Chapter 14

TWO-FOOT SAILING YACHT

THE model yacht described in this Chapter is the design of Mr. W. J. Daniels, of England, and was described by him in "Junior Mechanics." Mr. Daniels is one of the best known and most successful English designers of model yachts, and the one here described can easily be constructed by the average boy:

In order that the reader may realize the obstacles to be surmounted in designing a model yacht that will sail in a straight line to windward, irrespective of the different pressure that the wind may expend on the sails, it must be pointed out that the boat is continuously altering the shape of the submerged part of her hull: therefore, unless the hull is so designed that harmony is retained at every angle to which the pressure of wind on the sails may heel it, the model's path through the water will be, more or less, an arc of a circle. Whether the boat sails toward the wind, or, in other words, in a curve the center of the circle of which is on the same side of the boat as the wind, or in a curve the center of the circle of which is on the opposite or leeward side, will depend upon the formation of the boat.

As these notes are intended to first initiate the reader into the subject of model yacht building and construction, the design supplied is one in which all things, as far as shape is concerned, have been considered.

It is the endeavor of every designer to produce the most powerful boat possible for a given length--that is, one that can hold her sail up in resistance to the wind-pressure best. Of course, the reader will easily realize that breadth and weight of keel will be the main features that will enable the model to achieve this object; but, as these two factors are those that tend to make a design less slender, if pushed to extremes, the designer has to compromise at a point when the excess of beam and buoyancy are detrimental to the speed lines of the hull.

But the question of design pure and simple is a complex one, and we do not intend to weary the reader just now with anything of that kind, so we will now proceed to build the hull. In order that we may correctly interpret the shape shown in the design without being expert woodcarvers, we must use our ingenuity and by mechanical means achieve our object, at the same time saving ourselves a large amount of labor, such as we should have to expend if we made this boat from a solid block of wood.

Now, as regards understanding the drawings: it is essential to remember that a line which in one view is a curve is always a straight line in the other two views. Those lines which are drawn parallel to the water-line are known as water-lines, and it will be seen that the curves shown on the deck plan represent the actual shapes of the hull at the corresponding water-lines above, below, and exactly on the load water-line. In other words, if after the hull is made it were sunk down to these various levels, the shapes of the hole made in the surface of the water would be as shown in the plan.

Therefore, instead of making our boat from a solid block of wood, we will make our block up from several layers, the thickness of each layer being equal to the space between the water-lines; but before gluing these layers together we will cut them out to the exact shape that the boat will be at their various positions.

It will not be necessary to have a separate piece of wood for each layer, as some layers below the actual water-line will be cut from the pieces of wood that have been cut out from the layers above.

In this case, the boat being 24 inches long, the top layer will be the same length and breadth as the boat, and 1 inch in thickness.

Draw down the center of the board a straight line, and other lines square to it, representing the position of the cross-sections as shown in the drawing. You have now to transfer the deck line to this board, and this is done by marking the breadth at the various sections and drawing a curve through the spots, a thin strip of straight-grained wood being used as a rule, the latter being held down by such weights as are available. For the purpose of laying off the water-lines truly, lines spaced at 1-1/2 inches are shown; the first, it will be noticed, is half a section or 3/4 inch from the stem head.

The material required will be a board of pine about 6 feet long, 8 inches wide, and 1 inch finished thickness.

Nearly all wood-yards stock first-quality pine, but it is in planks 3 inches thick. You can no doubt pick up a short length about 4 feet long.

If so, take it to a sawmill and have two boards 1-1/4 inches thick cut and then machine-planed down to a dead inch. Perhaps you can purchase a board that is already cut, and is fully 1 inch thick, to allow for planing.

Prepare one edge of the board straight with a plane, seeing that it is square to the surface.

As a planing-machine always leaves a series of ridges across the board, varying according to the quality of the machine, it is necessary before transferring the lines to the wood to just skim the surface with a nicely sharpened plane, and set so as to just skim the wood.

The lengths required are: _A_, plank 24 inches long; _B_, plank 24 inches; _C_, plank 18-1/2 inches.

The _D_ plank will be cut from the center of _B_, but will have to be shifted two sections forward.

