Part 2

But without dwelling longer on this point, which shall hereafter be more amply discussed, I shall confine myself to well-known observations and established facts. There is no doubt but that the waters of the sea at some period covered and remained for ages upon that part of the globe which is now known to be dry land; and consequently the whole continents of Asia, Europe, Africa, and America, were then the bottom of an ocean abounding with similar productions to those which the sea at present contains: it is equally certain that the different strata which compose the earth are parallel and horizontal, and it is evident their being in this situation is the operation of the waters which have collected and accumulated by degrees the different materials, and given them the same position as the water itself always assumes. We observe that the position of strata is almost universally horizontal: in plains it is exactly so, and it is only in the mountains that they are inclined to the horizon, from their having been originally formed by a sediment deposited upon an inclined base. Now I insist that these strata must have been formed by degrees, and not all at once, by any revolution whatever, because strata, composed of heavy materials, are very frequently found placed above light ones, which could not be, if, as some authors assert, the whole had been mixed with the waters at the time of the Deluge, and afterwards precipitated; in that case every thing must have had a very different appearance to that which now exists. The heaviest bodies would have descended first, and each particular stratum would have been arranged according to its weight and specific gravity, and we should not see solid rocks or metals placed above light sand any more than clay under coal.

We should also pay attention to another circumstance; it confirms what we have said on the formation of the strata; no other cause than the motions and sediments of water could possibly produce so regular a position of it, for the highest mountains are composed of parallel strata as well as the lowest plains, and therefore we cannot attribute the origin and formation of mountains to the shocks of earthquakes, or eruptions of volcanos. The small eminences which are sometimes raised by volcanos, or convulsive motions of the earth, are not by any means composed of parallel strata, they are a mere disordered heap of matters thrown confusedly together; but the horizontal and parallel position of the strata must necessarily proceed from the operations of a constant cause and motion, always regulated and directed in the same uniform manner.

From repeated observations, and these incontrovertible facts, we are convinced that the dry part of the globe, which is now habitable, has remained for a long time under the waters of the sea, and consequently this earth underwent the same fluctuations and changes which the bottom of the ocean is at present actually undergoing. To discover therefore what formerly passed on the earth, let us examine what now passes at the bottom of the sea, and from thence we shall soon be enabled to draw rational conclusions with regard to the external form and internal composition of that which we inhabit.

From the Creation the sea has constantly been subject to a regular flux and reflux: this motion, which raises and falls the waters twice in every twenty-four hours, is principally occasioned by the action of the moon, and is much greater under the equator than in any other climates. The earth performs a rapid motion on its axis, and consequently has a centrifugal force, which is also the greatest at the equator; this latter, independent of actual observation, proves that the earth is not perfectly spherical, but that it must be more elevated under the equator then at the poles.

From these combined causes, the ebbing and flowing of the tides, and the motion of the earth, we may fairly conclude, that although the earth was a perfect sphere in its original form, yet its diurnal motion, together with the constant flux and reflux of the sea, must, by degrees, in the course of time, have raised the equatorial parts, by carrying mud, earth, sand, shells, &c. from other climes, and there depositing of them. Agreeable to this idea the greatest irregularities must be found, and, in fact, are found near the equator. Besides, as this motion of the tides is made by diurnal alternatives, and been repeated, without interruption, from the commencement of time, is it not natural to imagine, that each time the tide flows the water carries a small quantity of matter from one place to another, which may fall to the bottom like a sediment, and form those parallel and horizontal strata which are every where to be met with? for the whole motion of the water, in the flux and reflux, being horizontal, the matters carried away with them will naturally be deposited in the same parallel direction.

But to this it may be said, that as the flux and reflux of the waters are equal and regularly succeed, two motions would counterpoise each other, and the matters brought by the flux would be returned by the reflux, and of course this cause for the formation of the strata must be chimerical; that the bottom of the sea could not experience any material alteration by two uniform motions, wherein the effects of the one would be regularly destroyed by the other; much less could they change the original form by the production of heights and inequalities.

