m. This bread had a very fine, smooth texture, and had a very sweet

taste. I advocate taking doughs as soon as they are ready, if you want a nice, smooth texture and a sweet taste to your bread; and trust that it is your aim to produce such a loaf.

The third process in the art of bread making is pushing or “punching” the dough down.

Pushing or “Punching” the Dough Down.

When the dough is well “up,” or raised, push or “punch” it down (using both hands), to force out the gas, then raise up one end of the dough and lap it over the other, then push it down again. Continue this process until the dough is firm and compact, then cover it, and when it is up again take it. This is done to prevent the dough from getting too old, or from losing its vitality. When a dough is required at a certain time and there is no time to push or punch the dough down, this process may be omitted.

The fourth process in bread making is breaking the dough.

Breaking the Dough.

When the dough is ready remove it from the trough or bowl and put it on the bench or table; then cut it into pieces weighing about 10 pounds; then pat it down with both hands, then take up one end of the dough and lap it over the other, then pat it down again until you have the piece of dough very flat; then fold it over and over. Continue to pat down and fold over the dough until it is very compact, then take up the next piece, and so on, until you have the entire batch of dough firm and compact. In some large shops this work is done by machines called “dough breaks.”

“Breaking” is done to free the dough from excessive gas and to keep the dough young and also to produce a firm loaf of bread. If the dough is “made up” before it has been freed from excessive gas, it will produce a spongy loaf of bread, with large, irregular holes in it. Such a loaf of bread will dry out very quickly. After the dough has been freed from excessive gas it becomes firm and compact, and the loaves of bread made from this dough will likewise be firm and compact. (At this period of the dough all gas contained in the dough can be classed as “excessive,” because it is of no real value, but rather a hindrance, because it makes additional work to get the dough into proper shape for making it up into loaves.) Now, when the yeast again becomes active and gas begins to form, the loaf will raise evenly, because what gas remains in the loaf is evenly distributed throughout the loaf, thus producing a nicely shaped loaf.

The fifth process in the art of bread making is weighing.

Weighing the Loaves.

Cut the dough into pieces of as near a uniform size as possible, then weigh them as required. The exact weight I cannot fix; that must be determined by the price of material used, the locality in which you are located, the cost of labor, etc.

In making up a selling price, every detail, such as cost of material, labor, rent, light, fuel, heat, wrapping paper, twine, advertising display, wear and tear on horse and wagon (if you have any), feed, etc., salary for yourself, interest on money invested, etc., must be figured in, or “you will come out of the small end of the horn,” as they say.

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After the dough is made, proceed as follows to work it smooth: Cut off (with a scraper) a portion of the dough and place it on the bench, then spread it out (using both hands) as wide and long as possible, then fold it double, then spread it out again, as before directed, then fold it over. Continue this process until you have a nice, smooth, dry dough, then take up another piece of dough and proceed as directed. Continue taking up pieces of dough and working them as directed until you have worked the entire batch of dough, then put it in the trough and allow it to “raise.” When making straight dough with a dough mixer, proceed as follows: Put the water into the mixer (but keep back a small portion in which to dissolve the yeast), then dissolve the yeast, then put it into the mixer, then add the sugar, fats, salt, etc., then start the mixer, then add the flour and allow the machine to run until you have a smooth, dry dough. Some bakers allow their mixers to run ten minutes and others allow them to run twenty minutes. This is simply a matter of opinion. My advice is to run the mixer until you have a smooth, dry dough.

Processes in Bread Making.

Before we have the product called bread, it has passed through fourteen processes, which I will name and describe in rotation. The first of these processes is called setting sponge.

Setting Sponge.

