CHAPTER XVI

Free Distribution of Frémont's Reports—Latter Day Saints—Murder of a Prophet—Brigham Young Guides Saints to the Wilderness—The State of Deseret—California the Golden—Massacre at Mountain Meadows—Old Jacob, the Mormon Leatherstocking—Steam on the Lower Colorado—Old Jacob Finds the Crossing of the Fathers—Circumtouring the Grand Canyon—Solitudes of the Colorado—Last of the Wilderness Problems—Powell Solves it by Masterful Courage—The Iron Trail—The End and the Beginning.

The reports Frémont made of his several expeditions were so striking and so important that Congress ordered thousands of copies to be printed for free distribution. They formed the beginning of the long series of invaluable volumes the Government since that day has so wisely and so lavishly published. First to present drawings of new plants and fossils as well as to give accurate details of geography, they serve to mark Frémont as the scientific Pathfinder. Botanical specimens were classified by Torrey; paleontological by Hall, and comment on the excellence of their work is unnecessary. Altogether these expeditions of Frémont began a new period in Wilderness exploration—the period of scientific examination. He has been much criticised, but it was he who broke the way for the numerous Government expeditions which followed and which reflect much credit on the intelligence and generosity of Congress. Few governments have ever fostered the scientific spirit with a better grace or to so full an extent, and Frémont was partly responsible for this commendable attitude. Through his enthusiastic labours the Far West began to be more clearly understood than ever before. He took no pessimistic view of the resources of the Wilderness as Pike and Long had done, but was rather inclined to the other side. It seems notable that he should so commandingly have stepped into the vast field at a moment coincident with the collapse of beaver trapping as a business; an industry which, as we have seen, was responsible for the breaking of all the main trails of the Wilderness, and for searching out every important secret save that of the hidden fury of the Colorado. Not only had the beaver been practically exterminated, but the bison was on the decline.[105] Those beyond the mountains suffered nearly to the point of annihilation in the exceptionally heavy snows of the winter of 1842-43.

The Great Salt Lake, enshrined in the snowy mountains and resembling the Dead Sea of Palestine, strongly appealed to the imagination of a new sect which was to have a great effect on the Wilderness, a sect which in 1830 began its development, and notwithstanding vigorous and often bloody opposition or possibly because of it, augmented steadily its power. Those who adopted this new creed were commonly called Mormons though they designated themselves as "The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints." The cult, like others which have prospered, was originated by a very poor and rather despised individual, Joseph Smith, near Palmyra, New York. By his followers, Smith was believed to possess supernatural powers as a seer and prophet. He had political ambition also, for in 1844, he "published an address to the people of the United States on the powers and policy of the general government and offered himself as a candidate for the office of President." Out of his visions and inspirations grew the now famous _Book of Mormon_, purporting to relate the history of the original people of the Western World, the Amerinds, or "Indians," descendants by its authority of some of those who were dispersed and lost to history by the confusion of tongues at the Tower of Babel. In Mormon belief it supplements the Holy Bible, which they hold to be the history of the Eastern World as well as the Divinely inspired Word. Thus they have the Bible, the _Book of Mormon_, the _Book of Doctrine and Covenants_ and a book of guidance called _Pearl of Great Price_. First success was due to Sidney Rigdon.

After a number of migrations in search of the proper spot whereon to found the New Jerusalem, the Mormons were attracted by reports of the Great Salt Lake, lying in Mexican territory, and in some degree duplicating the topography of the Holy Land. Having much difficulty with their neighbours, they were desirous of isolating themselves, and to them the region of the Salt Sea of the Wilderness seemed the promised land. Their Prophet Joseph had been murdered in cold blood, June 27, 1844, in Carthage jail, whither he had been taken from his Mormon town of Nauvoo, Illinois, having there, on the advice of the Governor, surrendered himself for trial on charges preferred by his opponents. The Mormons resolved then to move bodily to the valley of the American Dead Sea, wild and forbidding though it seemed. A thousand miles of separation from their antagonists, by what was then believed to be irreclaimable desert, was a condition they desired and doubtless they believed that once established on that foreign soil behind a barrier of mountain ranges, they would there be able to develop their institutions unmolested. No mind then foresaw the rapid exploration and settlement of the Wilderness which has taken place.

Brigham Young, the new leader who succeeded Smith, was possessed of unusual executive ability and clear judgment, though with a limited school education. But no amount of book knowledge could have replaced the qualities with which he was born. Possessing such a commander; with a martyred prophet in the background; with "persecution" unlimited; the Mormons were equipped for sectarian as well as for civil progress. Add to all this the suggestion of the Holy Land found in the country of their choice, and the State of Deseret, as they wished to call it, was in a position to appeal strongly to those who were looking for salvation in some new form.[106]

It was not till July, 1847, they were able in numbers to reach the Salt Lake, and doubtless the dry, barren, region appeared discouraging. But Brigham Young, who followed a little later, had not begun this move blindly. His astute mind had shown him that irrigation by means of the mountain torrents would transform into gardens the arid plains, exactly as had been done in that dreamland of the Wilderness, the Rio Grande Valley. At first the devotees of the Mormon faith had a severe time, starvation was close to their thresholds, but perseverance, grit, and industry gradually conquered the antagonism of nature and the once forbidding valley was presently offering the Latter Day Saints abundance; Salt Lake City became a centre of order and prosperity. Other portions from this as a base were brought under cultivation and the soil was rendered prolific. It must be acknowledged that these people were Wilderness breakers of high quality. They not only broke it, but they kept it broken; and instead of the gin mill and the gambling hell, as corner stones of their progress, and as examples to the natives of white men's superiority, they planted orchards, gardens, farms, schoolhouses, and peaceful homes.[107] There is to-day, no part of the United States where human life is safer than in the land of the Mormons; no place where there is less lawlessness. A people who have accomplished so much that is good, who have endured danger, privation, and suffering, who have withstood the obloquy of more powerful sects, have in them much that is commendable; they deserve more than abuse, they deserve admiration, no matter what may have been their shortcomings in the earlier stages of their career.

The fortunes of the Mexican War, which the Mormons helped to decide for the American arms, as far as they were able, soon threw them again within the jurisdiction of the United States, and eventually, in place of their desired State of Deseret, Congress established the Territory of Utah, and made Brigham Young first governor, an appointment which should never have been made if the Mormons were as bad a people as by some was maintained. By it the Government really sanctioned the Mormon creed.

Besides the Mormons other sects pushed into the Wilderness. The Methodists and Presbyterians were early in Oregon, the first under the Lees and the second under Whitman. The Catholics also began missionary work in that quarter, and their chief worker was Father De Smet, whose name is forever welded into the history of the Wilderness, by his earnest labours for one thing, but more particularly by his careful observation and the records which he made of all he saw. He went everywhere in the northern parts of the Wilderness, always welcome, always doing good, and never in danger. More ought to be related here concerning his career, but the limits of this volume prevent.

Meanwhile the settlers in California startled the sleepy atmosphere of the old Mission _régime_; yet the region was so inaccessible from the East that few ventured to go there. But Fortune was holding something in reserve. A blindfold was on all eyes; no one could see the future indicated by the discovery of gold near San Fernando Mission. It had been washed out as early as 1841, but only in a small way, and it was not till one day in 1849, when nuggets were found in repairing a mill race on Sutter's ranch at the mouth of the American River, that the blindfold was dropped and the people saw. In a general way this was the end of what may be termed the Frémont period and the beginning of another, which was to have a tremendous influence upon the destinies of the Wilderness. Emigrants crossed the oceans; they crossed the Wilderness; they came from round the globe by thousands and by thousands again, to wash from the golden soil of California their everlasting fortunes. It became a stampede.

There were two routes from the East. One, the northern, by the Oregon Trail, and the other, the southern, by way of the Santa Fé Trail, both starting from Westport, now Kansas City. A few years before they had started from Independence, some miles farther east. The Oregon Trail was followed as far as Fort Bridger,[108] a post established by the famous trapper of that name, on Ham's Fork in Green River Valley, 1843, and also as far as the great bend of Bear River, when the immigrants made for Salt Lake and thence by way of the Humboldt to and over the Sierras; or south about on the trail of Escalante and Jedediah Smith, till it struck the old Wolfskill (Spanish) Trail, which was then followed down the west side of the Wasatch Range to the Mountain Meadows on the head of the Santa Clara, across the Beaver Dam Mountains, down the Virgin nearly to the Colorado, and then across southern California. From Santa Fé two routes were open; one by way of the Gila and the other northward over Wolfskill's trail, the "Old Spanish Trail," to Green River at Gunnison Valley, and then across the mountains to join the other trail coming down from Salt Lake not far from the present town of Nephi. The northern route by the Humboldt was the one most travelled. The interesting incidents connected with these trails and the California gold rush would fill a volume. There were battles, scalpings, starvation, captivity, and privations of all kinds. Sometimes a whole family was destroyed at one blow, as in the case of Oatman, who had ventured on without company. He was attacked by Apaches on the Gila, the slaughter being speedy and, as the murderers thought, complete, excepting two daughters, whom they sold to the Mohaves. A son, however, recovered sufficiently to escape. One of the daughters died; the other was discovered five years later by Henry Grinell, and was bought by him from her Mohave owners and sent to her brother in Los Angeles.[109]

Another affair which stirred the outer world a few years after this, 1857, was the "Mountain Meadows Massacre." Just at this moment, owing to a quarrel between the Federal Government and Brigham Young, a small army under Colonel Albert Sydney Johnston, famous later as a Confederate leader, was sent in a half-hearted and futile way against the Mormons. This move was a great error on the part of the authorities, and it hardly appears as if they were in earnest. Either a well-equipped, powerful army should have been sent that could have reduced the Mormons if they had done anything deserving such treatment, which appears not to have been the fact, or they should have been dealt with by arbitration and argument as free-born citizens of the United States. The army operations were a ridiculous fiasco, but nevertheless gave the Mormons ground for the assertions that they were invincible. A caravan of one hundred and fifty people from the Arkansas-Missouri region was now on its way from Salt Lake to California by the southern trail. Between people from that region and the Mormons there had always been bitter feeling, and it was now aggravated by the presence of the threatening army and by contemptuous taunts which the immigrants are said to have freely spread along their route, accompanied by vile epithets. It is also said that they stole fowls and other property and abused those who remonstrated. The result was that when they reached Mountain Meadows, where they intended, as was the custom, to rest before starting on the more difficult journey beyond, they were attacked by a number of natives and Mormon fanatics. The attack was a local matter and had no authority then or afterwards from the officials of the Church. The immigrants were well armed and made a good fight, believing the attacking party to be natives all. When the Mormon participants appeared on the scene and told the Gentiles if they would lay down their arms the Mormons would guarantee safe exit from the valley, they accepted the proposition as an honourable one; they were anxious to spare their wives and children further exposure. They went forth, therefore, in confidence, but as they neared the south end of the valley the miscreants, as treacherous as the lowest savage, violated without compunction their pledge. The immigrants were coolly butchered, for they were now helpless. Only a few little children were spared, and John D. Lee, the leader of the Mormon villains, perpetrated, according to account, crimes unspeakable in connection with murder of the most cold-blooded character.

A pile of stones was reared on the spot where the bodies were buried, and as one looks down upon it to-day from the waggon-road, which runs somewhat farther up the slope than at that time, the grim spectres of Death and Dishonour appear still to hover above the scene of blood; where savages were put to shame in an exhibition of terrible depravity. A dismal pall seems to pervade the once pure valley and doubtless always will. At the north end the cutting of floods in the stream-bed has destroyed a large part of the tillable soil, and springs that once flowed abundantly have disappeared. Several houses stand there, but they have a forlorn and dilapidated appearance. The hand of Fate has laid a blight on the place, and it will yet be many a long year before that awful tragedy will not live again as the traveller passes over the fatal road. No Mormon I have ever met thought for a moment of excusing the action of the fanatics who led the massacre. On the contrary, it has always been unequivocally condemned.

Even Lee was at least ashamed of the part he played, and he tried to persuade me in 1872 that he was innocent, that he attempted to prevent the crime, and that he had wept when he found it was to be done. Yet immediately after the event he admitted to other Mormons that he had taken part. He was "cut off" from the Church and for years lived an outlawed life in the most inaccessible places, but he was caught and, in 1877, executed at the scene of his hideous deed. The massacre was most unlucky for the Mormons, as the world refused to believe that it was not secretly sanctioned. Unfortunately for the poor immigrants one man who probably could have saved them, and who certainly would have tried desperately to do it, was absent from his home at the Meadows at that time, being on his way to Salt Lake. This was Jacob Hamblin, the Leatherstocking of Utah, or "Old Jacob," as he was familiarly called when I knew him some fourteen years after the massacre. On another occasion when a fanatic, stationed on the Muddy to assist immigrants, concluded to kill a man, and said to Jacob, "This man must go up," Jacob answered, "If he does I go up first, mark that," and the man went free and never knew his danger; for it would have been a reckless nature that would have dared to oppose the wrath of Old Jacob.

Had he been at Mountain Meadows on that awful day he would have saved the immigrants or would have died with them.

Old Jacob was a remarkable character, and must hold a place in the annals of the Wilderness beside Jedediah Smith, Bridger, the Sublettes, and the rest of that gallant band. But he differed in one respect from every one of them; he sought no pecuniary gain, working for the good of his chosen people, always poor and seeming to have no ambition for riches. Honest, slow and low of speech, keen of perception, quick of action, and with admirable poise and judgment, Old Jacob was one of the heroes of the Wilderness, and one of the last of his kind. Long ago I tried to persuade him to tell me for publication the story of his life, but he then intended to write it himself. Afterwards it was brought out by the Church in the "Faith Promoting Series."[110]

In 1855 the Mormons had progressed far enough into the southern Wilderness to settle on the Santa Clara near the Virgin, and in 1861 they founded St. George, now the principal town of that wide region. They also settled at Grafton and several other places up the Virgin which winds its way through a series of bounding cliffs that rival those of the Grand Canyon of the Colorado.[111]

As yet few white men since Escalante, in 1776, had crossed the great canyon barrier of the Colorado between the mouth of the Virgin and Gunnison Valley on Green River, a distance of about six hundred miles as the river runs. Escalante had hunted out the fording-place of the Utes, some miles above the mouth of the Paria, the only place in all that stretch where fording is possible even at the lowest stage of water, which occurs in the autumn and winter. The trapper, Richard Campbell, as early as 1840, perhaps as early as 1827, knew of the Crossing of the Fathers, as it was called because of Escalante's venture, and he also knew that a trail from Zuñi went there, but whether he had crossed is not clear. James O. Pattie had travelled along near the canyon edge for a considerable distance and finally reached Grand River, but his route is obscure, for his narrative gives few details of this important part of his remarkable journey from the mouth of the Gila to the head of the Yellowstone in 1826. When the Mormons reached southern Utah the whole length of the Green and Colorado from Green River Valley to the mouth of the Virgin was mainly unbroken Wilderness, only the extreme upper portion having been entered by trappers and the lower part, except the crossing of a few persons at the Escalante ford, was a complete blank. Ashley had made no record of what he saw in Red Canyon, and his voyage there was forgotten. Meek's trip through Lodore on the ice was likewise forgotten, and several other futile attempts to solve the mystery of the Colorado were vague memories in the minds of the trapper fraternity. Bridger and Carson had been near the upper canyons from time to time, and once Bridger attempted to explore the Green by following along the land, but soon gave it up for lack of water. He and his companions could see the river, but they could not get down to it. E. L. Berthoud, the engineer, in 1861 also made an attempt, but gave it up after one day for the same reason. There was, indeed, only one way to fathom the secrets of this river, and that was to start above with good boats and go down on the tide; but as yet no man had appeared with sufficient nerve and good judgment to make a successful attempt at it.

