Then it was agreed that he should cut a head of Flora in a different position, and this was accepted as a test of the truth of his representations. The story soon spread through London society; noblemen, scientific men, ladies of rank, watched the growth of the new Flora under the hands of Pistrucci, and when it was completed the dispute raged with increased bitterness, so that Payne Knight’s antique Flora became the question of the day. The controversy at length ended with universal expressions of sympathy for Mr. Payne Knight.[2]

[2] See title-page.

This stone may be seen in the Gold Ornament Room at the British Museum. It is placed in the case of “Modern Engraved Gems,” upon which stands the Alabaster vase engraved with the name of Xerxes, and is in the bottom row of the case. The face is exquisitely beautiful, and the roses which are cut in the upper coloured layer of the stone are perfect. An attendant will point out this Flora to any one who asks for it.

Pistrucci upon one occasion, while still residing in Rome, had an antique pale-brown sard given him to recut by Domenico Desalief. The subject was a warrior crowned by a female, but so clumsily executed as to be of little value. There was, however, plenty of material to cut away. After taking an impression in wax, he altered the whole; then he cut away the knees of the figures, and recut them higher up, and so remodelled the design that not a trace was left of the original forms. The dealer was delighted, and sold the gem readily for the Imperial Russian Cabinet of St. Petersburg, where it still remains, and is regarded as of the highest value.

The dispute about the Flora indirectly brought about Pistrucci’s appointment to the Mint as chief engraver, and he designed and executed the “George and Dragon” among other works. Afterwards a considerable amount of jealousy was created by his employment amongst the officers of the Mint, and the members of the Royal Academy were divided about his appointment, one portion insisting that native talent should be encouraged, the other division holding that he was the best living engraver. To restore peace, his appointment was subsequently styled that of “chief medallist.” He cut two portraits of Her Majesty in onyx, one as Princess, and the other as Queen wearing a diadem. On retiring from the Mint he took a cottage at Old Windsor, where he died in his seventy-first year, in 1855, only thirty-five years ago, and recently enough for him to be well remembered by a few living men. His connection with our own day, and the distinction to which one of his pupils has risen, justify the introduction of his name into this book. His daughters, before their father’s death, returned to Rome, where they practised Cameo-cutting with great success.

Shell Cameos in the Museums.

There are in the collections shown in the Mediæval Room of the British Museum several fine specimens of shell Cameos which date from mediæval times, but these shells were found in the Mediterranean; and at South Kensington there are a few specimens of shell Cameos worked in Rome. The only illustrations of the art of progressive working in the Conch-shell in any museum in London are to be seen in the South Court of South Kensington, where the portrait of Millais is shown in the several stages of progress, together with the shell from which the piece worked was originally cut. These interesting specimens were presented by Mr. James Ronca, who was a pupil of Pistrucci’s brother. There are, of course, many separate specimens of carved Conch-shells, in whole and in pieces, at both the British and South Kensington Museums.

Appearance of the Conch-shell.

The shell will be readily recognised without an illustration. In form somewhat resembling the human ear, the shell possesses properties which can be found in no other specimen of the order. For the purposes of the engraver, the several parts are called by totally different names, according as the workman came from Naples or Rome; but without entering into a discussion of the origin of these, I propose to give a few plain names to the several parts, in order to enable a worker to order the particular piece or portion which is required. Thus, the several parts are the back of the shell, the back of the Lip, the Dome, and the Comb, the Mouth of the shell, the Lip, and the Face or Body.

The piece in the upper portion of the Dome is the most valuable, because in that there is no variation of colour. Pieces cut from all other portions of the shell vary slightly in depth of colour, the colour deepening in tone as the mouth is approached. A piece suitable for a brooch cut out of a Black Helmet would be worth 5s.; but with regard to other shells the prices vary as set out in the following list. Other portions of the Dome are used for brooches; but the choicest piece is the one named. The Comb, having been cut off, is cut up into separate knobs, and these are worked into heads which are required to stand out in bold relief. The back edge is rarely worked, and may be regarded as waste. The Lip is the next important portion, and this is suitable for the carved handles of paper-knives, for umbrella-handles, or for paper-weights. A full length figure of classic form may be carved in the Lip, with admirable results, so as to command a high price. The Lip is perhaps more frequently cut into pieces between the raised edges which run at right angles to the course of the mouth, and are used for carving fish or birds, or any form requiring a portion in high relief. When the Dome has been cut through, a second shell appears immediately below, and this is remarkable for having three distinct layers, brown or red forming the surface, white the centre, and brown or red the ground. Such a piece is necessary where the design involves ornaments in the hair or a helmet on the head of a warrior.

The shell is cut open by means of a tin wheel revolving on a spindle in the ordinary way by means of a treadle. Above the wheel is a sloping dish coming to a point on which emery powder lies, and above the tray is a small keg of water regulated by a stop-cock, in such a way that as the water trickles down the pan it carries particles of the powder on to the wheel. The workman first cuts off the Lip, then he cuts across, above and below the Comb, and finally cuts down from the point of the Dome to the Comb again. This triangular piece is cut up into as many portions as are required, care being taken first of all to cut out the choicest piece from the upper portion.

Adaptability of the Art.