Setting sponge is the first process in the art of bread making. Proceed to set sponge as follows: Measure the quantity of liquid desired and put it into a mixing bowl or trough, then take out a portion of the liquid and dissolve the yeast in it (about ½ gallon for each pound of yeast used). The yeast must be thoroughly dissolved; then add it to the rest of the liquid, then add flour to give it the consistency of medium dough (2¼ pounds of flour, one-half spring wheat and one-half winter wheat will give you a fine sponge), then work it well to prevent crust from forming on it, then allow it to raise. The length of time required to raise the sponge depends upon conditions, namely, the quantity of yeast used, the temperature of the shop, the temperature of the liquid and flour, the consistency of the sponge, and the size of the sponge. Large sponges require less yeast (in proportion), and raise quicker than small sponges, because they are not as easily chilled as small sponges are. Some bakers prefer an old sponge and a young dough, while others prefer the opposite—a young sponge and an old dough. I prefer to take the sponge as soon as it is ready, and the dough likewise. By so doing we always get an article that is not overproved, and without a trace of lactic fermentation. Goods made from an old overproved dough are not fit to eat. If you make a nice, sweet product you will have no difficulty in establishing a good trade. Watch the sponge and take it just as soon as it begins to fall. If you want to test a sponge shake the vessel, and if the sponge falls it is ready to take. If the sponge is not ready, the shaking up which you gave the sponge will not check the growth of it. I have taken sponge one hour old and produced excellent results.

The second process in the art of bread making is making dough.

Making Dough.

Melt the fat (if lard or compounds are used), dissolve the sugar and salt in the water, then add them to the sponge and work them thoroughly, tearing the sponge to pieces and working it until you have the whole a smooth mass, then add the flour (in portions), enough to make a fairly stiff dough, and work it thoroughly until you have a smooth, dry dough. Work the dough same as when making a straight dough. Keep the dough covered and at a temperature of not less than 80 deg. F. When the temperature of the shop is below that, and the dough is to be taken in two or three hours, both the sponge and the dough must be kept above 85 deg. F. While a little chill would not affect a dough, still it would delay it considerably. Chilling retards the growth of the yeast, and after the dough has been chilled it will take some time to raise its temperature to continue the growth of the yeast cells.

There are various ways of hurrying doughs, a few of which are as follows: By using a little more yeast than ordinarily, and by making a soft dough, and by reducing the quantity of salt, and by keeping both the sponge and the dough at a high temperature. When using a larger per cent. of yeast than ordinarily, watch both the sponge and the dough, and take them young (just as soon as they are ready), or lactic (souring) fermentation will take place. Don’t use too much yeast. Too much yeast will give the baked product a peculiar taste, and will compel you to be very careful in the handling of the dough, especially so in warm weather.

VARIATIONS IN BREAD TEXTURE

BY C. MILLER

That there is a wide variance in texture or grain in bread from day to day, or from batch to batch, produced under seemingly same conditions, is not to be denied. There are several causes, any one of which may produce the difference between good and poor texture:

(1) Improper fermentation, the most fruitful source.

(2) Improper handling or preparation of the dough previous to panning.

(3) Over-proofing before baking.

(4) Ovens too hot or too cold.

By taking up these causes in the order named I hope to point out to those who are not practical some of the difficulties which confront the operative baker, and which make the production of uniform texture in bread almost as difficult at it would be to bail the water out of Lake Michigan with a bucket.

My observation, covering a period of more than thirty years, leads me to believe that absolutely uniform texture or grain in bread will never be produced so long as we make bread with yeast. This brings me to the first cause named, that of fermentation.

As there are no known mechanical means of determining the amount or degree of fermentation in dough, this must be left to the judgment of the baker, and his judgment is prone to err. If the dough is under-fermented the resultant texture of the bread will most likely be rough, waxy and heavy to the eye and touch. If the dough be over-fermented, the texture takes on a grayish look and feels coarse and dry and inclines to crumble. The difference in time between under and over-fermentation is not long, and, as previously stated, depends entirely upon the judgment of the operative baker, and were his judgment infallible, which it is not, other conditions in the bakery many times make it impossible for him to take the dough at the proper period of fermentation, due to the erratic and eccentric nature of fermentation of the various batches under course of manufacture. Although made apparently identical, in which every ingredient, including the water, has been carefully weighed, the revolutions of the mixing machine counted, to produce as near as possible one dough like the other, these doughs, all of a temperature not to vary more than half of a degree, and this temperature controlled in a room specially constructed for this purpose—with all of this care and fidelity to detail, it is seldom that any two doughs will ferment exactly alike. That being so, what may be expected where such facilities are lacking, and where such close attention to detail is not practiced? The subject of fermentation is a long one, and I only touch upon it as it relates to the texture or grain of baked bread, pointing out the difficulty of its control outside of the laboratory.