In 1861 Berthoud and Bridger explored a road from Denver to Salt Lake by way of Middle Park, crossing the Green near the mouth of the Uinta. This road was for the Overland Stage Company. Owing to the Civil War the project was abandoned, but a regiment of California volunteers marched this way from Salt Lake to Denver. The distance was 413 miles;[112] and there was small record of the features of the Wilderness through which the road ran. From the mouth of the Colorado at the Gulf of California up to within a short distance of Fort Yuma Lieutenant Derby, of the Topographical Engineers, made an examination in 1851, and later that same year George A. Johnson came to the mouth with supplies for Yuma, constructing there some flatboats for the purpose of transporting the cargo to the fort. The Gila at this time was the southern boundary in this quarter of the United States, but complications having arisen over an ill-defined portion of the line a new treaty was negotiated by Gadsden in 1853, by which, for a consideration of ten million dollars paid to Mexico, the boundary was placed where it is now. The mouth of the Colorado was not included, though navigation privileges were granted. The mouth of the river is of no value to Mexico and ought to be purchased by the United States, although the difficulty of navigation renders it of comparatively small importance.

In order to arrive at the Yuma post, situated at the mouth of the Gila, a steamer adapted to this kind of navigation was brought by sea from San Francisco by Turnbull. This was to ply between the fort and the Gulf at the mouth of the Colorado. She was named _Uncle Sam_, and it was only a few months before she struck a snag and went to the bottom. The power of the river, the immense quantity of sediment brought down and shiftingly deposited by every slack current, the earthquakes, and the fierce tidal bore, rendered navigation anything but easy. Turnbull gave up, but Johnson took the contract for transporting the fort supplies from the Gulf and soon had a new steamer in service, the _General Jesup_. This was followed by a second, the _Colorado_, one hundred and twenty feet long. Johnson became familiar with every bar and current and for years continued skilfully to operate his boats. He knew the history of that locality as perhaps no other man could know it.[113]

In 1851 Sitgreaves reconnoitred the country about on the trail of Garces, and in 1854 Whipple, also for the Government, explored along the 35th parallel. The mighty gorges carved through the great plateau prohibited north and south travel, for they were well-nigh impossible to cross except at the one or two places mentioned. A mountain range of equal length and of the greatest magnitude would not have offered so tremendous an obstacle. In 1857 E. F. Beale surveyed a waggon-road along the 35th parallel for the Government, and Johnson, in his steamer, the _General Jesup_, went up from Yuma early in January, 1858, to ferry Beale across on his return from California. Before meeting Beale, Johnson pushed his steamer experimentally on up the river to the head of Black Canyon, the highest point attainable by steamers under the most favourable conditions. He did this to expressly anticipate the exploration planned by Lieutenant Ives, of the Topographical Engineers, who, the month before, December, 1857, had landed at the mouth of the river with sections of a steamboat, _The Explorer_, built in Philadelphia, with which he intended to find the head of navigation and also map the river. Ives conducted this survey with skill and accuracy, and while Johnson's manœuvre took from him the distinction of first ascent, nevertheless he remains the first explorer of the river in this region. He went to the foot of Black Canyon with his steamer and thence to the head of Black Canyon with a small boat. He visited the Grand Canyon at the mouth of Diamond Creek, the Havasupai Canyon, and also the Moki Towns. His report is a model of graceful diction, but many of the illustrations are preposterous. In 1866 Captain Rodgers took the steamer _Esmeralda_, ninety-seven feet long, drawing three and a half feet of water, up to Callville, not far below the mouth of the Virgin.

The Mormons were desirous of opening a road to communicate with the region east and south of the Colorado, especially that the "Lamanites" might be able to come from there and receive endowments in the temple of St. George according to prophecy. Brigham Young directed Jacob Hamblin to undertake this journey, and in the autumn of 1857 went with a party under the guidance of a native to the Ute Ford, or Crossing of the Fathers, where Escalante had broken the way eighty-one years before. Successfully traversing this difficult passage, possible only at a very low stage of water, he and his eleven companions reached the Moki Towns in safety. Nearly every autumn after this saw Jacob wending his way to the same region, but not always without disaster. In 1860 the party was turned back south of the river and one of their number, young Smith, killed by the Navajos. In 1862 Jacob tried another route to reach the same locality, going to the Colorado by way of the Grand Wash, south-westerly from St. George. At the river they built a boat and safely passed over. Then they went south and east below the great chasm to the San Francisco Mountains, suffering greatly for water in that arid region. Crossing the Little Colorado they finally arrived at the towns of the Mokis. But on the return Jacob followed his original route by way of the Crossing of the Fathers, and was thus the first white man to circumtour the Grand Canyon. The next year he went again by the Grand Wash trail, touched at Havasupai Canyon, and arrived once more among the friendly Mokis, three of whom had accompanied him back to Utah on the last trip. On this 1863 journey he was accompanied by Lewis Greeley, a nephew of Horace Greeley, who had come down from Salt Lake with letters from Brigham Young. It was not till six years later that a crossing was made at the mouth of the Paria, now Lee Ferry, still the chief, I might almost say, the only available crossing between Grand Wash and Gunnison Valley. Jacob Hamblin was the first to go that way. The river is deep and a raft or boat is necessary to transport goods.

In seeking a hiding-place John D. Lee found this point desirable and settled there early in 1872, building a log cabin and cultivating some ground. He began the ferry by helping several persons across the river, the first being J. H. Beadle, who had written a severe denunciation of him. Lee told me he discovered Beadle's identity, but I have forgotten exactly how. Lee called the place "Lonely Dell," and it was a name well applied, for the precipices of naked rock rose high on every side, and about a hundred miles separated the locality from Kanab, the nearest settlement of any consequence.

Though the canyons of the Colorado had now been crossed midway of the great six-hundred-mile stretch, and farther north near Green River Valley had far back in the century been penetrated to a limited extent, almost nothing was actually known about them. Even at the most favourable points approach to the brink was extremely difficult, and descent to the water generally impossible. On each side the country was for many miles forbidding wilderness, for the journeys of the trappers, where they had penetrated, had left no impression. It was as if no white man had ever looked upon it. They were thus the final great problem of the Wilderness. A stout heart was required to launch forth into their unfathomed mystery, particularly as by this time numerous tales of underground channels, fearful cataracts, and chasms impossible of passage, went the rounds of the camp-fires. For a time the Civil War withdrew attention from Western exploration, but when it was ended one of the officers, who had gone through the weary four years, and who wore in consequence an armless right sleeve, turned his attention once more to his scientific studies, and finally found himself, in 1867, exploring in the Parks of Colorado. Here he learned of the wonderful and forbidding canyons of the great river, saw some of the minor tributary gorges, and also met and employed a rare mountaineer, Jack Sumner, also a veteran of the Civil War. Sumner says he suggested to Powell the descent of the canyons. At any rate, Powell became enthused with a desire to explore this remnant of the original Wilderness, and Sumner was a more than willing companion in the scheme. Organising an expedition Powell started from Green River Station, Wyoming, in the same valley where the early trappers had so often made their rendezvous, and which had also been the resting-place for the California pioneers. He was a geologist and his experienced eye and quick judgment doubtless soon disclosed to him the probable nature of the interior of the canyons; the probability that no insurmountable obstacle existed to prevent his triumphant descent through the whole series. But while he believed the canyon mystery could be solved he went at it with no spirit of bravado. With him it was serious, scientific business, solely for the purpose of determining the geologic and geographic character of the mighty gorges in which the river lost itself. As the difference between the altitude of Green River Station and that of the mouth of the Rio Virgin was known to be some five thousand feet, there was clearly room for realisation of all the fantastic tales of the mountaineers.

On May 29, 1869, with four staunch boats built in Chicago, manned by nine men besides Powell, the party set forth on the swift current from Green River, Wyoming. They were soon deep in the fastnesses of the canyon wilderness where the plunging river roared defiance. As has before been mentioned Ashley had passed through Red Canyon, one of the first of the great gorges. Meek in winter on the ice had gone through Lodore and the gorges just below it, and a party of trappers had been wrecked in Lodore in attempting the descent. The latter made their way to Salt Lake, where they worked on the temple which the Mormons had begun. This canyon of Lodore had disaster in store for Powell too. One of the boats was wrecked, though fortunately not a man was injured; but the accident produced trouble, as Powell blamed some of the men for blundering, and they blamed him for failing to signal in time.

When they reached Wonsits Valley one of the men, Goodman, who was in the wreck, decided that he had had enough of this river and made his way across country to the Uinta Agency. The precipices soon closed in again to form the ninety-seven miles of the Canyon of Desolation,[114] immediately followed by thirty-six miles now called Gray Canyon before an opening occurred. This opening was Gunnison Valley, through which Wolfskill in 1830 had led the way, breaking the "Spanish Trail" to California. It is from this point downward for six hundred miles that no opening occurs in the cliffs that bound the river. They become higher or lower, slightly farther apart or nearer together, and there are lateral canyons and minor breaks, of course, but there is no valley along the river, and in places for miles on either side the surface of the country is only barren sandstone. The cliffs reach altitudes of three, four, and five thousand feet above the water of the river. In these great depths men are as completely shut away from the world as if they were in the very bowels of the globe.

After passing through Labyrinth and Stillwater canyons the Powell party found themselves at the mouth of Grand River, which entered the main stream in a canyon thirteen hundred feet deep, and they were at the same time in the head of another great gorge, later named Cataract Canyon. Any one who follows their trail will admit the appropriateness of this title. The length is forty-one miles, the walls reach an altitude of twenty-seven hundred feet at the highest, and in some of the bends are so straight as to give an impression of overhanging the spectator's head as he peers aloft from his boat to the sky so far above. At least that was the impression I received. The verticality of the rocks was greater to my eye here than at any other point. For some distance the declivity of the river bed is the sharpest on the whole course, and this with the narrowness of the canyon began to disturb Powell and lead him to fear that some of the stories of impassable falls might be true. Fortunately no insurmountable obstruction was encountered, and they swept triumphantly on through Narrow Canyon and Glen Canyon to the head of Marble, the real beginning of the greatest gorge of all, at the point where Jacob Hamblin crossed a month or two later in the same year, and which to-day is known as Lee Ferry.

Now there was before the party the greatest continuous chasm on the globe, Marble-Grand, almost three hundred miles in length as the river flows. Here they met with the hardest work and greatest danger. They became worn out; food grew scarce, for accidents and wetting had reduced too rapidly the original supply. Then it seemed as if they could not proceed, and the men who had been wrecked in Lodore were not reconciled. Another joined them and, discontented, the three refused to attempt a particularly bad rapid. They climbed to the plateau and were killed by the natives not far from Mount Dellenbaugh. The others, nerving themselves for a desperate struggle, passed the bad place, swept on through more, and emerged triumphant the next day, at noon, August 29, 1869, at the mouth of the Grand Wash, and the end of the Grand Canyon. The victory was won—the last problem of the Wilderness was broken!

From this point down the river was known. Jacob Hamblin with several others had passed from here by boat to Callville, and thence to the sea Ives had explored as already noted.

It was a dramatic triumph over the angry and rock-walled stream which for three hundred and twenty-nine years, since the Spanish captain, Cardenas, first looked into the deeps of the Grand Canyon, had defied mankind. Powell and his men were nearly exhausted by starvation-diet and exposure, but the exhilaration of success sustained them, and help was near. Brigham Young, hearing rumours of disaster to the expedition, had sent instructions to some Mormons at the mouth of the Virgin to keep a sharp watch for wreckage and to render any assistance possible, and also for extra food to be taken there. The day after emerging from the great gorge they came to these men, Asa and his two sons, and enjoyed abundance of food and the sight once more of friendly faces from the outer world. The following day Bishop Leithead and two or three other Mormons arrived in a waggon with more supplies, including some fine melons, and the explorers were treated with every kindness.

Powell left the river here, but Jack Sumner and the others, except Walter Powell, went on down by river to Yuma where Sumner and Andrew Hall wintered, going the next year to the Gulf, the first and, so far as I have heard, the only human beings ever to accomplish the entire voyage from Green River Valley to tidewater. Sumner was a born trapper, hunter, and prospector, and at last accounts was still roaming the mountains engaged in these pursuits, another of those extraordinary characters that belong to the original Wilderness and will never live again. He knew Bridger, Baker, Carson, and others intimately and had met Frémont and Bonneville.[115]

When Powell, with his brother Walter, arrived at St. George he went immediately to the post-office eager to get the mail he had directed to be sent to this point.

"By whose authority," indignantly exclaimed the postmaster, "do you come here asking for Major Powell's mail—Major Powell is dead."

"By the best authority in the world," returned the Major. "I am Major Powell."

"But Major Powell is dead," reiterated the official. Something then about the ragged, haggard man shook his confidence. He said: "What evidence have you?"

"This," replied the Major, holding up the empty sleeve. "I left this arm at Shiloh." He got the mail.

Powell would hardly have been able so speedily and successfully to accomplish this feat had it not been for an event which was contemporaneous,—the construction of a transcontinental railway. This enabled him easily to place strong boats and supplies on the banks of Green River. His great voyage, which marks the end of the Wilderness, and the completion of the railway, marking the beginning of an entirely new epoch, occurred the same year. The rivers of the Wilderness were not available for practical transportation. Those east of the Backbone were circuitous and for the most part too shallow for boats of much draft; those west were torrential. Hence the necessity of the Iron Trail. In the search for the best route for such a trail to bind the Hudson to the Golden Gate a great many admirable surveys were made. Every one of the expeditions was profoundly interesting and intimately connected with Wilderness breaking, but it is not practicable here to describe them.