The practice of the art of Cameo-cutting solves to a certain extent one aspect of the great problem now puzzling the most astute minds--how to find remunerative work for skilled hands. Here is a field at present quite unoccupied--an industry admirably adapted to thousands already trained in the requirements of art, and only needing the suggestion to enable them to realise the fruit of years of industrious and patient study. In this, as in all other artistic occupations, there must be a groundwork on which to ensure success. Any one ignorant alike of the principles of drawing or modelling or carving can never become proficient in the art of Cameo-cutting, though by patient labour success may be obtained as a copyist, and the worker be able to cut geometric patterns, flowers, and coats-of-arms, which would command a ready market. For the higher successes attainable by a Cameo engraver, the position of a true artist, whose work would be recognised by the form of a hand or the modelling of an eye or an ear, there must be a previous knowledge of drawing, with skill in modelling and ability to carve.

Nothing less than a first place should content the Cameo-worker. The age is one which is eminently suitable for the growth of the profession. Drawing has for many years been taught in Schools of Art on scientific principles, and pupils have proceeded from drawing to modelling, to carving in wood, or to painting in water and oils in these schools, until a point of excellence has been reached thought impossible before they were established. Even in the rate-sustained Board Schools children of tender years are taught to draw with surprising accuracy, and such of them as take pleasure in their work might very easily learn how to cut simple forms suitable for buttons or bracelets. The only thing they would have to acquire would be the use of the graver, following upon the work of the pencil. Nor is this an exaggeration, because two little girls of eight and ten, from watching their father at work, actually fashioned little vases and hearts in pieces of shell by using fine files. From children as inexperienced as these, and from such an elementary knowledge of drawing as the School Board imparts to the young, up to the most experienced artist,--the gold medallist, the born genius with pencil or chisel,--there is enough in Cameo-work to supply scope for all--enough to gratify the child’s wish, and the larger ambition; and, beyond the choicest specimen of art in existence, enough to leave still greater triumphs to be realised by future workers. By the practice of this art no industry at present in existence in England would be injured; but, on the contrary, many industries, such as those of the workers in silver and gold, the wood-carver, and the cabinet-maker, would receive fresh development. The present generation has never been in a position to consider this industry as one attainable by the people until the present time; nor would the Cameo supplant any artistic article at present enjoying public favour. Cameos may be carved small enough to adorn a lady’s ring, a gentleman’s shirt-stud, or a pin. They may be mounted for bracelets, or act as pendants, or brooches, or be used for hairpins, for buttons to fasten back the vest, or for jackets; as solitaires for the shirt, or for sleeve-links. In the style of ladies’ dress now worn there would be an unfailing demand. They may be fixed in articles of ornament for the desk and table, inlaid in vases, caskets, or dressing-cases; framed in the carved overmantel, inserted in the backs of chairs, inset in curtain bands; or mounted on altar crosses, set around Communion-cups or in alms-dishes, or worked into marble memorials of the dead; or they might be inlet in the bindings of books. From the variety of their ground--ranging from pink, through every shade of brown, to an imperial purple, and a magnificent black--there is no marble, metal, or wood with which the Cameo would not harmonise. In the course of a conversation recently with one of our Princesses, who is a patron of art, this point was dwelt upon, and the suggestion was made that an anchor carved in shell would make an appropriate button for a lady’s yachting costume.

Cost of Pieces of Shell.

The cost of ordinary pieces of shell per dozen may be ascertained by reference to the following diagrams:--

Nos. 1 and 2, suitable for small and large ear-rings, 3s. per dozen; No. 3, bracelet size, 4s.; No. 4, larger bracelet or small brooch, 6s.; No. 5, large brooch, 8s.; No. 6, 10s.; No. 7, 15s. to 18s., according to the colour; No. 8, 2s. 6d. to 3s. 6d. each.

The importers of these shells would make up a dozen of various sizes if required. Great care is necessary in selecting pieces suitable for working in order to avoid (1) the mark of a worm left in the early growth of the shell; (2) patches of decayed shell; (3) a tendency to chip, termed “flaking.”

Carved Pumice-stone.

An experienced Cameo engraver recommends a beginner to procure pieces of Pumice-stone, which may be readily obtained, and begin by carving in this substance. The stone is much softer than the shell, and can be very easily shaped; and the colour lends itself to very beautiful effects, but the surface being very soft, the fine work soon disappears. As an intermediate step to the carving on the Conch-shell, the Pumice-stone may be strongly recommended.

Mounting Pieces of Shell.

When it has been determined to carve a piece of shell, the first thing to be done is to mount it upon what is technically known as a Stick. Get the handle of a broom, cut off five inches, and cover each end with cement made of a mixture of tar and resin. This may be procured at any oil-shop. Ask for a cake of cement, and you get a square for a 1d. which would suffice for twenty or thirty pieces of shell, or you may buy a pound for 6d. or 8d. Melt the cement as you would a piece of sealing-wax, cover each end of the Stick with the melted stuff, so as to form a bed; wet the under part of the shell, and press it into the cement. This will hold the piece firmly while it is being worked. By mounting a piece of shell on each end of the Stick, there is the advantage of working upon two patterns at the same time, or of cutting the same pattern twice, improving upon one by the experience obtained in cutting the other.