To which it may be answered, that the alternate motions of the waters are not equal, the sea having a constant motion from the east to the west, besides, the agitation, caused by the winds, opposes and prevents the equality of the tides. It will also be admitted, that by every motion of which the sea is susceptible, particles of earth and other matters will be carried from one place and deposited in another; and these collections will necessarily assume the form of horizontal and parallel strata, from the various combinations of the motions of the sea always tending to move the earth, and to level these materials wherever they fall, in the form of a sediment. But this objection is easily obviated by the well-known fact, that upon all coasts, bordering the sea, where the ebbing and flowing of the tide is observed, the flux constantly brings in a number of things which the reflux does not carry back. There are many places upon which the sea insensibly gains and gradually covers over, while there are others from which it recedes, narrowing as it were its limits, by depositing earth, sands, shells, &c. which naturally take an horizontal position; these matters accumulate by degrees in the course of time, and being raised to a certain point gradually exclude the water, and so become part of the dry land for ever after.

But not to leave any doubt upon this important point, let us strictly examine into the possibility of a mountain's being formed at the bottom of the sea by the motions and sediments of the waters. It is certain that on a coast which the sea beats with violence during the agitation of its flow, that every wave must carry off some part of the earth; for wherever the sea is bounded by rocks, it is a plain fact that the water by degrees wears away those rocks, and consequently carries away small particles every time the waves retire; these particles of earth and stone will necessarily be transported to some distance, and being arrived where the agitation of the water is abated, and left to their own weight, they precipitate to the bottom in form of a sediment, and there form a first stratum, either horizontal or inclined, according to the position of the surface upon which they fall; this will shortly be covered by a similar stratum produced by the same cause, and thus will a considerable quantity of matter be almost insensibly collected together, and the strata of which will be placed, parallel to each other.

This mass will continue to increase by new sediments, and by gradually accumulating, in the course of time become a mountain at the bottom of the sea, exactly similar to those we see on dry land, both as to outward form and internal composition. If there happen to be shells in this part of the sea, where we have supposed this deposit to be made, they will be filled and covered with the sediment, and incorporated in the deposited matter, making a part of the whole mass, and they will be found situated in the parts of the mountain according to the time they had been there deposited; those that lay at the bottom, previous to the formation of the first stratum, will be found in the lowest, and so according to the time of their being deposited, the latest in the most elevated parts.

So likewise, when the bottom of the sea, at particular places, is troubled by the agitation of the water, there will necessarily ensue, in the same manner, a removal of earth, shells, and other matters, from the troubled to other parts; for we are assumed by all divers, that at the greatest depths they descend, i. e. twenty fathoms, the bottom of the sea is so troubled by the agitation of the waters, that the mud and shells are carried to considerable distances, consequently transportations of this kind are made in every part of the sea, and this matter falling must form eminences, composed like our mountains, and in every respect similar; therefore the flux and reflux, by the winds, the currents, and all the motions of the water, must inevitably create inequalities at the bottom of the sea.

Nor must we imagine that these matters cannot be transported to great distances, because we daily see grain, and other productions of the East and West Indies, arriving on our own coasts.[25:A] It is true these bodies are specifically lighter than water, whereas the substances of which we have been speaking are specifically heavier; but, however, being reduced to an impalpable powder, they may be sustained a long time in the water so as to be conveyed to considerable distances.

It has been supposed that the sea is not troubled at the bottom, especially if it is very deep, by the agitations produced by the winds and tides; but it should be recollected that the whole mass, however deep, is put in motion by the tides, and that in a liquid globe this motion would be communicated to the very centre; that the power which produces the flux and reflux is a penetrating force, which acts proportionably upon every particle of its mass, so that we can determine by calculation the quantity of its force at different depths; but, in short, this point is so certain, that it cannot be contested but by refusing the evidence of reason.