The route finally selected was up the Platte, across Green River Valley, to Salt Lake, down the Humboldt, and over the Sierra Nevada to Sacramento and San Francisco. The idea of putting a railway through the Wilderness was early conceived, but owing to numerous obstacles and difficulties as to route to be followed and as to finances, although the numerous surveys were made, nothing definite was done. As far back as 1850 Senator Benton, of Missouri, introduced a bill authorising portions of road to be constructed with gaps where it was supposed a line was not possible. In 1853 Congress appropriated $150,000 for six surveys to be executed by the War Department. The next year $190,000 more were appropriated for three additional surveys. It is thus apparent that Congress appreciated the importance of a line through the Wilderness which should bring the Pacific Coast with its now rapidly developing interests closer to the seat of Government. In the dissension which began to rend the country concerning the slavery question and State rights, there was danger of secession in that direction as well as at the South. The military importance of such a railway was beyond discussion. General Sherman, who knew the conditions thoroughly and had gone in 1846 to California, declared the Government could well afford to build the whole line and would make money by the operation, as it was indispensable for the transportation of troops and supplies.

In July, 1862, Congress, though burdened with the terrific war problem, passed the Pacific Railway Bill authorising the construction of a continuous line from the Missouri River to the Pacific Ocean. Two private companies were then formed to build this line—the Union Pacific for the eastern part and the Central Pacific for the western. These companies were to receive Government aid as follows: 1. A free right of way 400 feet wide. 2. An issue of Government bonds amounting to one half the cost of the road. 3. An absolute gift of ten alternate sections of land per mile (12,800 acres) on each side of the line. 4. Privilege of using coal, iron, etc., from the region through which building operations extended. 5. To receive on completion of continuous sections of 20 miles the bonds of the United States as follows: A. Between the Missouri River and eastern base of mountains, about 650 miles, $16,000 a mile. B. Across the Rocky Mountains, 150 miles, $48,000 a mile. C. Across the Great Basin, $32,000 a mile. D. Across the Sierra Nevada, 150 miles, $48,000 a mile. E. To San Francisco, about 120 miles, $16,000 a mile.

The Government also obliged itself to extinguish the title of Amerinds to all lands donated. The State of California assumed the interest for twenty years on $1,500,000 of the Central Pacific bonds, assistance estimated as the equivalent of $3,000,000 in gold. San Francisco gave $400,000 and Sacramento donated 30 acres of land. The aggregate of land given to the two companies was ten million acres. Thus it seems that the Government practically paid for the whole line. It would have been better if it had built the road without the intervention of the companies. About two miles a day was made in track building, then considered rapid work. The chief contractor was J. S. Casement, and William Dodge was chief engineer. The workmen lived in trains which were pushed ahead as fast as the road advanced and were supplied with plenty of rifles and ammunition for protection against the Sioux and other roaming tribes. These hovered about like vultures, choosing opportune moments for attack. The assistant engineer, P. T. Browne, with his party, was fired on sixty miles west of North Platte. They fought for about two hours against seventy-five natives. Browne was killed.

Sometimes the Amerinds destroyed the track, captured trains, killed engineers, firemen, brakemen, and telegraph linemen. They also would destroy the telegraph line and carry off the wire. In fact, they were a constant terror and menace. But when denouncing them nobody remembers the swindles perpetrated on them in former years, nor the bad whiskey which impoverished them and brutalised them and won their furs for a bagatelle. Their attitude was largely the result of the earlier treatment they had received from the whites, as well as of all the bad white blood which had been infused into the tribes. One of the worst affairs was the Plum Creek massacre. William Thompson, an Englishman, a telegraph man, was sent out with a party of five to hunt up a break. They started about nine o'clock one evening and when they reached the place a pile of ties was discovered on the track for the purpose of wrecking a supply train nearly due. Barely had this discovery been made when Thompson and his men were attacked by the enemy. They fired back and then ran. One of the natives on a horse pursued Thompson, shot him through the arm, and then knocked him down with a clubbed rifle. Next he stabbed him in the neck to finish him, and immediately began the operation of removing Thompson's scalp. As Thompson was far from dead the prospect was not agreeable, but a movement would have brought death. His only chance was to keep quiet and let the work go on, and he was able to do this notwithstanding the pain. But when the scalp was jerked loose he thought his whole head was off, and then felt as if a red-hot iron had been passed over his crown.

The native tucked the scalp in his belt and mounting rode hastily away, but in doing so dropped the scalp and its owner picked it up. Thompson was obliged to remain quiet while the band piled more ties on the track. Presently he heard the distant rumble of the train. It was impossible to do anything to prevent the wreck. In a few moments the cars were piled in a heap. The engineer and fireman were shot and scalped; the train was ransacked by the light of a huge fire. A barrel of whiskey was opened and all got drunk. When daybreak came they set the whole wreck on fire and gleefully danced around it. When they were finally gone from the scene Thompson crawled away and at length reached Willow Island station, where a rescuing party found him. People came from all around to see his ghastly baldness. He was taken to a hotel where a doctor dressed his wound. "In a pail of water was his scalp, about nine inches in length and four in width, somewhat resembling a drowned rat as it floated curled up on the water." Such were the incidents due to the wild tribes which constantly harassed the builders of this iron trail.

But these savages were little worse than those who composed a large part of the population of each terminus. They had different methods, that was all. Whiskey flowed free and drunkenness was, as usual with our European race, the great recreation. Gambling dives and grog shops made up a large part of the mushroom town that grew up at each official end of the track. All manner of people, like birds of prey, flocked to these places to secure a share of the money paid to the workers, who were numbered by thousands. Some buildings were fairly substantial, but there were many that were merely board sides with a canvas roof. Others were "dugouts," that is, holes in the ground roofed over with sticks and earth; in a side hill if possible. There were large numbers of tents. Where there were vertical clay banks along a dry water course, or a stream, these were burrowed into near the top, a square chamber being made seven or eight feet long, five or six high, and four or five deep, the outer side being closed by a blanket or canvas hung from the upper edge. Rents were high and any shelter at all was valuable.

From time to time, as progress of the line demanded, the official terminus was moved on. From Grand Island it jumped to North Platte, then to Julesburg, then to Cheyenne, and so on, in some cases leaving a permanent town of considerable proportions behind. In the case of Cheyenne a city of five thousand sprang out of nothing, and there were three newspapers; but in some instances the advance left behind only a wreck looking as if a tornado had swept that way. Remnants of old clothes, boards, straw, broken furniture, thousands of tin cans, empty bottles, etc., strewed the ground in all directions. At Green River a number of adobe houses were built, the ruins of which were still standing at the time of my first visit to that locality in 1871. Even two or three miles up the track I found dugouts and a large amount of wreckage to remind one of the late "prosperity." The life at these places had all the most vicious qualities of our civilization, and few of its good ones. There were no policemen, and the state of disorder may be imagined. It was a feverish nightmare of horrors, in striking contrast to the sobriety of the life the Mormons brought to the Wilderness.

Three years after the beginning of the great work, which it was thought would require ten, the day came when the ceremony was to be performed that should complete the engineering triumph. On May 10, 1869, two engines at Promontory Point, Utah, were brought head to head, a half-world at each back, as Bret Harte said, only a small space intervening, where the crowd gathered to witness the driving of the last spike which should bring far seas together and mark an end and a beginning. There was a prayer by the Reverend Doctor Todd. The last tie, of California laurel, beautifully polished and bearing on one side a silver plate with names of officers engraved upon it, was then laid. Two rails were next placed opposite each other, one for the Union, the other for the Central Pacific. Following this was a presentation of spikes on the part of California, Nevada, and Arizona. Governor Stanford responded for the Central Pacific, and General Dodge for the Union Pacific. With a silver hammer for driving the last spike, presented by the Union Express Company, Governor Stanford stood on the south rail, while Dr. Durant, to drive another, stood on the north one. At a signal that the telegraph was ready these spikes were driven, the last one, the golden spike of the Central Pacific, being connected with the telegraph so that the strokes of Stanford's hammer were repeated all over the country, and at the final blow "done" was sent to the waiting world. The crowd cheered; Dr. Durant and Governor Stanford shook hands. Telegrams of congratulation were received. General Dodge, the engineer in chief, and Jack and Dan Casement, the chief contractors, were the heroes of the hour. The work was finished.

The operation of building this line partly belongs to the romantic period of Breaking the Wilderness, but when that last spike of gold was sent home and the engines met upon the rails a new and different epoch began. Scarcely less fascinating, up to this moment, have been its events, but this volume is not for them. The trail of the iron horse, which would annihilate the vast distances of the Wilderness, where the life blood of so many had softened the way, was an accomplished fact. The new era was at hand. Europe and Cathay stood at last face to face, in the midst of that once "northern mystery" which was the dream of the gold-hunting _conquistadore_. The Seven Cities of Cibola had long ago vanished, but the rich cities of the Republic were building in their place, and wealth beyond the wildest imagination of the early adventurers was now to flow from every corner of the broken Wilderness.

FOOTNOTES:

[105] Though beaver trapping was no longer profitable, yet the fur business was still carried on, and, as Chittenden points out, is to-day greater than ever. Furs now come from a much wider range, however.

[106] Books about the Mormons are full of prejudice one way or the other. The most valuable account I know is _The Story of the Mormons_, by William A. Linn.

[107] The reader may conclude from my remarks on alcoholic beverages that I am a Prohibitionist or a teetotaler, yet such is not the case. But the manner in which whiskey was furnished to the natives, and the way in which it debauches the frontier towns, are a disgrace to humanity.

[108] For location of forts and trading posts see Chittenden, _History of the American Fur Trade_, Part III., with an excellent map.

[109] _Captivity of the Oatman Girls_, R. B. Stratton.

[110] _Jacob Hamblin_; _A Narrative of His Personal Experience_, Fifth Book of the Faith Promoting Series, by James A. Little. Juvenile Instructor Office, Salt Lake City, 1881.

[111] The Mormons also settled in southern California, and Major Bell declared "they were the very best fellows" he ever had to do with. In 1859 they were recalled to Utah by Brigham Young, who for the time being concentrated his people in the territory over which they had control.

[112] Provo to Golden.

[113] Being desirous of securing details of Johnson's operations, and finding that he was still living in California, I wrote to him about a year ago requesting information particularly on certain main facts. Instead of giving it to me, he replied that he would soon publish a book in which I would find all the points, and referred me to that. He died soon after, and I have not been able to get track of the book.

[114] For a list of the canyons in their sequence, with declivity, altitudes, height of walls, etc., see Appendix, _The Romance of the Colorado River_, by F. S. Dellenbaugh.

[115] After this was written Sumner died—in 1907.

INDEX

A

Acadia, 130

Acoma, 114

Acuco, 112

Adiazan stock, location of, 68

Adams River, 250

Adobe concrete, 68

Adopted men become chiefs, 84

Adoption, Amerind system of, 84

Agent cuts off native's ears, 269

Agriculture, early, in New Mexico, 267

Aguardiente, 268

Aguilar goes north of Mendocino to great river, 142

Alarçon, Hernando de, goes up the coast, 40; discovers the Colorado, 111

Alaska boundary, 254

Alcaraz, Captain, meets Cabeza de Vaca, 101

Alcohol, 94; sold to natives, 179

Algonquian stock, 63; range of, 64

Allencaster, governor of New Mexico, 191

Alta California, 120; Missions first planted there, 122

Alvar Nuñez Cabeza de Vaca, 2, 104, 106, 107, 108-111

Ameies, villages of, found by Espejo, 114

American Fur Company, organised, 197; rendezvous in Green River Valley, 275; comes near ruin in the whiskey-still matter, 286

American River, gold discovery on, 308

Americans attack Juan José, 265; barred from Oregon, 289

American settlers in California, 308; ships on the Pacific coast, 146

Amerind, 132; adoption, 84; attacks on Pacific Railway constructors, 330; believed by the Mormons to be descended from some of those dispersed at the Tower of Babel, 304; beverages, 70; bread, 72; ceremonials, 72; character of, 12, 56; colour of, 54; cooking, how done, 72; cruelty, 100; destroy railway property, 330; domestic animals of, 56; dress, 88; dwellings, 68; eating of human flesh, 79; explanation of term, 54; fear of camera, 92; hospitality, 82; jargons, 63; kindness of, 88; knowledge of the Wilderness, 89, 168; knowledge, 102; languages, 61; linguistic map, 62; manufactures, 70; map drawing, 89; marriage, 82; method of expressing astonishment, 292; musical instruments of, 72; of Louisiana, goes to the Columbia, 140; of the Wilderness, 63; sense of humour, 93; sign language, 62; shooters, 278; women, place of, 77

Amerinds, classification by language, 60; removed west of the Mississippi, 60; shot for sport, 277, 278, 280; subsistence of, 75; three conditions of, 75; titles to railway lands extinguished, 329; tobacco, kinds of, 79; traits, 57; treatment of, by whites, 60, 243; understanding of territorial limits of, 89; unit of organisation, 82; winter life of, 92; words derived from languages of, 79

Ames monument, 334

Anian, Strait of, 142; a myth, 147

Anza, Captain, journey of, 124; to San Francisco Bay, 124

Apache, 266.