Taking up the second cause of poor texture (in the order named), that of improper handling of the dough before panning, I may say it is impossible to make bread of a fine texture or grain without a certain amount of manipulation of the dough during the process of fermentation. This has been termed by the baker “cutting over” or “turning back.” If this part of the work is not properly done there will be a consequent sacrifice of texture or grain. This cutting over, when properly done, consists of cutting the dough in pieces as large as can be conveniently handled, and stretching these pieces as long as possible and placing the same again in the trough, one piece on top of the other, until the entire batch has been so treated. This serves two purposes: (1) That of again bringing the dough, which had become warmer in the center of the batch, to a uniform temperature throughout; (2) it makes a more thorough distribution of the air cells which were produced by the gases in their attempt to escape by rising upward through the mass of dough. It is this repeated redistribution of the air cells to finer size and greater number which aids materially in the production of a bread of fine texture. This can best be illustrated by calling your attention to the “snow-flake” bread, or brake dough, which was once quite popular in many sections of this country. The process of manufacture, in which the dough was run through iron rollers from twenty to thirty times, always folding and running through the rollers again and again, is an intensified redistribution of the air cells, and this process produces a texture or grain very fine and pleasing to the eye and touch.

The over-proofing of the dough before baking is a weakness inherited by environment by about 99 per cent. of the operative bakers. This desire to see a large loaf at the expense of flavor and texture is caused largely by the criticism of the smaller loaf by the general public. It is an inevitable law of nature that you cannot get something for nothing. You cannot have quality, with fine texture or grain, and at the same time have a large loaf which only pleases the eye on its exterior. Either quality or quantity must be sacrificed. It is for the individual baker to say which it shall be.

And last, but not least, the cause of poor texture or grain is due to improper heat of the ovens, as without a perfect baking heat it is quite possible to spoil the most perfect dough. If the oven be too hot, causing the bread to crust before the loaf has had time to become heated through, the result will be poor grain or texture, as the gases within the loaf would be imprisoned by the crust already formed, and as these gases become more heated and light as the loaf grows hotter, they eventually follow along the lines of least resistance and break through the loaf at its weakest point of crust already formed, causing the loaf to be ill-shaped and drawn, and the grain to be uneven and furrowed. Again, if the oven be too cold, the loaf is too slowly heated to stop in time the action of fermentation, and the result would be much the same as over-proofing—open texture with inclination to be dry and crumbling.

Greek Bread.

One-half pint milk (bare measure), 1 ounce yeast, pinch of flour, 2 eggs, ½ ounce sugar. Ferment 90 degrees F.

Dough.

One pound flour, ¼ pound butter, 3½ ounces sugar, ounce ground cinnamon.

Make the above quantities into a very light dough, and allow to lie covered in warm place for 45 minutes. When ready to turn out on to the board, hand up, and pin out to little more than ¼ inch thick. At this stage sprinkle some granulated sugar over the dough, splash with little water, and bring two sides over to meet in the center, so as to entirely enclose the sugar. Pin out again and repeat same operation of adding sugar and folding over. The dough will now require to be pinned out to ¼ inch thick, when it should be cut into strips 2½ inches wide and placed on warmed greased baking sheets. Wash with milk, sprinkle over a good layer of granulated sugar, and place into the prover containing little steam. When ready bake in hot oven, allow to cool, then cut into small square pieces, according to size required.