Having transferred the various shapes from the drawing on to their respective layers, you saw out each carefully with a bow or a keyhole-saw, care being taken not to cut inside the lines. It is better to cut full, and trim down to the lines with a chisel or plane. A good deal of trouble can be saved by the expenditure of a few cents for having them machine-sawed, in which case ask the sawyer to use his finest-toothed saw.

Having cut out layers _A_, _B_, _C_, and _D_, fresh lines are marked, as shown by the dotted lines in the plan. These indicate the shape of the inside of each layer when the boat is carved out, and save labor.

These may as well be sawed out now as carved out later. It will also facilitate gluing up, as it will allow the superfluous glue to be squeezed out, and also decrease the breadth of the joint.

In order to get these various layers glued together dead true to their positions as indicated in the design, you must choose a section about amidships, say section 11, and with a square draw a line from that section, which is, of course, still showing on the surface of the layer, down the edge on either side, joining up with a line across the opposite face. Also vertical lines at each end of the midships line must be drawn on the wood, great care being taken to get the midships line on the under face of the layers dead opposite each other.

If your outfit contains half a dozen carpenter's hand screws, these can be used; but if not, it will be necessary to purchase from a hardware store eight seven-inch bolts and nuts 3/8 inch in diameter, with one washer for each, and to make up four clamps, as shown in Fig. 156.

You will start by gluing layer _C_ to layer _D_, blocks being placed between the surface of the layers and the clamps to prevent bruising the wood. These two are then glued to layer _B_, and when this is thoroughly set they are glued to the layer _A_. The best glue to use for this job is marine glue, which does not dry too quickly, and so gives plenty of time to see that the layers have not shifted. In every case one clamp should be placed at each extreme end of the shorter layer, so as to insure the ends making contact, the other two being placed equidistant.

While waiting for the glue to set, you can be preparing the four layers (shown below _D_) for the lead keel pattern. The lines must be cut out, in this case, with a chisel, as it will be noticed that the lower faces must be left wide enough to receive the top face of the layer beneath it.

It will be noticed that the under face of each of these layers extends beyond the top face aft, and allowance must be made for this. On laying off the lines on the fin layers, do not join up with a point each end, but leave about 1/8 inch thickness, as shown on the drawing.

These layers must be drilled through to take the keel-bolts, which are made from two motorcycle spokes, twelve-gage. These should be cut to a length of 5-1/2 or 6 inches. Great care should be taken to insure that the midship lines are exactly vertical over each other when these layers are glued up.

Before gluing these four layers on to the hull proper, they should be held in position by means of the spokes, in which position they can be sawed to shape for the keel pattern. First, with a small plane or sharp chisel cut down roughly, then a rasp and different grades of sandpaper are used, working across the joints.

It will be realized that, if the pattern for the keel were cut off dead on the line indicated on the design, there would be a loss of wood through the saw cut. In order to obviate this, another line 3/16 inch below the proper lead line is drawn, and the saw cut made between these two lines. You will now plane down each face that is left rough by the saw, straight and square to each of these lines. On the top face of the pattern for the lead, glue or tack a piece 3/16 inch thick along the face, and cut down the edges flush.

You will by this means have made up for the amount of wood carried away by the saw. You will no doubt find a difficulty in holding the pieces of wood for planing in the ordinary way, but it is simple enough if you set the plane nicely, grip it in a vise or bench screw upside down, and push the work over the plane's face, instead of vice versa. But be careful of your fingers!

Take the pieces left from the spokes when cutting down to length, and put these in the holes in the keel pattern. These are for cores, and if you take your pattern to a foundry they will cast it for a small amount, with the holes in it.

Shoot the top face of the lead in the manner before described, and fit on. The hull is now ready for carving out. Screw on your bench two pieces of wood about 18 inches in length and 4 inches wide, so that they project over the edge of the bench about 10 inches. These should be about 15 inches apart. Place your hull upside down on them, and fix it by nailing upward into the top layer. After cutting off the corners of the layers roughly with a chisel you use a small plane set fairly fine, and work all over the hull evenly, taking care not to cut below any of the joints. A small gouge will be required to clear the wood from the region of the after fin, a round rasp--sandpaper being wrapped around a small stick--being used for smoothing down afterward.