Apache tribe, where classed, 61, 66; like the Iroquois, 66; punished by Spanish expeditions, 117

Apaches, kill one of Pattie advance party, 248; become deadly enemies of Americans, 265

Arapaho tribe, where classed, 64; visit Stuart's camp, 218; hostility of, 243; scalped by whites, 296

Arc tribe, 139

Area owned by United States after Mexican treaty of 1848, 301

Arikara tribe, where classed, 64

Arkansas River, 6; Bell goes down it, 226; boundary of Louisiana, 221; proper spelling and pronunciation of the word, 225

Armijo, governor of New Mexico, 265; imposes heavy tax on American goods, 238

Army sent to Utah, 310

Arroyo del Cibolo, named by Escalante, 36

Asa, at the mouth of the Virgin, helps Powell, 325

Ashley, 232, 271; arrives at St. Louis, 242; battle with Arikaras, 234; becomes rich, 242; boats used by, 238; builds fort on the Yellowstone, 233; canyons traversed by, 295; comes out into Brown's Park, 240; decade, the, 233; descends Green River through Red Canyon, 238; elected member of Congress, 232, 244; Fall, 240; first to navigate Green River, 238; goes to Salt Lake, 240; his methods, 259; home in St. Louis, 244; Lake, 242; loses boats, 239; made a brigadier-general, 232; made lieutenant-governor, 232; meets General Atkinson, 242; meets Ogden at Salt Lake, 240; meets Provost in Brown's Park, 240; name record in Red Canyon, facsimile of, 240; organisation, 258; parts from his men, 244; second trip to the mountains, 242; sells out, 244; takes cannon to Utah Lake, 272; through Flaming Gorge, 294; writes his name in Red Canyon, 240

Assiniboine, British trading posts on, 158

_Assiniboine_, steamboat, 285

Asuncion, Bahia de la, 142

Astor, John Jacob, his opinion of the sale of Astoria, 219; organises American Fur Company, 197; organises Pacific Fur Company, 198

_Astoria_, Irving's work, cited, 287

Astoria, Captain Biddle takes possession, 219; enterprise ended, 219; Hunt arrives, 214; named, 200; Prevost receives actual transfer back to United States, 219; rebuilt, 283; renamed Fort George, 218; restored to United States, 219; sold to Northwest Company, 218; taken by British, 218

Astronomer of Ingolstadt, 124

Athabasca country, changes in, 34

Athapascan stock, range of, 64

Atkinson, General, 242

Atole, Mexican drink, 268

Attacapan stock, location of, 68

Austin leads in the colonisation of Texas, 298

B

Bac, San Xavier del, Mission of, 124

Bahia de la Asuncion, 142

Baird to Santa Fé, 1812, 257

Balboa, cited by Frémont, 300

Baldwin, Doctor, with Long, 223

Bandelier, A. F., paper; on Cabeza de Vaca, 106; on Villazur, 134; site for Tiguex, 114

Bar of the Columbia, 142

Baranof, Hunt visits, 215; Castle, 215

Battle, first, between natives and Europeans in the Wilderness, 110; between Comanches and Iotans, 247; of Pierre's Hole, 273; of San Jacinto, 298; of Shiloh compared with Amerind warfare, 72; with Comanches and Kiowas, 262

Battles of the Fur Companies, 240; of the Wilderness compared with Amerind warfare, 72

Beadle, J. H., ferried over Colorado by Lee, 318

Beale, E. F., 316

Beale's Road, 316

Bear River, search for mouth of, 242

Beauharnois, 139

Beaver, anatomy, 16; as a pet, 31; bait, 29; bank burrows, 17; Bradbury's views on their tree felling, 27; capture of, in bank burrows, 31; castoreum, 27; chips, 25; colour of, 13; cry of, 31; dams, 18, 21; disappearance, 28, 244, 273, 294, 302, 304; education of the young, 28; explanation of half-cut trees, 28; family, members of, 31; food, 16; for an emblem, 31; form of dams, 21; fur of, 13; genus of, 16; incentive to exploration, 12; in the water, 24; intellectuality, 17; intelligence, 13; kind of trees chosen, 27; lodges, construction of, 21; lodges chopped open in winter, 31; meadows, 24; meat, 25; mental qualities, 16; methods, 16; method of building, 18; methods of capture other than with traps, 29-31; method of cutting, 25; musk, muskbogs, 27; nature of, 31; never found in deep canyons, 17; never steps backwards, 31; numbers of, 12; number trapped in a single night, 15, 18; on Green River in 1871, 24; on upper Missouri, Lewis and Clark Expedition, 164; order to which it belongs, 13; outcast, 31; ponds, 21; reduction of numbers, 26; sample of tree-gnawing, 26; search for beaver grounds, 29; signal of alarm, 24; size of, 13; size of trees felled, 27; spillways, 20; tail, description of, 24; tail soup, 25; taming of, 31; testing for traps, 28; time able to remain under water, 27; time required to fell tree, 27; trappers' stories, 21; trapping, profits of, 15; trapping responsible for breaking trails, 304; traps, 28; weight of, 13; winter food, 21; works executed by, 16

_Beaver_, Astoria supply ship, 215

Beaver Dam Mountains, 309

Becknell, William, goes to Santa Fé, 1821, 257; goes west of Santa Fé, 249; used waggons to Santa Fé, 272

Beckwourth, James P., 263; a chief of the Crows, 238; age of, 238; character of, 238; with Ashley, 237

Beckwourth and Smith make a raid, 264

Bell, J. R., Captain, with Long, 223

Beltran, Friar, goes to New Mexico, 114

Benavides, route of, 116

Benton, Senator, meets Frémont, 300

Bering explores from Kamtchatka east across the sea, 140

Berkeley, Hon. Grantley F., his description of marrow-bones, 41; his love for marrow, 41

Bernalillo as the site of Tiguex, 114

Berthoud, E. L., explores road from Denver to Salt Lake, 315; tries to explore Green River, 314

Beverages of Amerinds, 70

Bible, the Mormon view of it, 304

Biddle, Captain, takes formal possession of Astoria, 219

Bidwell, Captain, cited, 278

Bienville founds New Orleans, 138

Bierstadt, picture of buffalo hunting referred to, 40

Big Medicine Canoe, 285

Big Thunder Canoe, 285

Big trees, 8, 9

Bighorn Mountains, 207

Bijeau, Joseph, guide to Long, 226

Bill Williams Fork, 117

_Bison Americanus_, 32

_Bisonte_, Spanish word for buffalo, 34

Bitter Root Range, Lewis and Clark traverse it, 169

Bitter Root River, 169

Black Canyon, Ives goes to head of, 317; Johnson takes steamer to head of, 317

Black Hills, 207; Parker goes that way, 287

Blackfeet a scourge, 244; attacked by whites, 273; hostility of, 243; likened to Iroquois, 244; tribe, where classed, 63

Blankets of buffalo wool woven by Osages, 50

_Blossom_, British war ship, carries Prevost to Astoria, 219

Blue Mountains, 281; Hunt crosses them, 213; Wyeth crosses them, 275

Boats used by Ashley, 238

Bodies destroyed by wolves and dogs, 99

Boiling Spring Creek, 225

Bold, The, Crow chief, captures Meek, 291; his opinion of the whites, 291

Bonneville, Captain, birth, education, etc., 270, 272; as a manager, 271; portrait of, 271; granted leave of absence, 272; starts, 272; outfit, 272; his waggons not the first to cross the plains, 272; did not lose a man, 272; route of, 272; takes first waggons as far as Green River, 272; builds fort at Green River, 272; fails to trade with natives, 273; goes to Salmon River, 274; goes to Snake River, 274; rendezvous in Green River Valley, 275; sends furs to St. Louis, 275; ignores orders, 276; dropped from the army, 276; claims discovery that Buenaventura River was a myth, 280; crosses Blue Mountains, 281; at Nez Perce camp, 281; goes to the Columbia, 281; cures chief's daughter, 281; at Fort Walla Walla, 281; goes again to the Columbia, 282; recrosses Blue Mountains, 282, 283; refused provisions by Hudson Bay Company, 282; declines guidance of Hudson Bay men, 282; back at Portneuf, 282; fails to get a footing on the Columbia, 283; refused provisions a second time at Walla Walla, 284; applies his name to Salt Lake, 284; his name given to an ancient sea, 284; adjusts his affairs and leaves the Wilderness, 284; his failure, 284; his maps copied, 284; reinstated, 284; serves in Seminole and Mexican wars, 284; made brevet brigadier-general, 284; dies, 284; Irving's work cited, 287

Bonneville Lake, an ancient sea, 284

Book of Mormon, 304; of Doctrine and Covenants, 305

Boone, Daniel, age of, 193; at La Charette, 193

Boundary, British desire to make Columbia River the, 290; ill-defined United States and Mexican, 315; of Louisiana, 220; of Oregon, 289, 290

Brackenridge, Henry, with Lisa, 206; his opinion of Lisa, 221

Bradbury, goes with Hunt, 204; leaves Hunt party, 207; meets Colter, 196; views on beaver tree-felling, 27

Bridger, James, 232; age of, 234; with Ashley, 234; goes to Salt Lake, 242; has arrow removed by Whitman, 288; extricates Meek, 293; portrait of, 293; makes a war compact with The Bold, 294; Fort, 309; attempts to explore Green River, 314; with Berthoud explores road from Denver to Salt Lake, 315

British-American agreement as to Oregon renewed, 253

British, on Hudson Bay, 136; settlement on James River, 131; take Astoria, 218

Broughton goes up the Columbia, 170

Brown bear, fight with, 164

Brown's Hole, 238

Brown's Park, 238; position of, 295

Browne, P. T., killed by natives, 330

Buenaventura, Escalante crosses it, 124; Escalante's name for Green River, 124; the mythical outlet of Salt Lake, 280

Buffalo, 32; numbers of, 10, 32; range of, 10, 34; disappearing, 32, 302; in Montezuma's menagerie, 32; word for, in Isleta dialect, 34; oscillation of whole mass of buffalo, 34; when first in Athabasca country, 34; not migratory, 34; Coronado sees immense herds, 34; on Pecos River, 34; sees robes at first villages, 34; city of, named after, 35; bones above mastodon bones, 35; bones at salt licks of Ohio valley, and at Big Bone Lick, Kentucky, 35; in Saskatchewan country, 35; eastern limit of, 35; Albert Gallatin lives on buffalo meat, 35; remains not found in mounds of Mississippi valley, 35; not found on Moundbuilder pipes, 35; probability that it would have gone to Alaska, 35; in Arizona, 36; limit on west, 36; no mention of it by Lewis and Clark west of Rocky Mountains, 36; rock picture of, 36; seen by Escalante on White River, 36; skull found at Gunnison, 37; no mention of, by Espejo or Oñate west of the Rio Grande, 37; south-western limit, 37; did not cross Rocky Mountains north of 57 degrees, 37; crosses to Green and Columbia,37; in Missouri, 37; earliest published drawing of, 38; fossil remains, 38; painted by Catlin, 38; prairie buffalo, 38; wood buffalo, 38; western range, 38; by Bierstadt, 40; wanton killing, 42; herd, advance of, 44; herds dashed to death, 44; drowned in river, 44; shooting from railway trains, 44; methods of hunting the, 45; corral, 46; dashed over cliff, 46; hides, process of tanning, 48; hides, value of, 48; hunting by Washington Irving, 48; number of robes sent to market, 48; stampede, 49; wallows, 50; wool woven into blankets by Osages, 50; dance, 51; easily domesticated, 51; white cow skin held sacred, 51; calf dangerous, 52; method of forcing to follow horse, 52; as an emblem, 53; followed by wolves, 53; Amerind failure to domesticate, 56; blood for drinking water, 79; seen by Espejo, 116; on upper Missouri, Lewis and Clark, 164

Buildings at railway terminals, 332

Burr, Aaron, 184

Butler, description of northland, 40; quoted, 146

C

Cabeza de Vaca, 2; arrives in Mexico, 108; crosses the Sierra Madre, 107; cures the people, 106; duration of his wanderings, 108; route of, 108; starts west, 106; wrecked, 104

Cabrillo coasts north along California, and dies, 119

Cache, definition of, 81

Cactus, blossoms of, 10

Caddo tribe, where classed, 64

Caddoan stock, location of, 63

Caldron Linn, 210, 216

California, Gulf of, 4; aid to railways, 329; location of, 8; missions, names of, number of, and when founded, 122; routes to, 309; settlement, 120; towns of, captured by American ships, 300

Californian stocks, 68

Callville, Rodgers takes steamer to Callville, 317

Campbell, Robert (name also given by some, Richard), 242; awards discovery of Salt Lake to Bridger, 242; from Santa Fé to San Diego, 257; knew the Crossing of the Fathers, 314; meets Wyeth, 273; starts with Sublette for St. Louis, 274

Canadian voyageur, 129, 147

Canyon, Split Mountain, Whirlpool, 294; Desolation, Gray, Labyrinth, Stillwater, 322; Cataract, Grand, Glen, Marble, Narrow, 324; Marble-Grand, 324, 325, 326

Canyons of the Colorado, barrier of, 316, 322; the final problem, 320

Cape Disappointment, 148

Caravans of the Santa Fé Trail, 258, 259; methods of forming camp, 260

Cardenas, goes to Tusayan, 110; first to see the Grand Canyon, 110; time between first sight of the Grand Canyon and Powell's exploration of it, 325

Carretas, Mexican carts, 267

Carson, Alexander, killed Sioux for fun, 58; with W. P. Hunt, 204

Carson, Kit (Christopher), 232, 249, 254; character, 255; fights duel, 288; hunter for Fort Davy Crockett, 255; traps down the Gila and on the Sacramento, 255

Carthage Jail, Joseph Smith murdered there, 305

Cartier, discovers Newfoundland, 128; up the St. Lawrence, 128; to site of Montreal, 130

Carver, Jonathan, 180; tells of the river Oregon, 140

Casa Grande, ruins of, 68; Kino first to see, 120

Cascade range, 6

Casement, J. S., chief contractor Union Pacific Railway, 330, 337; Dan, 337

Castoreum, musky secretion of beaver, 27; used as bait, 27; in medicine, 27

Cataract Canyon on the Colorado River, 324; name carved there, 296

Catholics in the northern Wilderness, 308

Catlin, painted buffalo, etc., 38; on steamer _Yellowstone_, 285

Cavelier, Robert, Sieur de la Salle, 133

Central Pacific Railway, 328

Cerré, with Bonneville, 272

Chaboillez, Charles, 158; sent note to Lewis, 163

Chaboneau, interpreter to Lewis and Clark, 163; Creek, 163

Chambers to Santa Fé in 1812, 257

Chamita, site of Oñate's first settlement, 130

Champlain, founds Quebec, 130; goes westward, 130

Chamuscado enters New Mexico, 114

Charles, Fort, 151

Chepewyan, Fort, founded, 147

Cheyenne, tribe, where classed, 64; town of, 334

Chichilticalli, 110

Chihuahua, Pike taken to Salcedo's headquarters there, 192

Chittimachan, stock, location of, 67

Chittenden, H. M., on Bonneville, 270; reference to his book, 270; quoted, 270, 271, 277, 280; opinion of Bonneville, 271; opinion of the Salt Lake exploring project, 277; on Bonneville's breach of discipline, 284