AMERICAN RYE BREAD METHODS

In Europe most all of the rye breads are raised with sour dough, but American bakers employ a variety of methods; some bakers are using the sour dough process, others are taking a part sour dough and use compressed yeast with it, others use a potato ferment, or compressed yeast without sour dough. The sour dough process recommends itself because it is cheap; all that is required is a small piece of rye bread dough left over from the previous day’s batch for a start; there is no yeast to pay for. It is a process which requires experience and close attention to make a nice and palatable bread. The difficulty lies in the treatment of the sour dough. This dough should not be sour, as the name would make one believe; it should be kept up to a certain degree of sweetness by refreshing or renewing it regularly. Rye breads made with sour dough have a peculiar characteristic flavor; this flavor is lacking in rye breads which are raised only with yeast.

A combination process, in which yeast and sour dough are used together, either with a sponge, or also in a straight dough, produces a sweeter loaf, and there is not as much danger of getting the bread too sour (which may happen in the straight sour dough process), if not closely watched. Yeast added to the sour dough secures a stronger and shorter fermentation, and only one sponge is used in the process, while, with sour dough only, two successive sponges are employed. The short yeast and sour dough process gives just enough acidity to the dough to give a good taste.

Rye bread is also made with ferment. One Detroit bakery makes from 400 to 600 loaves per day by this process. The potato ferment is made in the afternoon (they use potato flour), stocked away with dry yeast, and in the morning a straight dough is made with ferment and more water. This process makes a nice, moist and sweet loaf and sells well.

In other bakeries, the left-over pieces of rye and wheat dough which accumulate during the day from the dough-mixer and the dough, are used for a sort of sour dough, for a start, or in place of the regular sour dough. The scraps are thinned down with water, and in the evening some yeast is added and a sponge is set with more rye flour; the rye dough is made from this sponge afterwards. This method works all right, but care must be taken not to add too much old dough, and also to take the dough young, otherwise it is apt to make a dry, flat loaf and the bread cracks easily in baking.

Some bakers set a sponge with compressed yeast and rye flour and let the sponge drop twice. The sponge is made very slack, and contains two-thirds of the water, and the other third part of the water is put on for the dough. Letting the sponge drop twice gives it a little more acidity to the dough. This process would make a much better flavored bread if the sponge was taken on the first drop, and for doughing three or more pounds of old rye dough added, according to the amount of bread to be made; it would give better flavor and make a moister loaf.

In other bakeries where only a small quantity of rye bread is required, bakers do not set a separate sponge for rye; they dip out of a broken-up wheat sponge and make the dough with rye flour; a piece of sour dough is added by some bakers, which gives better flavor to bread made by this method. The sour dough process consists of a succession of sponges; every day a small piece of sour rye dough is left over for this purpose to begin with. It is important in this process to keep the sour dough from getting too old, because when too old it becomes putrid and loses strength. Where rye bread is not made every day, or where sour dough is kept over from Saturday to Monday, we used to work plenty of rye flour with some salt in the piece of dough kept over, and make a very stiff dough, and rolled this in a well-dusted flour bag and kept in a cold place till required. (In southern Germany the sour dough is kept in a liquid state, it is thinned with cold water and kept in a cold place.) Only a small quantity is required for a start; this is freshened up once or twice before it is made into the first and second sponge, after which the final dough is made. For instance, to make a batch of 100 pounds of rye flour into bread the procedure is as follows: Two pounds of sour dough are freshened up with one quart of water and one pound of rye flour into a soft sponge at about 75 to 80 degrees Fahr. After three hours add two more quarts of water and about six pounds of flour and make this into a medium firm sponge, this is called “grund sour.” In from five to six hours this will be ready for the second sponge or “voll sour.” For this second sponge add fifteen quarts of water and with about forty pounds of flour make a soft sponge. This sponge will be ready in from three to three and one-half hours and drop. For the dough add fifteen quarts of water, about one and one-half pounds of salt and about fifty-two pounds of rye flour and make a smooth stiff dough. After the dough is made it should not be given much time to come on before scaling and moulding, because the large second sponge will cause the dough to ripen quickly during the time it is scaled and moulded. This should be done in as short a time as possible so the first loaves do not get too much proof before the rest is moulded. For a smaller batch more time can be given. This process of getting the sponges ready for the final dough may seem tedious to some readers, but the rye bread is baked generally during the daytime, while breads and rolls are baked at night, the freshening-up and setting first and second sponge is done during the night, this is particularly so where there is only one oven.