Templates of the cross-sections should now be made from thick white paper. This is done by pricking through the design to transfer their shape onto the paper. The cross-sections have on this account been produced here actual size. If cross-lines representing the water-lines are drawn, you will have an excellent guide for fitting, as these lines will, of course, come opposite each glued joint.

Try your templates now and again as you work, and do not try to finish one spot, but keep the whole at an even stage, and you will see the hull gradually grow into shape.

The topsides (which is the name given to that part of the vessel's hull above the water-line) are responsible for the boat's appearance when afloat, and until the top sheer is cut off the boat looks very disappointing. The cross-lines being still on the upper layer, draw square lines from them down the topsides and from the drawing mark the points through which the sheer-line runs. The thickness of the deck must be allowed for, and as this will be just over 1/16 inch, the line must be drawn this much below the finished sheer-line. The arch of the transom must be marked, and the hull cut down to the sheer. To avoid the risk of splitting, a number of fine saw cuts are made down each section line and two or three at the transom.

You now proceed to carve out the inside. Pad your bench bearers and rest your hull upon them. A curved wood gouge with a fairly flat edge is the best tool. Get it nicely sharpened, and work all over the inside of hull until it is about 3/16 inch thick, the top edge being left 3/8 inch wide.

Keep holding up to the light until it is showing a blood-red color, and smooth down the gouge marks with coarse sandpaper.

The hole for the stern-tube must now be drilled, and the tube made and fitted. The hole should be 1/4 inch in diameter. First drill a smaller hole, and then with a 1/4-inch rat-tail file slowly open it out, at the same time rubbing a groove down the stern-post. The stern-tube is made from a piece of light-gage brass tube, it being cut away with a piercing saw to leave a strip the length of the stern-post. Drill three holes in the strip at equal distance and large enough to take a 1/4 inch brass screw, No. 0 size. Temporarily screw the tube in position, and from a piece of thin brass make a plate for the inside. An oval hole will have to be made in the plate to enable it to seat flat over the tube. Solder this while in position. Then remove the whole, and replace, after white-leading where wood touches brass.

The deck-beams, three in number and 1/4 inch square in section, must now be fitted. The sheer edge which we left 3/8 inch wide must be recessed to receive the beams, the recess being made with a 1/4-inch chisel.

Before gluing beams in, three coats of good varnish must be applied to the inside of shell.

The deck should now be prepared and fitted. You will require a piece of pine of ample length and breadth, 1/8 inch in thickness, and after planing finely and sand-papering, pieces of the same stuff should be glued on the under face to reinforce it where the bowsprit, keel-plate, hatch rim, and mast will be fitted. Cut these pieces to shape before gluing on.

Before doing the latter, apply a coat of clear size to the upper face of the deck; this will bring up the grain, so paper it down when dry. This process should be repeated three times.

Three coats of varnish should be given to the under side of the deck after the pieces have been glued on, and when dry the deck can be fitted, 3/8-inch veneer pins being used for fixing on, and care being taken to get it true to position. A center line is drawn down the under side of the deck, and marks made to correspond at the stern and transom on the shell.

The planking lines on the deck can be drawn to suit your fancy, India ink and a draftsman's ruling pen being used to do it, afterward applying two coats of carriage varnish.

To paint the hull, white lead and dryers, in the proportion of 5 to 1 by weight respectively, should be dissolved in turpentine, a few drops of linseed oil being mixed to make it work freely. Have this about the consistency of milk, and, after straining, give the hull about eight coats, one every twenty-four hours, rubbing each down when dry with No. 00 sandpaper. Keep the joint representing the load water-line always in sight by penciling over after each coat of paint is dry. When a sufficient body of paint has been applied, the colors can be applied. Enamel is best for this. Stick strips of gummed paper around the hull at the water-line, and paint up to the edge. When the paint is dry the paper can be soaked off, the paper being again applied, but reversed for the other color. If you can use a lining brush the paper is not necessary for the second color.