Children, treatment of, by Amerinds, 85

Chinook jargon, 63

Chippewa tribe, where classed, 63

Chouteau, Auguste, 174, 194

Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints, 304

Cibola, Seven Cities of, 110, 113

Cibola, cows of, 34; why so called, 34

Cicuye, 112

Cimarron River, 257

Claims of the various Powers in North America, 144

Clan, 82; life, 82; names, 86; property, 82

Clappine drowned, 210

Clark, Chaboneau, and Sacajawea nearly lost, 166

Clark, George Rogers, 153, 157

Clark, William, to go with Lewis, 157; commissioned lieutenant, 158; explores Salmon River, 169; made agent for the western tribes, 174; made general of militia, 174; ordered to suppress whiskey still, 286

Clarke hangs a Nez Perce, 243

Clatsop, Fort, 170, 196

Clyburn, his dash for life, 245; walks to Council Bluffs, 245

Coahuiltecan stock, location of, 67

Coast range, 8

Color of buffalo, 38

Colorado, City, 224; first American structure in State of, 186; Plateau, 270

Colorado River, canyons, 4; canyons a barrier, 316; canyons avoided, 17; crossed with difficulty, 314; Derby explores to Yuma, 315; final problem, 320; first steamer on, 315; headwaters of, 4; length of, 4; map showing Marble-Grand Canyon, 326; Oñate arrived at it, 116; only one way to explore it, 314; point where Powell's men left him, 326; Powell desires to explore it, 320; remained unknown till Powell, 18; Sumner and Hawkins the only men to go all the way from Green River Valley to tidewater, 325; the close canyons, 322; tidal bore, 249; unbroken, 250, 314; valley, 6; verticality of walls, 324

Colorado River, Little, 116

_Colorado_, steamboat, 315

Colter, his race for life, 194; through the geyser region of the Yellowstone, 196; trapper, 194

Columbia River, Aguilar at mouth of, 142; bar, 142; discovery by Heceta, 142; first at mouth of, 4; first news of, 133; Fishing and Trading Company, 283; Great Britain claims mouth of, 219; rumours of, 138; visited by a native of Louisiana, 140

_Columbia_, ship, 4, 150

Comanche, tribe, where classed, 63; and Kiowa intimately associated, 64; house, 68

Comal (comalli), 267

Compagnie d'Orient, 138

Conception River, name applied to the Mississippi, 133

Concrete made with clay and gravel, 68

Conejos, Rio, Pike builds fort there, 189

Conflicting territorial claims, 155

Congress, generosity of, 303; passes railway bill, 328

_Constitution_, ship, sent to convoy the Tonquin, 199

Continental divide, 2

Contractor, chief, of Union Pacific Railway, 330

Cook, Captain, doubts existence of North-west Passage, 148

Cooper goes to Santa Fé in 1822, 257

Copper mines in New Mexico, 267

Corazones, Valle de los (Valley of the Hearts), 107

Coronado, Francis Vasquez de, 109; arrived near Kansas City, 126; expedition projected, 108; expedition, 110; finds buffalo robes at Cibola, 34; goes east, 112; goes with Marcos to see Mendoza, 109; injured, 113; referred to, 183; returns to Mexico, 113; returns to Tiguex, 113

Corralling buffalo, 46

Cotton cultivated, 93

Coues, discovers Fowler's journal, 235; suggestion as to Pike's real intentions, 184

Council Bluffs, 222; Clyburn walks there, 245

Coureurs de bois, 136

Cree tribe, where classed, 63

Creek tribe receive white refugees, 262

Crook, General, 266

Crooks, Ramsay, with Wilson Price Hunt, 205

Crooks, rejoins Hunt, 212; starts back, 210

Crossing of the Fathers (El Vado de los Padres), 125; early known to Robert Campbell, 314; Jacob Hamblin goes that way, 317; map showing position of, 326

Crow chief's opinion of the whites, 291

Crow method of truce conference, 293

Crow tribe, where classed, 61

Crozat, Antoine, grant to, 138

Cruelty of Amerinds, 100

Cruz, Friar Juan de la, 114

Cruzatte accidentally shoots Lewis, 174

Cruzatte's post, 160

Cunames, town found by Espejo on the Puerco, 114

Currant Creek, Pike camps at mouth of, 188

D

Dakota, tribe, where classed, 61; tipi, 68

Davis in the Far North, 131

Dawson killed by a white bear, 235

Day, John, reduced to a skeleton, 212; dies, 216

Dead Sea of America, 304, 305

Deception Bay, 148

Dellenbaugh, Mount, 324

Denver to Salt Lake, road explored, 315

Derby, Lieutenant, explores Colorado up to Yuma, 315

Deseret, State of, 305, 308

De Smet, Father, 308

Desolation, Canyon of, 322

De Soto. _See_ Soto.

Diamond Creek, 317

Diaz, Melchior, sent to reconnoitre, 109; explores from Corazones to the Colorado River, 111; finds, letters from Alarçon, 111; goes back with Marcos, 111; dies, 111;

Dickson met by Lewis and Clark, 174

Dillon, Sidney, 333

Disappointment, Cape, 148

Diseases, ravages of, 97

Disorder at railway terminals, 336

Dixon, 148

Dixon and Hancock, 194

Dodge, General, 336; chief engineer Union Pacific Railway, 330

Dog, the only domestic animal of the Amerind of North America, 56; used as food, 77

Dolores Mission, Sonora, Mexico, 120

Domesticating buffalo, 51

Dorantes, Andreas, 106

Dorion, 161; lived early with the Sioux, 151; Pierre, with Hunt, 206; his squaw and children, 210; squaw has a child on the road, 213

Dougherty, one of Pike's men, freezes his feet, 190

Drake on California coast, 119

Drake's Bay, 119

Drewyer, interpreter for Lewis and Clark, 163

Drouillard, interpreter for Lewis and Clark, 163

Drunkenness at railway terminals, 332

Duff, John, 333

Dugout house, 332

Dunbar, 181

Dupratz, story of great western river heard by him, 140

Durant, Doctor, 336

Dutch at New York, 132

E

Echo Park, 294

El Real de Dolores, gold mine in New Mexico, 267

El Vado de los Padres (the Crossing of the Fathers), 125

Engineer Cantonment, 222

Entrails of animals eaten raw, 79

Escalante, buffalo seen by him on White River near Green River, 36; names Arroyo del Cibolo, 36; journey of, 124; abandons attempt to reach San Gabriel, 125; crosses the Colorado, 125; route, 168; mentioned, 317

Escalona, Luis de, remains in New Mexico, 113

Eskimauan stock, 66

_Esmeralda_, steamboat, goes up the Colorado, 317

Espejo, Antonio de, goes to New Mexico, 114; direction of his route from Tiguex, 114; goes to Zuñi, 116; to San Francisco Mountains, 116; route, 116; sees buffalo on the Rio Pecos, 116

Espiritu Santo, Rio de, 104

Estevan, companion of Cabeza de Vaca, 106; guides Friar Marcos, 108; killed, 108; Diaz meets some of the natives who were with Estevan when he went to Cibola, 110

_Evangeline_, Longfellow's poem, cited, 130

Expedition of Lewis and Clark, 157, 158

Expedition of Villazur toward the Missouri in 1720, 117

Exploration of the Colorado by Ives, 317

Explorations of the Californian coast, 119

_Explorer, The_, Ives's steamboat, 317; picture of, 316

F

Falls of the Missouri, 166

Faith Promoting Series, Books of the Mormon Church, 313

Farnham cited, 295

Father de Smet, 308

Ferrelo explores coast of Oregon, 119

Fidler, Peter, 160; goes south-west from Saskatchewan to the Rocky Mountains, 151

Fields, Reuben, with Lewis and Clark, kills a Blackfoot, 172

First, highway to the Wilderness, 130; European settlement in the United States, 130; traverse of the continent north of Mexico, 148; American to go to California overland, 250; American to see the Grand Canyon, 250

Fitzpatrick, with Ashley, 234; guides Parker, 287

Flaming Gorge, 238; first of the canyons below Green River Valley, on Green River, 234

Florida, 127; conquest of, 103; ceded to the United States, 220

Floyd, Sergeant, death of, 162

Fontaine qui Bouille, Boiling Spring Creek, 186; Long camps on it, 224; Frémont's name for it, 224

Fontenelle guides Parker, 287

Forsyth, Thomas, opinion of methods of treating natives, 269; tells of abuse of natives, 269

Fort, Chepewyan, 147; Charles, 151; Mandan, 162; Clatsop, 170; Smith, Long arrives there, 227; Nonsense, 272; Walla Walla, 281; Hall, 283; Vancouver, 283; Tecumseh, 285; Union, whiskey still at, 286; Davy Crockett, Meek at, 294; Yuma, position of, 315

Fort Yuma, Derby explores river to, 325; Sumner and Hawkins go there, 325

Forty-ninth parallel boundary, 219

Forty-second parallel boundary, 220

Fossil remains of buffalo, 38

Fowler, Jacob, builds first house by an American at Pueblo, 235; goes to Santa Fé, 235; journal of, 235; his description of Dawson's condition after the bear fight, 237

Fowler and Glenn, go to Taos, 235; meet McKnight, Chambers, and Baird, who were imprisoned in Mexico, 257

Foy killed by Blackfeet, 274

Fraeb hunts through the Rocky Mountains, 280

France loses footing on the continent, 141

Franciscan Order supersedes the Jesuit in California, 122

Francis La Flesche, quoted, 89

Franklin, Missouri, starting-point of Santa Fé Trail, 257

Fraser's fort, 197, 198

Fraser River, 148

Frémont, John C., 225, 271, 298, 303, 304, 308

French, advance by the St. Lawrence route, 129; settlement on the St. John's River, 130; on the Saskatchewan, 134; first to Hudson Bay, 136; supremacy, 138

Frontenac, 132

Fuca, Juan de, 119; Strait of, supposed to go through to Atlantic, 142

Fulton, 222

Fur business still great, 304

Fur companies, battles of, 240

Furs confiscated, 253

Fur trade, 145; rivalry, 286

G

Gadsden purchase, 315

Gallatin, Albert, his classification of Amerinds by language, 60; cited, 284

Gallatin River, 168

Garces, at the Colorado, 124; reaches Bac, 124; journeys of, 124; Sitgreaves follows trail of, 316

Gate of Lodore, 294

_General Jesup_, steamboat, 315

George, Point, 200

Geronimo, 266

Gila, trapping on the, 248, 255, 269

Glen, Robert, 226

Glenn and Fowler, go to Taos, 235; their party fight a white bear, 235; meet McKnight, Chambers, and Baird, 257

Glenn, Hugh, to Santa Fé, 235; builds first American house at Pueblo, first in Colorado, 235

Golden Gate, 119

Gold, mines in New Mexico, 267; found at San Fernando Mission, California, 308; at Sutter's Mill, 308

Goodman leaves the Powell party, 322

Government, aid to science, 303; sanctions Mormonism, 308; aid to railways, 328; to Union Pacific Railway, 329

Governor and Company of Adventurers of England Trading into Hudson's Bay, or the Hudson Bay Company, 136

Grafton, Mormons settle there, 313

Graham, Lieutenant, takes Long's steamer down, 222

Grande Ronde, the valley of, Bonneville arrives there, 281

Grand Fork of the Arkansas, 185

Grand Island, town of, 334

Grand Pawnee war party, 185

Grand Peak, the, of Pike, or Pike's Peak, 186

Grand River, Powell arrives at its mouth, 322

Grand Wash, Hamblin crosses Colorado there, 317; Powell arrives there, 324

Grave of Soto, 127

Gray Canyon, 322

Gray, Captain Robert, 4; discoverer of the Columbia, 142; exchanges ships with Kendrick, 150; enters mouth of the Columbia, 150

Great Basin, location of, 6; southern rim of, 6

Great Britain acquires Canada, 141

Great Britain and the United States agree temporarily as to North-west Territory, 219

Great Salt Lake, 304

Great Slave Lake discovered by Hearne, 147

Greeley, Lewis, accompanies Hamblin to Moki Towns, 318

Greenhow, Robert, cited, 119

Green River, 4, 208; named after trapper, 234; descended by Ashley, 238; first use of name, 249; Kit Carson becomes familiar with, 255; Meek goes down, 295; map, 295; Bridger's attempt to explore, 314

Green River Station, Wyoming, 320; adobe ruins of, 332, 334; terminal, 334

Green River Valley, 208, 234, 256

Green, trapper with Ashley, 234

Gregg, asserts buffalo herd is easily turned, 45; book on Santa Fé Trail, 257; crosses to Santa Fé, 258

Grinnell, Henry, rescues Oatman girl, 310

Gulf of California receives Colorado River, 4

Gun, Amerind acquisition of, a boon, 72

Guns of Lewis and Clark, flintlocks, 164

Gunnison Valley, 322

Gypsiferous clay, 68

H

Halberd, Spanish, found on Reid's farm, 126

Hall, 303

Hamblin, Jacob, 313, 324; journeys of, 317; explores a road by the Ute Ford to the Moki Towns, 317; goes to Moki Towns _via_ Grand Wash, 317; circumtours the Grand Canyon, 318; first to cross Colorado by Lee Ferry route, 318; Grand Wash to Callville by boat, 324

Hammer of silver for driving last spike of Union Pacific, 336

Ham's Fork, Green River Valley, 309

Hancock meets Lewis and Clark, 174

Haney, British trapper, 163; visits Lewis and Clark, 180

Harmon, Daniel, 158; his description of the Canadian voyageur, 147

Hawkins, of Powell's party, 325

Heceta, Inlet of, 142

Heceta, Bruno, at mouth of the Columbia, 142

Helay River. _See_ Gila.