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In the large rye bread bakeries, where they bake many batches per day, a batch is baked every two and a half to three hours. A larger “grund sour” and less water on the “voll sour” with a moderately warm temperature ripens sponge and doughs more rapidly and gets the bread ready for the oven in a short time.

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_How to make Genuine Rye Bread._

In a recent paper upon this same subject, Geo. Freeman, of Kalamazoo, an expert baker, had the following to say upon how to make genuine rye bread.

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During my career as journeyman baker, working in different shops, I have found there were hardly two who made rye bread precisely the same. But although they work different ways the result aimed at was the same. Some got it pretty regularly and others did not. But since giving the subject a little extra thought I see where I and others have worked very much in the dark, and during the course of my remarks I shall endeavor to throw as much light on the subject as I possibly can, from the viewpoint of a baker, to bakers, and so enable you (who do not already) to see it as clearly as I do myself. I have here, gentlemen, two loaves of what I consider genuine rye bread, the formula for which has never given me any trouble since I adopted it. I will tell you first how I made them and the why and wherefore afterwards.

We will take for example a six gallon dough for a 125 pound batch. From the previous day’s rye sponge, I have saved one pound of sponge in the crock and kept it in the ice box, so the first thing I do is to take half a pint of water and skim milk and bring it up to required temperature; and add to the one one pound of sponge in the crock and stir in sufficient rye flour to make a little stiff dough, the temperature of which must be from 92 to 95 degrees, and let stand until the sponge is ready.

Next take half an ounce of hops and boil about 20 minutes in two quarts of water; strain off the hops, saving the liquor for the sponge.

Next I prepared the blend of flour taking 40 per cent. blended Wisconsin rye; 20 per cent. pure black Wisconsin rye; 40 per cent. low grade spring.

We now come to the sponge, making a six gallon dough. I take four gallons for the sponge, being two-thirds of total liquor in the sponge and one-third or two gallons at doughing stage.

I take three and one-half gallons of water (at required temperature); seven ounces of yeast, two quarts of hop liquor, twenty-eight pounds of prepared blend of flour, about one-third of total required.

Mix thoroughly. Temperature when mixed 80 degrees in summer; 84 degrees in winter.

You will notice I allow seven pounds of flour to the gallon of water in the sponge, which makes it medium soft, causing it to show the drop good. A stiff rye sponge will sometimes hold up on top until it is completely rotten. On this account I have water and flour weighed accurate for rye sponge.

The sponge is usually ready in three and a half to four hours. I give it a full drop and regulate how far it comes up the second time by the strength of the flour. In this instance the sponge took one full drop and had risen half way up the second time when I took it. I have already had to give the sponge the second full drop when using very strong flour.

Now we come to the doughing stage: Two gallons water (about 10 degrees lower temperature than required for sponge); two pounds of sour from crock; one pound eleven ounces of salt; 50 pounds of the same blend of flour as used in the sponge. Mix good and thorough. The temperature should be about 80 degrees in summer when finished, and 84 in winter.

I cover it up and allow to stand until when I push my fist well into it and withdraw quickly, it recedes slightly instead of resisting. It is generally one and a half to two hours in getting ready. I then throw it out on the table and have it scaled, rounded up, made into loaves, set in boxes, dusted with corn meal, with the crease down and set away to prove. When the loaves had risen or increased in bulk about 50 per cent. we washed them over with boiled corn starch and water, and set them in the oven to bake; the oven being as near 400 degrees as we can get it, with steam running in. The steam is left running in until the loaf is done rising, then we shut it off and open the steam damper a few minutes. A few minutes before we commence to draw we turn the steam on again to glaze the crust, which does away with washing after it comes out of the oven. We let it bake until it a good rich brown and gives a firm sound when rapped with the knuckles. The result of this description you see in these two loaves.