While the painting is going on, spars, sails, and fittings can be made. As the spars have to be varnished, it is best to make them first. Pine should be used, and after cutting strips of suitable length and diameter, plane them square in section. With the batten draw on the face the amount of taper to be given, and plane down to this line, still keeping the spar square in section. This having been done, the corners are planed off carefully until the spar is octagonal in section, when it is easy to make it perfectly round with sandpaper by rubbing with the paper rolled around the stick. The diameter of our mast is 1/2 inch parallel until the hoist of the fore triangle is reached, tapering from there to 1/4 inch at the masthead or truck. The boom is 1/4 inch at the gooseneck, thickening to 3/8 inch where the main-sheet is attached, down to 1/4 inch at the outboard end. The jib-boom is slightly less than 1/4 inch parallel.

All spars should be treated with clear size and fine sandpaper before varnishing. This will prevent discoloring by the latter, and will also allow the India ink markings to be made, which latter will be a guide for the trimming of the sails.

In order that any yacht, model or otherwise, may be able to perform her best, it is essential that she should have well setting sails. In fact, in a model a badly setting sail will sometimes even be enough to prevent her going to windward at all. By well setting sails we mean sails that are naturally flat and not made so by straining them out on the spars. Light material, such as cambric or light union silk, is best for this purpose, but not a material that has any dressing in it.

This particular sail plan is very easy to mark out. Lay your material out on a table or smooth surface and pin it down with drawing-pins, sufficiently stretching it so as to pull out any creases. The length of the back edge of the mainsail (which is called the leech) is measured off 1-1/4 inches inside the edge of the cloth, and a curve struck as illustrated. The other two sides of the mainsail are then laid off and pencil lines drawn. You will note that allowance must be made for hemming the back edge of the mainsail. If your sewing-machine has a hemmer, find out how wide a hem it makes (the smaller the better), and make allowance accordingly, twice the width of the hem being necessary. Much depends upon the tension at which the machine is set, so be careful that the latter is sufficiently slack so that it does not draw up the material.

The jib is marked out in the same manner, and, as illustrated, the lines representing the positions of the batten sleeves are drawn. The batten sleeves are small pockets into which thin pieces of cane (called battens) are inserted to help the sail to set nicely. Unless the sail is a good cut to begin with, however, the insertion of these battens will never make it right. The sails should now be cut out with a sharp penknife or scissors, care being taken not to pull the cloth, and especially not along the edges that run across the threads. You then hem the backs and also the foot of the jib. The batten sleeves (which should be of white satin ribbon about 3/8 inch in width) should now be sewn on by stitching down along the extreme edge to the line drawn, and then down the other edge, the ends being left open. A strip of narrow tape is sewn across the foot of the jib-sail to take the strain of the pull, the part of the jib contained by the curve of the foot and the tape being known as the bonnet of the jib.

To prevent the edges of the sails (other than those hemmed) being stretched, you bind them with good tape. The tape is first folded and creased by rubbing over an edge. The end of the tape is then turned in. Take a corner of the sail and place it inside the fold of the tape, care being taken to get the raw edge right up against the crease. The needle of the machine should then be lowered through it as near to the edge of the tape as practicable, taking care that it goes through both edges. Keeping a slight pull on the binding, arrange the cloth in it without pulling the edge. Put the foot of the machine down and sew it, afterward raising the foot again and proceeding as before right around the raw edges of the sail, leaving the needle down each time the foot is raised. Do not sew where a batten sleeve passes under the binding, as you will require the former left open to allow the batten to pass into the fold of the binding. The rings for putting up the luffs of the jib- and main-sail are made by winding a piece of thin brass or German silver wire around a steel rod (the spokes used in the keel being suitable for the latter) and sawing down to divide them. A small eyelet should be put in each corner of the sails, and others spaced evenly at about 2-1/2 inches apart along the boom and about 5 inches apart along the mast, for lacing on. An extra row of stitching may be run down the outer edge of the binding to smooth it down.

The simpler the fittings of a model that is required for practical sailing, the better. They should be as light as practical. Aluminum is not advisable for fittings when the boat is to be sailed in salt water.