Hennepin, 133

Henry, Andrew, 196, 208; discoverer of South Pass, 234; crosses Continental Divide in 1809, 234; with Ashley, 234

Henry's Fork, 238

Hernando de Soto, expedition of, 126

Hidatsa tribe, where classed, 61

Hind, description of a buffalo pound,46

Hoback, trapper, 206; on headwaters of the Snake, 208

Hochelaga, original name for site of Montreal, 130

Holy Cross, Mountain of the, 8

Horse, coming of the, to America, 72

Horse Prairie Creek, 168

Horses and cattle numerous early in New Mexico, 267

Hospitality, 82

Hostile Ground, 100, 185

House building, nature of, due to surroundings, 70

House-building tribes, 66

House, of the Shoshones, 68; of the Dakotas, 68; of tribes of New Mexico, 68; of California, 68

Houses of the Amerinds, 68

Houston wins battle of San Jacinto, 298

Hubates, 116

Huddart, William, goes from Taos to Green River, 249

Hudson Bay Company, or Governor and Company of Adventurers of England Trading into Hudson's Bay, treats Amerinds well, 82; formed, 136; battles with North-west Company, 240; merged with North-west Company, 240; controls Columbia River, 281; in control of Oregon, 281, 283, 289; buys Wyeth out, 283; opposition to, 290; taxes McLoughlin, 290; its governor of Oregon affairs in 1847, 290

Hudson Bay discovered, 132

Hudson River, 132

Human flesh eaten by Amerinds, 79

Humboldt River, 277; course of, 6; rise of, 6

Hunchback cows of Alvar Nuñez Cabeza de Vaca, 2, 32, 106

Hunt, Wilson Price, 198; to go overland, 198; organises expedition, 203; leaves St. Louis for Astoria, 204; outfit, 204; leaves the Missouri, 206; route from the Missouri, 207; builds boats, 210; has a canoe wrecked, 210; party splits up, 210; caches goods at Caldron Linn, 211; starving, 212; loses a voyageur, 212; crosses Blue Mountains, 213; arrives at the Columbia, 214; arrives at Astoria, 214; goes to Russian America, 215

Hunting buffalo, methods of, 45

I

Iberville starts French settlement at the mouth of the Mississippi, 134

Independence, eastern end of Santa Fé Trail, 257

Indian. _See_ Amerind.

Inlet of Heceta, 142

Iowa tribe, where classed, 61

Iron Trail, the, best route for, 327

Irrigation, by Amerinds, 70; Rio Grande Valley, 175; Mexican, 267; at Salt Lake, 306

Irving, Washington, a buffalo hunter, 48; kills a buffalo, 49; on Bonneville, 271; travels over the plains, 287

Island Park, 294

Iturbide, 257; proclaims Mexican independence, 228

Ives, Lieutenant, 317

J

Jackson, President, reinstates Bonneville, 262, 284

Jackson's Hole, Wyeth's men killed there, 274

James, Dr. Edwin, with Long, 223; climbs Pike's Peak, 224; Peak, first name of Pike's Peak, 225

Jamestown, 132

Jefferson River, 168

Jefferson, Thomas, plans an expedition, 155; proposes sending party to the Pacific overland, 156; instructions to Lewis and Clark, 161

Jesuit Order superseded in California, 122

Johnson, George A., contracts for transporting supplies on Colorado River from the Gulf to Yuma, 315; takes steamer to head of navigation before Lieutenant Ives, 317

Johnston, Colonel Albert Sydney, moves army against the Mormons, 310

Joliet, 132

Jones, Ben, 216

Jonquire plans expedition, 140

José, Juan, the Apache chief, 265

Julesburg, 334

Julien, 1836, name cut on the wall of Labyrinth Canyon and the wall of Cataract Canyon, Colorado River, 296

Juniper tree, 10

K

Kanab, 318

Kansas City, 309

Karankawan stock, location of, 67

Karoskiou River, 139

Kaskaias tribe met by Long, 226

Kearney, General, 300

Kendrick, Captain, goes into Strait of Fuca, 150

Keresan stock, location of, 67

Kichai tribe, where classed, 64

Killbuck with La Bonté, 296

Kino, Friar, 120; first to see Casa Grande ruins, 120; map of head of Gulf of California, made by, 120; astronomer of Ingolstadt, 124

Kiowa tribe, 64

Kiowan stock, range of, 64

Kiva, 93

Knisteneau tribe, 63

Kooskooskie River of Lewis and Clark, 170

L

La Bonté, 213; battle with Arapahos, 296; remains at a Ute camp to recuperate, 298

Labyrinth Canyon, name carved there, 296; Green River, 322

La Charette, Lewis and Clark plan to winter there, 160, 161

La Clede founds St. Louis, 141

Lake Bonneville, situation and character of, 6, 284

Lake Timpanogos, or Utah Lake, 124

La Lande, goes to Santa Fé, 1804, 176; Morrison's claim against him, 190; Pike meets him on the way to Santa Fé, 191

Lamanite, the Mormon name for the Amerind, 317

Land grant, specified, 329; aggregate to Pacific railways, 330

Languages, Amerind, number of, in North America, 61

Lapage, 164

La Paz, missionaries go from there to San Diego, 122

La Perouse, explorer, 148

La Purisima Concepcion, Mission of, when founded, 122

L'Archeveque, the decoy in the assassination of La Salle, 134

La Reine, Fort de, of Verendrye, 139

_Lark_, the Astoria supply-ship, wrecked, 218

Laroche, British trader, 162; same as La Roque, 162; planned expedition to the Rocky Mountains, 163

La Salle, to the mouth of the Mississippi, 133; his dream of colonisation, 134; murdered, 134; expedition, remnant of, found by Leon, 134

Lasso, throwing the, in New Mexico, 267

Last spike on the trans-continental railway, driving the, 333; last tie, 336

Latrobe, Charles, companion of Washington Irving, 287

Laut, Miss A. C., Preface, vii.

Lawlessness at the terminals of the trans-continental railway, 332

Law's Mississippi Company, 138

Le Clerc, Francis, 216

Ledyard, John, suggests trans-continental exploration, 153

Lee Ferry, first crossing there by white men, 318; map showing location of, 326

Lee, Jason and Daniel, 283, 308

Lee, John D., leader of the Mountain Meadows Massacre, 312; hides at the mouth of the Paria, 318; begins Lee's Ferry, 318

Leithead, Mormon bishop, brings supplies for Powell, 325

Lemhi Pass, 168

Leon, Alonzo de, finds remnant of La Salle party, 134

Leon, Ponce de, 103

Lewis and Clark, antedated on the Missouri, 139; Dorion with, 151; their expedition, 158; ready to start, 160; start for winter quarters, 161; men and boats, 161, 162, 163; first sight of Rocky Mountains, 164; in the untrodden Wilderness, 166; pass over the Great Divide, 168; down Snake River and the Columbia, 170; at Fort Clatsop, 171; leave Fort Clatsop, 172; reach St. Louis, 174

Lewis, clerk of the _Tonquin_, blows up the ship, 202

Lewis, Meriwether, desires to explore to the Pacific with Michaux, 156; secretary to Jefferson, 156; character and age of, 157; leaves for La Charette, 161; writes to Chaboillez, 162; accidentally shot, 163; on the Divide, 168; shoots a Blackfoot, 172

Linguistic map of the Amerinds, 62

Linn, _Story of the Mormons_, 306

Lisa, Fort, 222

Lisa, Manuel, 151; character and age of, 194; opposes Hunt, 203; goes up the Missouri, 203; quarrels with Hunt, 206; activity of, 221; made sub-agent for the tribes of the Missouri, 221; last voyage and death of, 221; closes an epoch, 232

Little Colorado River, 116

Little Gun, Crow chief, 293

Locations of early Pueblo villages, 115

Lodges, construction of beaver, 21

Lodore, canyon of Green River, 240; described, 294; descent of river in, 295; trappers wrecked in, 295; Powell wrecked in, 322

Lolo Creek, 169; Pass, 169

Lonely Dell, 318

Long, expedition of, 221; outfit, 222; steamboat of, 222; takes to horses, 222; route, 223; reaches the Arkansas, 226; party divides, 226; searches for Red River, 226; pessimistic on the value of the Wilderness, 304

Longfellow's _Evangeline_, 130

Long's Peak, Pattie goes there, 249

Lopez enters New Mexico, 114

Loreto, Mission of, 120

Los Angeles, Spanish trail to, 270

Louisiana, 219; La Salle's claim to, 133; becomes a French province, 138; ceded by France to Spain, 141; undefined area of, 145; transferred by Spain to France, 152; bought by the United States, 152; transferred to the United States, 152; undefined, 153; map of, 154; western limit claimed by the United States, 155; defined by Spain, 161; purchase ratified by Congress, 161; cession consummated to United States, 161; bounds of, 181; claims as to boundaries, 181; boundary between it and British territory, 219; bearing of Pacific Fur Company on boundary of, 219; boundary, 220; Purchase limits, 220

Lussat, 152

M

McClellan, 174, 205, 216

McCracken, 162

McDougall, next in command to Hunt, 199; in charge of Fort George, Astoria, 218; denounced, 219

McKay goes on the _Tonquin_, 200

Mackenzie, Alexander, 146, 163; to the Arctic, 147; Mackenzie River, 147; to the Pacific, 148; reaches tidewater at King Island, 160

McKenzie, Donald, 202; Kenneth, 284

McKnight, Chambers, and Baird imprisoned, 257; meet Glenn and Fowler, 257

McLoughlin, Hudson Bay Company governor, 290

McTavish reaches Astoria, 218

Mad River, 208

Madison River, 168

Maize, a staple before the whites arrived, 76, 77

Maldonado, Alonso del Castillo, companion of Cabeza de Vaca, 106

Malgares, character of, 182; expedition of, 182; Robinson's opinion of, 192; escorts Pike and Robinson to Chihuahua, 192

Malhado Island, 104

Mallet brothers, 176

Mandan, tribe, where classed, 61; house, 68; country, 158; go every spring to Rocky Mountains, 158; Lewis and Clark leave Fort, and start west, 163; burned, 174

Map of Louisiana and of the Wilderness, 154

Maple sugar, 72

Marble Canyon, 324

Marble-Grand Canyon, length of, 324

Marcos of Niza, Friar, 108; sees the Seven Cities, 109; sent back, 110; repeats his story, 110

Maria's River, 166

Marquette, 132; down the Mississippi, 133

Mary's River, 277

Massacre, of Villazur's party, 119; of the Whitman family, 290; at Mountain Meadows, by Mormons, 310; at Plum Creek, Union Pacific Railway, 330

Mastodon bones beneath those of buffalo, 35

Maxent (or Maxan), La Clede and Company, 194

Maximilian, Prince of Wied, goes up the Missouri, 284

_Mayflower_, the, 132

Meadows, beaver, 24

Meares fails to find the Rio de San Roque, 148

Meek, Joe, appears in the Wilderness, 278; shoots a Digger, 278; in Oregon, 290; quoted, 292; at Fort Davy Crockett, 294; goes through the canyon of Lodore on the ice, 294

Mendoza, Viceroy of Mexico, sends Marcos of Niza to the north country, 108; sends Coronado to search for the Seven Cities, 110; his attitude toward Coronado on the latter's return, 113

Mesquite tree, 10

Metate, 267

Methodist missionaries into the Wilderness, 308

Mexican, natives with Coronado remain behind, 113; found at Zuñi, 116; mountains seen by Pike, 185; independence, 228; permission for trapping, 253; Gregg's opinion of people and government, 264, 268; not respected by trappers, 264; amusements, 265; trade with Apaches, 265; agriculture, etc., 267; irrigation, 267; tariff on American goods, 268; belief that the Neuces bounded Texas, 298; companions of Walker lasso Amerinds, 280; war with the United States, 300; cession of 1848, 300

Michaux, Andre, 156

Middle Park, Denver, to Salt Lake, road through, 315

Minitarees, country of, 166

Mission of San Fernando, discovery of gold there, 308

Missionaries, at San Francisco Bay, 122; from La Paz to San Diego, 122; go to Oregon, 287; looked upon with suspicion by natives, 290; Protestant, hold themselves above the trappers, 290; Catholic, try to descend Colorado, 295

Missions, in New Mexico, 117; in Lower California, 120; arrangement of, 122; list of California missions and dates of founding, 122

Mississippi, Radisson's discovery, Preface, vii.; Soto's crossing, 127; upper, discovered, 132

Missouri, River, main highway to the Wilderness, 4; Todd goes up it, 151; Falls of, 166; Fur Company founded, 197

Mohaves buy Oatman girls, 309

Moki, tribe, where classed, 63; villages, 67; corn planting, 70; Towns, Hamblin goes there, 317; Ives goes there, 317

Montagne à la Basse, British trading post, 158, 163

Monterey Bay, missionaries fail to reach it, 122

Monterey, Walker passes the winter there, 280

Montreal, former native name for its site, 130

Monts, Sieur de, founds Port Royal, 130

Monument built by Verendrye, 139

More, one of Wyeth's men, killed in Jackson's Hole, 274

_Mormon, Book of_, 304

_Mormons_, The _Story of the_, Linn cited, 306

Mormons, 304; origin of, 304; opposition to, 304; books of the, 305; migrations, 305; arrive at Salt Lake, 305; privations of, 306; order, 307; claim to be invincible, 310; condemn the Mountain Meadows Massacre, 312; settle on the Santa Clara, 313; desirous of opening road across the Colorado for the benefit of the Lamanites, 317

Morrison's claim against La Lande, 190

Mosca Pass, Pike goes through it, 189

Moscoso de Alvarado, 127

Mother of Floods, the, 181

Mountain Meadows, trail through, 270, 309; Massacre, 310

Mountain, Wilderness, character of, 6; of the Holy Cross, 8

Mount Dellenbaugh, Powell's three men killed near it, 324

Mules, cars cut off to obtain blood for drinking, 257; on the Santa Fé Trail, 258; detect approach of natives, 260

Mush, 79

Muskbogs, 27

N

Nachitoches, 182

Napoleon plans for Louisiana, 152; sells it, 152

Narrow Canyon, 324

Narvaez, Panfilo de, 2, 103, 104

Natchezan stock, location of, 67

National Yellowstone Park, 8

Nauvoo, Illinois, Mormon town of, 305

Navajo, tribe, where classed, 61, 66; Puebloan mixture with, 66; house, 93

Navigation on Colorado, Johnson first to reach head of, 317

Nephi, Mormon town, 309

Nevada, first trapper to traverse, 269

New Archangel, or Sitka, 215

New Jerusalem of the Mormons, 305

New Mexico, trapping in, 253; gold mines of, 267; ceded to the United States, 300

New Orleans, a port of deposit for the United States, 152; privilege revoked by Spain, 152

Nez Perces, one hung by Clark, 243; friendly to Bonneville, 274

Nidiver, shoots two natives on suspicion, 278

Night attacks seldom made, 72

Nixon, O. W., his book cited, 289

Niza. _See_ Marcos of Niza.