Therefore, we cannot possibly have the least doubt that the tides, the winds, and every other cause which agitates the sea, must produce eminences and inequalities at the bottom, and those heights must ever be composed of horizontal or equally inclined strata. These eminences will gradually encrease until they become hills, which will rise in situations similar to the waves that produce them; and if there is a long extent of soil, they will continue to augment by degrees; so that in course of time they will form a vast chain of mountains. Being formed into mountains, they become an obstacle to and interrupt the common motion of the sea, producing at the same time other motions, which are generally called currents. Between two neighbouring heights at the bottom of the sea a current will necessarily be formed, which will follow their common direction, and, like a river, form a channel, whose angles will be alternately opposite during the whole extent of its course. These heights will be continually increasing, being subject only to the motion of the flux, for the waters during the flow will leave the common sediment upon their ridges; and those waters which are impelled by the current will force along with them, to great distances, those matters which would be deposited between both, at the same time hollowing out a valley with corresponding angles at their foundation. By the effects of these motions and sediments the bottom of the sea, although originally smooth, must become unequal, and abounding with hills and chains of mountains, as we find it at present. The soft materials of which the eminences are originally composed will harden by degrees with their own weight; some forming parts, purely angular, produce hills of clay; others, consisting of sandy and crystalline particles, compose those enormous masses of rock and flint from whence crystal and other precious stones are extracted; those formed with stony particles, mixed with shells, form those of lime-stone and marble, wherein we daily meet with shells incorporated; and others, compounded of matter more shelly, united with pure earth, compose all our beds of marle and chalk. All these substances are placed in regular beds, and all contain heterogeneous matter; marine productions are found among them in abundance, and nearly according to the relation of their specific weights; the lightest shells in chalk, and the heaviest in clay and lime-stone; these shells are invariably filled with the matter in which they have been inclosed, whether stones or earth; an incontestible proof that they have been transported with the matter that fills and surrounds them, and that this matter was at that time in an impalpable powder. In short, all those substances whose horizontal situations have been established by the level of the waters of the sea, will constantly preserve their original position.

But here it may be observed, that most hills, whose summits consist of solid rocks, stone, or marble, are formed upon small eminences of much lighter materials, such for instance as clay, or strata of sand, which we commonly find extended over the neighbouring plains, upon which it may be asked, how, if the foregoing theory be just, this seemingly contradictory arrangement happens? To me this phenomenon appears to be very easy and naturally explained. The water at first acts upon the upper stratum of coasts, or bottom of the sea, which commonly consists of clay or sand, and having transported this, and deposited the sediment, it of course composes small eminences, which form a base for the more heavy particles to rest upon. Having removed the lighter substances, it operates upon the more heavy, and by constant attrition reduces them to an impalpable powder; which it conveys to the same spot, and where, being deposited, these stony particles, in the course of time, form those solid rocks and quarries which we now find upon the tops of hills and mountains. It is not unlikely that as these particles are much heavier than sand or clay, that they were formerly a considerable depth under a strata of that kind, and now owe their high situations to having been last raised up and transported by the motion of the water.

To confirm what we here assert, let us more closely investigate the situation of those materials which compose the superficial outer part of the globe, indeed the only part with which we have any knowledge. The different beds of strata in stone quarries are almost all horizontal, or regularly inclined; those whose foundations are on clays or other solid matters are clearly horizontal, especially in plains. The quarries wherein we find flint, or brownish grey free-stone, in detached portions, have a less regular position, but even in those the uniformity of nature plainly appears, for the horizontal or regularly inclined strata are apparent in quarries where these stones are found in great masses. This position is universal, except in quarries where flint and brown free-stone are found in small detached portions, the formation of which we shall prove to have been posterior to those we have just been treating of; for granite, vitrifiable sand, argol, marble, calcareous stone, chalk, and marles, are always deposited in parallel strata, horizontally or equally inclined; the original formation of these are easily discovered, for the strata are exactly horizontal and very thin, and are arranged above each other like the leaves of a book. Beds of sand, soft and hard clay, chalk, and shells, are also either horizontal or regularly inclined. Strata of every kind preserves the same thickness throughout its whole extent, which often occupies the space of many miles, and may be traced still farther by close and exact observations. In a word, the materials of the globe, as far as mankind have been enabled to penetrate, are arranged in an uniform position, and are exactly similar.