The bowsprit fittings, which are known as the gammon iron and heel plate (Figs. 157, 158), are made by soldering pieces of brass tube (cut to suitable size and shape) onto pieces of triangular sheet brass, as illustrated. The horses can either be of wire with the ends turned to suitable shape and fitted with one screw, or they can have plates for two screws, in which case the wire is either threaded and screwed into the plate or silver-soldered to it. Silver-soldering is done with a blow-pipe. The flux used is borax made into a thin paste with water. Silver-solder is bought in small sheets, and a few cents' worth will go a long way if used properly. Cut small pieces about 1/8 inch by 1/16 inch, and, after painting the part to be soldered with your paste borax with a very small brush, pick up the solder with the tip of the brush and put it in position. It will then run around the joint when the metal is raised to sufficient heat.

The hatch-rim is made by cutting a strip of thin brass 1/4 inch in width, the length being the circumference of the oval. The two ends are brought together and silver-soldered. Cut out the oval in a piece of very thin brass and fit in your oval strip so that the flat is just in the center of it. This can then be sweated around with an ordinary soldering-iron, the flat being trimmed down afterward with the shears to leave a flange 1/4 inch in width, the latter being drilled to take 1/4 inch No. 0 round-head screws.

The deck fitting for the mast, (Fig. 159) is made in much the same way, a piece of tube being used instead of cutting a strip of brass. To receive the heel of the mast a fitting known as the mast-step must be made and fitted. This, of course, must be done before the deck is put on. The step is made from two pieces of brass, each about 1/32 inch in thickness, 1 inch long and 1/2 inch wide. One is hard-soldered on edge down the center of the other to form something like a T girder. A slot, as illustrated, is cut in the upright piece with a ward file, and holes drilled in the flat for screwing down on the inside of the boat. A ferrule of brass tube is fitted to the heel of the mast, a cut of suitable size being made in it to receive the upright of the step. A hole should be drilled through the heel of the mast at right angles to the slot, and a wire passed through and riveted, the latter being of suitable thickness to be received by the slot in the step.

The rudder-blade (Fig. 162) is made from a piece of sheet brass fitted to a tube, the latter being an easy fit into the stern-tube already fitted. The blade can be soldered onto the tube. The pintle on which the rudder fits and swings is a strip of brass, the width of the after fin, a wire pin being hard-soldered in to fit up into the rudder.

The pintle (Fig. 163) should be fitted before the painting is started.

In the steering gear, instead of a quadrant, as the fitting on the rudder-head of the "Braine" gear is called, you fit an ordinary tiller (Fig. 164) by bending a wire to suit your fancy and soldering it on to a collar made from a piece of tube that will just sleeve on the outside of the rubber-tube, which latter is fixed by drilling a hole right through it and the rudder head, and fitting a tapered pin.

The steering-gear rack (Fig. 165) by which the amount of helm is adjusted is made from a strip of brass cut with lugs which are bent up at right angles as illustrated. This need only be of thin sheet metal, as the strain is very small.

For running before the wind, separate lines are used, two in number, as illustrated, and the amount of helm is governed by the distance away from midships that the lead is moved. For instance, if the lead is placed amidships, the pull will simply keep the rudder dead straight, whereas if placed on the deck edge it will allow the maximum amount of angle.

Your bowsers can be made from pieces of toothbrush handle or from brass or German-silver wire. Very efficient bowsers can be made from aluminum tube cut in sections about 3/16 inch long, with three holes drilled in each piece around its periphery.

Plaited bobbin cotton should be used for the cordage, as it does not curl up when wet.

If you decide to fit the Braine steering gear, a spur or bumpkin, as it is termed, must be fitted to take the rubber centering line.

APPENDIX

BOYS' DICTIONARY OF MARINE TERMS

=Abaft.= Behind; toward the stern.

=Abeam.= At right angles to the side and in horizontal plane.

=Aft.= Toward the stern.

=After-body.= Between amidships and stern.

=Aloft.= Overhead; on the yards or in the upper rigging.

=Amidships.= The middle part of a vessel.

=Anchor.= Instrument for holding vessels at rest in the water. Made of iron.

=Athwart. Athwartships.= Across; from side to side.

=Ballast.= Material used to load the ship, for stability or submerging purposes.

=Barge.= General name for vessels built for towing.

=Bark.= Three-masted vessel, square-rigged on the fore- and main-masts, and fore-and-aft rigged on the mizzen.

=Barkentine.= Three-masted vessel, square-rigged on the foremast and fore-and-aft on the main-and mizzen-masts.

=Beam.= The widest part of a vessel.