Nonsense, Fort, 272

North America divided between three Powers, 141

Northern Mystery, 104, 108

North Platte, Browne killed near, 330

North-west Company, formed, 146; acquires Astoria, 218; active, 221; fights the Hudson Bay Company, 240; merged into Hudson Bay Company, 240

North-west Passage disproved, 147

Nova Scotia, Acadia, 130

Nueces River, considered by Mexico the boundary of Texas, 298; General Taylor ordered to occupy territory west of, 300

Nuttall, Thomas, 204, 206; leaves Hunt party, 207; with Wyeth, 283

O

Oatman, massacre, 309; girl rescued by Henry Grinnell, 310

Ogden, Peter Skeen, meets Ashley, 240

Ogden, River, 227

Oldest town in the United States, 116

Old Jacob, 313

Old Spanish Trail, route of, 270, 309

Oñate, Juan de, reaches New Mexico, 116; crosses New Mexico and Arizona _via_ Zuñi, 116; first settlement, 116; goes eastward on the Plains, 117; goes to the mouth of the Colorado, 117

_Ontario_, United States ship of war, at Astoria, 219

Ordway brings down boats, 172

Oregon, region, 8; first mention of river, 140; river, 151; agreement between United States and Great Britain as to temporary joint occupation of, 219; left free to British and Americans for ten years, 219; rights of Spain in, ceded to the United States, 220; United States claims to, 221; agreement renewed for a second term of ten years, 253; Saviour of, 289; not free to Americans, 289; boundary settled, 290

Oregon Trail, beginnings of, 214, 281; becomes popular, 283; Parker and Whitman travel it, 287; start at Westport, 309

Orleans, Fort, established, 138

Ortiz, Juan, interpreter to Soto, 127

Overland stage company, road from Salt Lake to Denver explored for, 315

Oviedo, Lope de, 106

Oxen on the Santa Fé Trail, 258

P

Pacific, Fur Company, organised, 198; voyageurs, for 198; ended, 218; bearing on boundary questions, 219; railways, right of way, 328; land grant to, 329; cash bonus to, 329; aggregate land grant to, 330; miles built per day, 330; supply train wrecked, by Amerinds, 331; railway completed, 336

Padilla, Friar Juan de, 113

Pai Utes begin to cultivate maize, 76

Palmyra, New York, Mormonism originates near, 304

Pambrune, Hudson Bay Company agent, refuses to sell food to Bonneville, 281

Paria River, 314; Hamblin crosses Colorado at mouth of, 318; John D. Lee settles at mouth of, 318

Parker, Samuel, missionary of the Presbyterian Church, goes to Oregon, 287; his opinion of the trappers, 288; description of a trapper duel, 288

Parkman, Francis, description of Beckwourth, 238; goes to the Wilderness, 287

Parks of the Rocky Mountains, 6; location of, 6; names of, 6; San Luis, 235

Pathfinder, the, 298, 303

Pattie, James O., encounter with a buffalo calf, 52; explores the valley of the Colorado, 248; crosses the Continental Divide, 249; book by, 249; returns east, 249

Pattie, Sylvester, 246-248

Pawnee house, 151

Pawnee tribe, where classed, 64

Peace River, 148

_Pearl of Great Price_, Mormon book, 305

Pecos River, natives hunted buffalo there in 1540, 34; Espejo follows it down on his exit from New Mexico, 116

Pemmican, how made, 40; accumulated, 80

Penn, William, 132

Piccolo, Friar, 120

Pierre, town of, how named, 285

Pierre's Hole, Smith meets Sublette's party there, 252; battle of, 273

Pike, Zebulon Montgomery, 178; his Mississippi expedition, 178, 179; returns to St. Louis from the north, 180; goes west, 180; escorts natives to their home, 181; watched by Spaniards, 181; comes to trail left by Malgares, 183; and the Pawnee war party, 185; sees the Rocky Mountains, 185; lack of foresight, 186; reaches foot of Rocky Mountains, 186; his Grand Peak, 186; sufferings of his men, 186; his wanderings, 188; builds fort on Rio Conejos, 189; trapped by the Spaniards, 190; discovers he is not on Red River, 190; meets La Lande, 191; before Governor Allencaster, 191; treatment at Santa Fé, 192; meets Pursley (Purcell), 192; taken to General Salcedo, 192; sent back to the United States, 192; his opinion of the Plains region, 221; pessimistic on the value of the Wilderness, 304

Pike's Peak, Long sees it, 224; James first man to climb to its summit, 225

Pilot Knobs, name Hunt gave the Three Tetons, 208

Pima ruins called Casa Grande, 120

Piman stock, range of, 66

Pineda, discovers the mouth of the Mississippi, 104

Piñon tree, and nut, 10

Pitahaya, 10

Plains, extent of, 5; character of, 5; rivers of, 6

Platte River, 6

Plum Creek massacre, 330

Plymouth Rock, 132

Poala, one of the Tiguex villages, 114

Point George, 200

Polk, on Rio Grande boundary, 300

Ponce de Leon, 103

Pone, cornbread, 79

Population, 99; estimate of Amerindian, 95

Porcupine Bear's protest against whiskey, 94

Portneuf River, 281; Wyeth builds his Fort Hall there, 283

Potts, trapper, 194

Powell, John Wesley, Major, the only explorer who went where modern Amerinds did not go, 90; conceives the idea of exploring the canyons of the Colorado, 320; expedition, 320; loses a boat in Lodore, 322; has a difference with the wrecked men, 322; three of his men leave the canyon and are killed, 324; emerges from the Grand Canyon, 324; leaves the Colorado, 325; helped by Brigham Young, 325; thought to be dead, 325; at St. George tries to get his mail, 325

Powell, Walter, 325

Prairie buffalo, 38

Prairies, extent of, 5

Presidio of Tubac, 124

Presidios, 122

Presbyterians in Oregon, 308

Promontory Point, Utah, 336

Provost, Etienne, famous trapper, 233; in Brown's Park, 1825, 240

Pueblo, Pike at site of, 185; Pike's structure near, 225; first house built there by Americans, 235

Pueblo, villages, character of, for defence, 76; storerooms, 80

Puebloan, explanation of term, 66; Navajos mixed with, 66; location of, 66; provision against famine, 80; rebellion of, 117

Purchase, Gadsden, 325; Louisiana, 152-155, 161, 181, 219, 220

Purgatoire River, Long follows it, 226

Pursley (or Purcell), James, 176; goes to Santa Fé, 177; at Santa Fé, 178; makes gunpowder, 178; finds gold on head of Platte River, 192; meets Pike, 192

Q

Quires, Pueblo village, 114

Quivira, 112, 113, 126

R

_Raccoon_, British man-of-war, arrives at Astoria and renames it Fort George, 218

Race variation, 54

Radisson, first discoverer of the Mississippi, Preface, vi., 132.

Railway, transcontinental, 327; military importance of, 328; Union and Central Pacific companies formed, 328; Amerind titles extinguished, 329; cash bonus, 329; amount built per day, 330

Railways, Government practically paid for them, 330

Raleigh in North Carolina, 131

Ratafia, 268

Rebellion of the Puebloans, 117

Red Canyon of Green River, 238; Ashley's name in, 240

Red River, 6, 181; Pike's plan concerning, 184; not on it, 190; boundary of Louisiana, 221; Long searches for it, 226; elusive, 227; Sparks attempts to explore it, 227

Redwood forests, 8

Ree, tribe, where classed, 64

Reid, halberd found on his farm in Missouri, 126

Rendezvous in Green River Valley, described, 234, 256

Ribera, Don Juan Maria de, 139

Rigdon, Sidney, real founder of Mormonism, 305

Rio, Colorado Grande, same as Seedskedee, 4; Grande del Norte, 5; Grande, head of, 6; de Espiritu Santo, 104; de Buena Guia, the Colorado, 111; de Tiguex, 112; del Norte, 114; Grande Towns, map of, 115; de las Vacas, 116; de Esperanza, 117; de San Roque, 142; Grande Settlements, 175; Conejos, 189; Grande, Pike on, 189; Grande, trapping on, 269

River of Palms, the Rio Grande, 127

River of the West, 4, 140, 151; rumors of, 138; discovery of mouth by Heceta, 142

Rivers of the Plains, 6

Rivers, of the Wilderness, 4, 327; of the Rocky Mountains, character of, 204

Rizner, trapper, 206

Robideau, 255

Robinson, Doctor, with Pike, 132, 190; escorted to Chihuahua, 192

Robinson, trapper, 206, 208

Roche Jaune River, 160, 164

Rock picture of buffalo in southern Utah, 36

Rocky Mountain Fur Company, 244; rendezvous in Green River Valley, 275; repudiates contract with Wyeth, 283

Rocky Mountains, first view of, in the north, 139; Long's first view of, 223; Bijeau often there before, 1820, 226; amount of Government aid to railways through the, 329

Rodgers, Captain, 317

Rodriguez enters New Mexico, 114

Rose, Edward, 237, 263; with Hunt, 207

Ross's Hole, 169

Route of Lewis and Clark, 173

Routes to California, 309

Ruddock, Samuel Adams, 233

Ruins, 68; of Casa Grande, 68

Ruiz, 114

Russia agrees on boundary, 254

Russian explorations, 140; claims, 220

Ruxton quoted, 296; cited, 296

S

Sabine River, boundary of Louisiana, 221

Sacajawea, Chaboneau's wife, goes with Lewis and Clark expedition, 163; ill, 166; discovers a brother, chief of the Shoshones, 168

Sachem, office of, 85

Sacramento, trapping on the, 255; city, aid to Pacific Railway, 330

Sacred tent of the Dakotas, 51

St. Augustine, date of founding, 116; first settlement by Europeans within the borders of the United States, 130

St. Charles, 161

St. George, 317; Lamanites to be endowed there, 317

St. Louis, founded, 141; developing, 151; point of departure for the Wilderness, 143; in 1830, 244; intercourse with Santa Fé, 257

Salcedo, General, 192

Salishan stock, range of, 68

Salleto, Don Ignacio, captures Pike, 190

Salt, lagoons of New Mexico, 8; in California, 8; where obtained by the Amerinds, 72

Salt Lake, early visitors, 233; Ashley meets Ogden there, 240; Bridger visits it, 242; Ashley's men circumnavigate it, 242; Provost there before Bridger, 243; Bonneville's desire to explore it, 276; Frémont sees it, 300; Mormons attracted, 304-305; American acquisition of, 308; road to Denver from, explored by Berthoud and Bridger, 315; wrecked trappers go there, 322

Salt Lake City, 306

Salt Lake Valley, visited 1776 by Escalante, 124

Salvatierra, Friar, 120

San Antonio de Padua, Mission, when founded, 122

San Antonio, settlement of, 134; Texas, population of, in 1805, 176

San Carlos de Monterey, when founded, 122

San Diego, harbour, visited by Vizcaino and Cabrillo, 119; Mission, when founded, 122

San Fernando Mission, when founded, 122; gold found there, 308

San Francisco, Bay, missionaries go there, 122; Anza founds mission there, 124; aid to railway, 330

San Francisco de Solano de Sonoma Mission, when founded, 122

San Francisco mountains, 116

San Gabriel, settlement of, 116; Mission, when founded, 122

Sangre de Cristo Pass, 189; crossed by Fowler and Glenn, 235

San Jacinto, battle of, won by Texans, 298

San Joaquin Valley, Walker goes up it, 280

San José Mission, when founded, 122

San Juan, New Mexico, 130; village of, Oñate's first settlement at, 116; Bautista Mission, when founded, 122; Capistrano Mission, when founded, 122

San Luis Obispo Mission, when founded, 122

San Luis Park, or Valley, 235

San Luis Rey de Francia Mission, when founded, 122

San Miguel Mission, when founded, 122

San Rafael Mission, when founded, 122

San Roque, Rio de, same as the Columbia, 142

San Xavier del Bac Mission, often called Bac, 124

Santa Aña, General, 228

Santa Barbara Mission, when founded, 122

Santa Clara, Mission, when founded, 122; River, Mormons settle on the, 313

Santa Cruz Mission, when founded, 122

Santa Fé, error of date of founding sometimes given, 116; founded by Oñate, 117; population of, in 1805, 175; routes to, 176; Long crosses trails to, 226; the Patties go there, 246, 248; first waggons to, 272; Walker and Cerré go there, 272; Whitman goes there, 290; captured by Americans, 300

Santa Fé Trail, 257, 309

Santa Inez Mission, when founded, 122

Santa Maria enters New Mexico, 114

Say, T., with Long, 223

Scalp, Thompson's, preserved, 332

Scalped alive, 330

Scalping by white men, 243, 296

Sciatoga tribe, or Tushepaws, 214

Scott, General, sent to Mexico, 300

Secret Town Trestle, 329

Seedskedee, same as Green River and Colorado, 4, 234, 250

Selkirk, Lord, Red River Colony of, 242

Sensitive rose, 10

Sequoia trees, 8

Seton, Alfred, 272

Settlements, in New Mexico, 117; first, in California, 120; first European, in the United States, 130

Seven Cities of Cibola, 108, 109; identified with Zuñi, 113; map showing probable direction of, from Tiguex, 115

Sevier, River, 6; trapping on, 269

Sevier Lake, 6

Sherman, General, 328

Shiam Shaspusia, name given by Crows to Meek, 294

Shinumo group, 67

Shoshokoes, 277

Shoshone, stock, range of, 63, 64; house, 68; Lewis meets some, 168; Falls, 205, 207, 209

Sierra Blanca, 189; _see_ also frontispiece.

Sierra Nevada range, 6; Government aid to Pacific railways through, 329

Sign language of the Amerinds, 62

Sihasapa, Dakota sub-tribe, 63

Silver mines in New Mexico, early, 267

Simpson, Captain, location of Tiguex by, 113

Simpson, Sir George, in charge of Hudson Bay Company in Oregon, 252

Siouan stock, how title is formed, 61; range of, 63

Sioux, hostility of, 243

Sitgreaves reconnoitres Arizona, 316

Sitka, 215

Smallpox, ravages of, and other diseases, 97; among the Plains tribes, 99

Smith, Fort, Long arrives there, 227

Smith, George A., Jr., killed by Navajos, 317

Smith, Jedediah S., 232; with Ashley, 234; character, 234; goes from Salt Lake to California, 250; goes to San Gabriel Mission, 250; crosses the Sierra, 251; returns to Salt Lake, 251; goes to California a second time, 251; attacked by Mohaves, 251; thrown into prison by the Spaniards in California, 251; traps to the Columbia, 251; circuits he made, 252; party destroyed by Shastas, 252; reaches Fort Vancouver, 252; meets Sublette's search party, 252; back at Salt Lake, 252; killed by Comanches, 262; Gregg's estimate of, 262; first to traverse Nevada, 269; Walker's journey compared to Smith's, 280

Smith, Joseph, Mormon prophet, 304; murder of, 305

Smith, Pegleg, 263; _see_ Thomas L. Smith.