The strata of sand and gravel which have been washed down from mountains must in some measure be excepted; in vallies they are sometimes of a considerable extent, and are generally placed under the first strata of the earth; in plains, they are as even as the most ancient and interior strata, but near the bottom and upon the ridges of hills they are inclined, and follow the inclination of the ground upon which they have flowed. These being formed by rivers and rivulets, which are constantly in vallies changing their beds, and dragging these sands and gravel with them, they are of course very numerous. A small rivulet flowing from the neighbouring heights, in the course of time will be sufficient to cover a very spacious valley with a strata of sand and gravel, and I have often observed in hilly countries, whose base, as well as the upper stratum, was hard clay, that above the source of the rivulet the clay is found immediately under the vegetable soil, and below it there is the thickness of a foot of sand upon the clay, and which extends itself to a considerable distance. These strata formed by rivers are not very ancient, and are easily discovered by the inequality of their thickness, which is constantly varying, while the ancient strata preserves the same dimensions throughout; they are also to be known by the matter itself, which bears evident marks of having been smoothed and rounded by the motions of the water. The same may be said of the turf and perished vegetables which are found below the first stratum of earth in marshy grounds; they cannot be considered as ancient, but entirely produced by successive heaps of decayed trees and other plants. Nor are the strata of slime and mud, which are found in many countries, to be considered as ancient productions, having been formed by stagnated waters or inundations of rivers, and are neither so horizontal, nor equally inclined, as the strata anciently produced by the regular motions of the sea. In the strata formed by rivers we constantly meet with river, but scarcely ever sea shells, and the few that are found are broken and irregularly placed; whereas in the ancient strata there are no river shells; the sea shells are in great quantities, well preserved, and all placed in the same manner, having been transported at the same time and by the same cause. How are we to account for this astonishing regularity? Instead of regular strata, why do we not meet with the matters that compose the earth jumbled together, without any kind of order? Why are not rocks, marbles, clays, marles, &c. variously dispersed, or joined by irregular or vertical strata? Why are not the heaviest bodies uniformly found placed beneath the lightest? It is easy to perceive that this uniformity of nature, this organization of earth, this connection of different materials, by parallel strata, without respect to their weights, could only be produced by a cause as powerful and constant as the motion of the sea, whether occasioned by the regular winds or by that of the flux and reflux, &c.

These causes act with greater force under the equator than in other climates, for there the winds are more regular and the tides run higher; the most extensive chains of mountains are also near the equator. The mountains of Africa and Peru are the highest known, they frequently extend themselves through whole provinces, and stretch, to considerable distances under the ocean. The mountains of Europe and Asia, which extend from Spain to China, are not so high as those of South America and Africa. The mountains of the North, according to the relation of travellers, are only hills in comparison with those of the Southern countries. Besides, there are very few islands in the Northern Seas, whereas in the torrid zone they are almost innumerable, and as islands are only the summits of mountains, it is evident that the surface of the earth has many more inequalities towards the equator than in the northerly climes.

It is therefore evident that the prodigious chain of mountains which run from the West to the East in the old continent, and from the North to the South in the new, must have been produced by the general motion of the tides; but the origin of all the inferior mountains must be attributed to the particular motions of currents, occasioned by the winds and other irregular agitations of the sea: they may probably have been produced by a combination of all those motions, which must be capable of infinite variations, since the winds and different positions of islands and coasts change the regular course of the tides, and compel them to flow in every possible direction: it is, therefore, not in the least astonishing that we should see considerable eminences, whose courses have no determined direction. But it is sufficient for our present purpose to have demonstrated that mountains are not the produce of earthquakes, or other accidental causes, but that they are the effects resulting from the general order of nature, both as to their organization and the position of the materials of which they are composed.

But how has it happened that this earth which we and our ancestors have inhabited for ages, which, from time immemorial, has been an immense continent, dry and removed from the reach of the waters, should, if formerly the bottom of the ocean, be actually larger than all the waters, and raised to such a height as to be distinctly separated from them? Having remained so long on the earth, why have the waters now abandoned it? What accident, what cause could produce so great a change? Is it possible to conceive one possessed of sufficient power to produce such an amazing effect?