=Bollards.= Posts of timber on sides of docks, quays, etc., over which ropes are thrown for hauling vessels alongside.

=Boom.= The lower spar for a fore-and-aft sail.

=Bow.= Sides of fore part of boat: the right hand being the starboard bow, and the left hand the port bow.

=Bowsprit.= Pole projecting from stem forward, and taking forestays and bobstays.

=Bridge-house.= House built near bridge.

=Brig.= Vessel with two masts, both square-rigged but having a gaff mainsail.

=Buoy.= A floating object moored over a certain spot; generally a warning of danger.

=Buoyancy.= The capacity for floating which a boat possesses.

=Cabin.= Room for use of officers and passengers.

=Capstan.= Consists of a long drum revolving vertically and used for pulling in heavy lines. Sometimes used in connection with windlass to hoist anchor by hand.

_Center of Gravity._ Center of weight.

=Coaming.= Raised planking around hatchway of yacht to prevent water shipped in rough weather from getting below decks.

=Cockpit.= Formerly an apartment under lower gun-deck of warship, used as quarters for junior officers, and during a battle devoted to the surgeon and his assistants.

=Cockswain.= Person who steers a boat.

=Compass.= Instrument composed of one or more magnetic needles attached to a circular card which turns freely on the point of a steel cone or floats on a liquid. The upper surface of the card is divided into the 32 points of the compass. Used to find direction.

=Craft.= Usually denotes small size vessel, but may be applied to any kind.

=Crane.= Machine for hoisting and moving heavy equipment and material.

=Cruiser.= Boat intended for extended voyages. Used in connection with yachts, to distinguish from racing models.

=Davit.= Light crane on side of ship for lowering and lifting boats. Sometimes applied to projecting beam over which anchor is hoisted.

=Displacement.= Weight of ship and all on board when at sea. It is equal to the weight of the water displaced.

=Dock.= An excavation of large area for reception of vessels. Wet-dock for loading and unloading or dry-dock for building and repairing vessels.

=Dock-yard.= A place where ships are built and repaired.

=Funnel.= Large sheet-iron tube extending from the uptake high above the deck, through which smoke and gases pass.

=Galley.= The kitchen of a vessel.

=Gangway.= Sides of upper deck from main-mast to mizzen-mast, or from the former to the break of a poop or raised quarter-deck; also a passage for entering or leaving vessel.

=Gross tonnage.= Entire cubical capacity of ship, including every inclosed space and all room under deck from stem to stern-post, if closed in and usable.

=Gunwale, gunnel.= Upper part of sheer-strake, where it comes in contact with upper deck stringer.

=Headlights.= Lights carried at the masthead.

=Head of the bowsprit.= The forward end.

=Hull.= The entire structure of a vessel, exclusive of equipment.

=Inboard.= Within the ship.

=Inner skin.= Planking or plating covering the inside of frames.

=Jack.= Name given to various sails, ropes, etc.

=Jib.= Triangular sail carried on a stay reaching from the foremast head or from topmast to the jib-boom.

=Keel.= Backbone of a vessel in wooden ships. Composed of great lengths of timber connected to each other by scarfs. In steel ships usually a set of plates from stem to stern.

=Even keel, uneven keel.= Designates the manner in which ship floats. If balanced evenly in a fore-and-aft direction she is on even keel, if depressed at head or stern she is on uneven keel.

=Keelson angle-bar.= Any angle-bar used in the construction of a keelson.

=Lanyards.= Short lengths of rope used to tighten up davit-guys, awnings, etc.

=Launching.= Sliding a boat into the water from the building-berth.

=Lee side.= Opposite to the side on which the wind blows.

=Lighter.= Large craft used to bring cargo alongside or to lighten a grounded vessel.

=List.= When one side of a vessel lies deeper in the water than the other; caused by shifting cargo, etc.

=Log.= Apparatus used to determine speed of a vessel.

=Main-mast.= Principal mast of a ship; the second mast counting from bow to stern.

=Marine engine.= Engine especially designed for the propulsion of boats.

=Mast.= A long piece, or system of pieces, of timber, placed nearly perpendicularly to the keelson of a vessel to support the spars and gear by which the sails are set. In modern practice, steel masts are built by riveting rolled plates together.