Smith, Thomas L., 263; amputates his leg, 263; called Pegleg, 263; his business, 263; gives up raiding, 264; he and Beckwourth make a raid, 264

Snake River, 210; plain, 211

Snow sheds in the Sierra, 331

Socorro, copper mines near, 267

Soledad Mission, when founded, 122

Song of the voyageur, 129

Sonora, Mission of Dolores in, 120; Pass, Sierra Nevada range, 280

Sonoran government proclamation concerning booty taken from natives, 265

Soto, Hernando de, 126; crosses the Mississippi, 127; death and burial, 127; forgotten, 133

Sounds, strange, heard by Lewis and Clark, 168

South Pass, discovered by Andrew Henry, 234; Bonneville goes over it, 272; Frémont selected to explore it, 300

South-west, little mention of the trapping that went on there, 269

Spain and the United States, relations of, in 1805, 181; agree on Louisiana boundary, 220

Spalding, Reverend H. H., with Whitman, 289

Spaniards expelled by the Pueblos from New Mexico, 117

Spanish, term for buffalo, 34; restrictions on exploration, 117; Fork, 124; destroy French in Florida, 130; protest against the transfer of Louisiana to the United States, 152; objection to Lewis and Clark's entering Louisiana before transfer, 160; watch Pike, 181; intention regarding Pike, 190; claims, 220; River, 208, 234; women on Santa Fé Trail, 258; Trail, 270, 322

Sparks, one of Pike's men, freezes his feet, 190; Captain, attempts to explore Red River, 227

Spike, the last, 335, 337

Split Mountain Canyon, 294

Sportsmen go to the Wilderness, 287

Stampede, 260

Stanford, Governor, drives the last spike, 336

Steamboat, on Long's expedition, 222; to mouth of Yellowstone, 285; first above Council Bluffs, 285; advantage of, on the Missouri, 286; _Colorado_, _Esmeralda_, _General Jesup_, _Uncle Sam_, 315

Stephens, 274

Stillwater Canyon, Green River, 322

Stock, term as applied to Amerind tribal groups explained, 61; languages of the Amerinds, 61

Stony Mountains, 156

Strait of Juan de Fuca, 119

Straits of Anian, a myth, 147

Stuart, James, monument, described by, 140

Stuart, Robert, 215, 216, 218, 252

Sublette, Milton, 264, 274

Sublette, William, with Ashley, 234; with Fitzpatrick and Company buys out Ashley, 244; takes waggons to Wind River, 272

Subsistence of the Amerind tribes, 70

Succotash, 79

Sulte, Benjamin, Preface, vii.

Sumner, Jack, with Major Powell in the exploration of the Colorado, 320; goes down Colorado from Green River Valley to tidewater, 325

Supawn, a dish made of cooked corn, 79

Sutter's ranch, gold found there, 308

Sweetwater River, named by Ashley, 234

Swindling by traders, 94

T

Tabbaquena's map, 89

Tacoutche Tesse, not the Columbia, 148

Tamos villages seen by Espejo, 116

Tampa Bay, Soto lands there, 126

Tanning buffalo robes, 48

Taos, location of, 70; Fowler and Glenn go there, 235; San Fernandez de, Pattie arrives there, 248; lightning, 268

Tariff put on American goods into New Mexico, 268

Taylor, General, ordered to occupy Rio Grande region, 300

Temples of the Virgin, location of, 8

Termini of Pacific railways, 332

Texas, Spanish settlements in, 119; claim to, given up by the United States, 220; status of, in the Mexican Republic, 298; revolt, 298; triumphs at San Jacinto, 298; western boundary, 298; admitted to the Union, 300

Thompson, David, to forestall Astor on the Columbia, 198; arrives at Astoria, 202

Thompson, Almon Harris. _See_ dedication

Thompson, William, scalped alive, 330; his scalp preserved, 332

Thorn, Captain Jonathan, to command the ship to establish Astoria, 198; killed on the _Tonquin_, 200

Thousand Mile Tree, 328

Three Tetons called Pilot Knobs by Hunt, 208

Tidal bore, Colorado River, 249

Tiguex, 111; rebellion, 112; correct site of, 113; Espejo arrives there, 114; map showing correct location of, 115; below the Puerco, 116

Timpanogos, Utah Lake, 124

Tobacco, use of, by Amerind tribes, 79

Todd, grant from Spain, 151; goes up the Missouri, 151; Reverend Doctor, gives a prayer at the completion of the trans-continental railway ceremony, 333, 336

Tonikan stock, 68

Tonkawan stock, 67

Tonty, 133

_Tonquin_, the doomed vessel, 198; arrives at the Columbia, 199; loses men in trying to cross the bar, 199; goes on a trading voyage, 200; crew massacred, 200

Torrey, 303

Tortillas, 267

Totem, 85

Tower of Babel, Amerinds supposed by the Mormons to be descendants of some who were dispersed at that time, 304

Townshend, naturalist, with Wyeth, 283

Traders, cupidity of, 94, 286

Trading-posts on Missouri, 151

Trail, of Escalante, 124; from Zuñi to the Crossing of the Fathers, 314

Trail, Creek, 168

Trap, beaver, 28; where set, 29; bait, 29; picture of, 29

Trappers, operations of, 221, 253; qualities of, 231; treatment of natives by, 232; did their own surgery, 288; wrecked in Lodore, 322

Traveller's Rest, camp of Lewis and Clark, 169

Travois, the, 89

Treaty, ending war of 1812, signed, 219; of 1848, between Mexico and the United States relative to the boundary of Louisiana, 300; of Gadsden with Mexico, 315

Tribal names, 86

Trinchera Valley, 235

Trudeau's House, 151

Tucson, 124

Turk, the, 112

Turnbull takes a small steamer to the Colorado, 315

Tusayan, 110

Tushepaws, or Sciatogas, 214

Tutahaco, group of Pueblos visited by Coronado, 114

U

Ugarte, Friar, 120

Uinta, range, cut into by Green River, 234; Agency, Goodman leaves the Powell party and goes out that way, 322

Umatilla, Hunt arrives in the valley of, 213

_Uncle Sam_, steamboat on the Colorado, 315

Union Express Company, 336

Union Pacific Railway formed, 328; Government aid to, 329

United States, gains all east of the Mississippi, 144; claims in 1818, 220; treaty with Mexico, 1848, 300

Utah, Lake, 242; called Timpanogos, 124; territory established, 308

Ute, tribe, where classed, 63; action of, on approach of Arapaho enemies, 297; La Bonte goes to a camp, 297; ford of the Colorado, 314; Hamblin crosses by the ford, 317

V

Vaca, Alvar Nuñez Cabeza de, wrecked with Narvaez, 103; first white man to penetrate the Wilderness, 104; starts west, 106; meets Spaniards from the west coast, 107

Vacas, Rio de las, 116

Vallar, Andri, 216

Valley of the Colorado, 6

Vancouver, Point, 170

Vancouver, in Deception Bay before Gray, 150

Vanished race theories, 68

Vaquero, 129; Mexican, 267; skill of, 267

Vargas, General, reconquers New Mexico from the Pueblos, 117

Verendrye, Sieur de la, 138; his expedition, 139; his route, 158

Verrazano's cruise, 128

Veta Pass, 189

Villazur expedition, 117, 138, 182; title of paper on, by Bandelier, 134

Virgin River, Jedediah Smith reaches it and calls it Adams River, 250; trapping on it, 269; difference in altitude between Green River Station, Wyoming, and the mouth of, 320

Virgin, Thomas, Virgin River perhaps named after him, 250

Vizcaino, explorations of, 119; enters San Diego harbour, 119

Volunteers, California, march from Salt Lake to Denver over new road laid out by Captain Berthoud, 315

Voyageurs, songs of, 129; character of, 147; seasick, 199; with Hunt, 204

W

Waggons, on the Santa Fé Trail, 258; to Wind River and to Green River, 272

Walker, 272, 276-278, 280

Walla Walla, Fort, 281

Wallows of Buffalo, 50

Wapatoo Island, 283

War party, return of an Amerind, 100

War Road, The, 100, 185

Wasatch Mountains, 5; eastern limit of ancient sea, 6; Escalante crosses them, 124

Watermelons preserved all winter, 81

Weaving by Amerinds, 93

_Western Engineer, The_, Long's steamboat, 222

West port, starting point of Santa Fé Trail, 309

Wet Mountain Valley, Pike goes through it, 188

Whipple, exploration of, 316

Whirlpool Canyon, 294

Whiskey, forced on natives, 286; still, at Fort Union, 286; prohibited by the Government, 286; trade, dishonour of, 287

White bears (grizzlies), 53, 164; Dawson killed by, 235; one of Pattie's men killed by, 247; number counted in one day by Pattie, 247

White blood, infusion of, in Amerind tribes, 72

White buffalo, skin sacred, 51

White Mountains, 189

Whitman, Dr. Marcus, 287-289, 290, 308

Wichita tribe, where classed, 64

Wickiup, 68

Wilderness, area, 1; rivers, 4, 327; first European settlements in the, 5; climate and character, 10, 230; relief map, 24; great elevation of, 230; crimes in, 232; resources of, in the opinion of Pike, of Long, of Frémont, 304; final great problem, 320; broken, 324

Wilkinson, General, 164; Lieutenant, 184

Willamet, 170

Willow Island, 332

Wind River, 207; Mountains, highest peak climbed by Frémont, 300

Wolf, mad, 275

Wolfskill, William, opens route to California, 270; at Los Angeles, 270; trail, 309; referred to, 322

Women, first European, to cross the plains, 258

Wonsits Valley, 294, 322

Wood buffalo, 38

Wyeth, Nathaniel J., goes to the Wilderness, 273; first continuous trip across the continent, 275; builds Fort Hall, 283; sells out to Hudson Bay Company, 283; reports whiskey still of Fort Union, 286

X

Xavier del Bac, San, mission, 124

Y

Yaqui River, Mexico, Cabeza de Vaca reaches it, 107

Yellowstone, 8, 164; geysers and Great Falls, 8; Verendrye passes, 139; named before Lewis and Clark's time, 196; Ashley descends with furs, 242

_Yellowstone_, steamboat, 285

Yosemite Valley, 8; first whites there, 280

Young, Brigham, becomes head of the Mormon Church, 305; character of, 305; goes to Salt Lake, 306; appointed Governor of Utah, 308; has a difference with the Washington Government, 310; directs Jacob Hamblin to explore a road across the Colorado, 317; sends help to Powell, 325

Young, Ewing, 264

Yucca, 10

Z

Zuñi, stock, location of, 67; not the site of Cibola, 113; Espejo goes there, 116; trail from, to the Crossing of the Fathers, 314

_The_ Romance _of the_ Colorado River : : :

_A Complete Account of the Discovery and of the Explorations from 1540 to the Present Time, with Particular Reference to the two Voyages of Powell through the Line of the Great Canyons_

By Frederick S. Dellenbaugh

_8o, with 200 Illustrations, net, $3.50. By mail, $3.75_

"As graphic and as interesting as a novel.... Of especial value to the average reader is the multiplicity of pictures. They occur on almost every page, and while the text is always clear, these pictures give, from a single glance, an idea of the vastness of the canyons and their remarkable formation, which it would be beyond the power of pen to describe. And the color reproduction of the water-color drawing that Thomas Moran made of the entrance to Bright Angel Trail gives some faint idea of the glories of color which have made the Grand Canyon the wonder and the admiration of the world."—_The Cleveland Leader._

"His scientific training, his long experience in this region, and his eye for natural scenery enable him to make this account of the Colorado River most graphic and interesting. No other book equally good can be written for many years to come—not until our knowledge of the river is greatly enlarged."—_The Boston Herald._

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_The_ North Americans _of_ Yesterday : : :

_A Comparative Study of North American Indian Life, Customs, and Products, on the Theory of the Ethnic Unity of the Race_

By Frederick S. Dellenbaugh

_With about 350 illustrations, 8o, net, $4.00_

"For its thoroughness, the scientific spirit in which it is written and in which the studies on which it is based were made, the book cannot fail to take high rank in its field of literature."—_Buffalo Express._

"It is a very interesting, very instructive and authoritative work on a subject we should pay more attention to."—_Boston Times._

"Mr. Dellenbaugh's book is the most satisfactory volume that the new study has evoked. It is full of facts which are agreeably but forcibly presented. Without seeking controversy it takes bold positions and works from their standpoint, and it is graced by a wealth of illustration."—_Transcript_, Portland, Me.

"The first great merit of the book is that it is strictly impartial, written from a viewpoint midway between that of the white man who has rarely treated the Indian or his history justly, and that which the Indian himself would be supposed to take were he to write his history. And the author's treatment of the red man it must be admitted is just."—_Grand Rapids Herald._

G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS New York London

A Canyon Voyage

_The Narrative of the Second Powell Expedition down the Green-Colorado River from Wyoming and the Explorations on Land in the Years 1871 and 1872._

By Frederick S. Dellenbaugh

Artist and Assistant Topographer of the Expedition

_8vo with 50 Full-page Illustrations from Photographs and from Drawings by the Author (2 in color) and Maps including reproductions of the first maps made. Net, $3.50. By mail, $3.75._

Mr. Dellenbaugh's new book is a narrative of the United States Exploring Expedition, generally known as the Second Powell Expedition down the Green and Colorado Rivers from Wyoming almost forty years ago; an expedition which in all these years never has been described in any government publication, nor by anyone in print excepting Mr. Dellenbaugh, who was a member of the party. Yet it was the expedition to make the first maps of the course of the river and of some of the contiguous country. In the _Romance of the Colorado_, Mr. Dellenbaugh gave a brief description of this expedition in order to make his history of the remarkable river complete, but now feeling the desirability of a fuller record in the interest of Western United States history, he tells, in _A Canyon Voyage_, the whole experience.

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_The_ Ohio River

_A Course of Empire_

By Archer Butler Hulbert

Associate Professor of American History, Marietta College. Author of "Historic Highways of America," etc.

_Large Octavo with 100 Full-Page Illustrations and a Map. Net, $3.50. By express, prepaid, $3.75_

An interesting description from a fresh point of view of the international struggle which ended with the English conquest of the Ohio Basin, and includes many interesting details of the pioneer movement on the Ohio. The most widely read students of the Ohio Valley will find a unique and unexpected interest in Mr. Hulbert's chapters dealing with the Ohio River in the Revolution, the rise of the cities of Pittsburg, Cincinnati, and Louisville, the fighting Virginians, the old-time methods of navigation, etc. The work presents in a consecutive narrative the most important historic incidents connected with the river, combined with descriptions of some of its most picturesque scenery and delightful excursions into its legendary lore.

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