=Midships.= Middle part of a ship.

=Mizzen-mast.= Third mast on a vessel with three or more masts.

=Mizzen-sails.= Sails carried on a mizzen-mast.

=Mushroom Ventilator.= Short cast-iron tube with movable iron rod passing through the center. A metal cup is fitted to the top of the rod, which may be lifted to permit air to enter, or closed to prevent water from entering. Generally fitted over cabins.

=Navigation Bridge.= Bridge used for taking observations or handling the ship in difficult situations.

=Outboard.= Outside the hull or beyond the gunwale.

=Outlet cock.= Any cock used to free a receptacle of water.

=Paddle-wheels.= Wheels fitted on each side of a paddle steamer in connection with the paddle-shaft, consisting of a cast-iron boss from which wrought-iron arms radiate, strengthened by rims and stays, and with a float attached to each arm.

=Pawl.= Small catch to prevent moving object from going beyond certain limit.

=Pile.= A piece of lumber or iron, together with others, driven into the bed of a river for the support of a pier, bridge, etc.

=Pilot Bridge.= Narrow thwartships platform, extending from side to side above a steamer's upper or bridge deck. Serves as a station for the pilot or officer of the watch.

=Port.= Opening in ship's side, in bulwark, etc.

=Propeller-screw.= Propeller in which blades are at an angle to the line of axis, similar to the threads of a screw.

=Quarters.= Men's positions when called to their duties, as during fire or boat drill; also living accommodations.

=Quay.= Artificial landing-place.

=Raft.= A collection of boards fastened together by ropes or chains, and capable of floating.

=Ram.= Massive projection under water at the bow of a warship. The ship is also called a ram.

=Rat-line.= Three-stranded cord, of which the ladder-like steps in lower rigging, topmast rigging, etc., are formed.

=Rigging.= Entire equipment of a ship's masts, spars, etc., with their standing and running ropes.

=Rudder.= A device for steering vessels. Hinged to the outside of the hull, usually at the stern.

=Sail.= A device of canvas and rope fastened to spars and rigging, and extended to catch the wind and drive the vessel.

=Skiff.= Long, lightly built boat sometimes used in rowing races.

=Sloop.= Vessel with one mast, having a jib-sail.

=Spar.= Any shaped piece of timber used as a mast, bowsprit, yard, etc., or intended for such use.

=Stanchion.= A stationary upright support.

=Superstructure.= Any structure above top full deck.

=Tack.= To change the direction of sailing due to wind.

=Thwart.= Seats are called thwarts when they extend from side to side of a boat, athwart when across.

=Tonnage.= Entire capacity or cubical contents of a vessel. One ton estimated at 100 cubic English feet.

=Trawler.= Fishing-vessel with ground-sweeping net.

=Trim.= Term indicating the state of a ship with regard to ballast; position of a vessel in the water with respect to horizontal.

=Turtle-back.= Top of wheel-house, forecastle, etc., formed like a turtle's back.

=Upper Works.= Same as freeboard when a vessel is loaded.

=Uptake.= Part connecting smokebox to funnel. Sometimes includes the smokebox.

=Ventilator.= Usually made of sheet iron in tubular forms, and arranged to expel foul air and permit the passage of fresh air to any part of a ship.

=Vessel.= Craft requiring a licensed master. (Boats do not).

=Water ballast.= Sea water let into double bottom or ballast-tank.

=Water-Line.= (Light) Submerging line of vessel without cargo.

=Water-Line.= (Load) Submerging line of vessel with full cargo.

=Water-tight Compartment.= Compartment with water-tight bulkhead at each end.

=Winch.= Machine used for loading or unloading cargo. Some are hand driven and some electrically driven.

=Windlass.= Special form of winch used to hoist anchor.

* * * * *

Transcriber's Notes:

Obvious punctuation errors repaired.

Page 128, "oppositite" changed to "opposite" (the opposite end of)

Page 131, N italicized to match rest of usage (center of the disk _N_)

Page 132, D italicized to match rest of usage (to the _D_ valve previously)

Page 185, "deterimental" changed to "detrimental" (detrimental to the speed)

End of Project Gutenberg's Boys' Book of Model Boats, by Raymond Francis Yates