Now, gentlemen, I will endeavor to tell you in as short and plain a way as I know how why I did or did not do certain things.

I will take the sour first: That is the cause of endless trouble to most bakers, and many have stopped using it altogether. The idea is to produce just a little acid taste to the bread and still retain the full, sweet rye flavor, a kind of “bitter sweet” as one may say. People who like a little of it in their rye bread would be the first ones to disdain sour and flavorless rye bread from over-fermentation. And I would not blame them either. So the old fashioned idea of adding sour is an excellent one, if conducted rightly. And I find when it is done right it contains a high per cent. of lactic acid—the same bacillus the farmers and dairymen develop by letting their milk sour before churning to give a flavor to their butter and cheese. The same bacillus gives the acid taste to buttermilk and cottage cheese, and what German does not like them? Now milk may be said to be the home of lactic bacillus; that is why you heard me say add water and skim milk. The ideal temperature for its development is 95 degrees. You notice milk turns sour very quickly during hot weather; that is the reason.

Do not make the sour over night, as at the conclusion of the lactic ferment others, undesirable, may commence and cause you endless trouble.

Do not put the sour in the sponge and think to save a little yeast that way. It may turn your whole sponge sour, and spoil your bread. If you want a little more acid taste to the bread, use a little more sour, and vice versa.

You will notice I use a little hops (or rather hop liquor) in the sponge. The reason is to keep the sponge as pure and sweet as possible. Rye flour differs from wheat flour in that there is in rye flour scarcely any of what we call gluten. It analyzes a higher content of albuminoids than the average wheat flour, but they are nearly all soluble in water, and therefore, ready for easy assimilation by bacteria, and as it is this the proteids bacteria thrive on they have an easy chance to start a very undesirable fermentation, unless something is used to hold them in check. Therefore, I advise using a little hops which will do it effectually.

Now we come to the doughing stage again: We have kept our sponge in good condition and it is ready. We must still keep the dough cool and maintain the alcoholic fermentation throughout, but here we do not need to use any hops, even though we have the sour, as here we have the best retarder of all, plenty of salt, which not only brings out the flavor, but holds in check all foreign ferments, as long as there is any food left for the yeast to thrive and work on. So be sure to take your dough as soon as you know it is ready.

Regarding the blending of flour, gentlemen, everybody knows the blend of flour to make the loaf that his trade demands. Some places they demand a big loaf and the baker uses more spring; some places they do not trouble about size, and the baker used less spring and more rye.

I think I have said sufficient, so in conclusion let me remind you: Keep your sponge cool, use plenty of good yeast, do not let your sour get too old, keep your dough cool, use plenty of salt, and do not have it wait when you know it is ready and you will have no trouble in making Genuine Rye Bread.

MALT EXTRACT IN BREAD-MAKING

What is known in the bakers’ trade as malt extract is a natural cereal sugar syrup made by dissolving wholly or partially malted cereals in warm water, and evaporating the extract thus formed to a thick syrup.

Used in connection with bread-making it is a positive benefit in many ways.

One of the most vital points in good bread-making is to permit fermentation to proceed just far enough to ripen the dough without injuring the delicate flavor of the gluten in the flour. Sugar to some extent injures this delicate flavor, giving the bread a slight acidy smell which is avoided when malt extract is used. With sugar you also get a dead brown color and a crust that will soften, whereas malt extract gives a lively, snappy brown that will retain its crispness, usually lacking when sugar is used.

Malt extract will shorten up the time of the doughs in hastening fermentation and giving more life with less yeast, and if handled properly will produce a loaf superior in every respect.

The writer has watched carefully the growth of a great many doughs during the course of fermentation, both with sugar and malt, and while the malt process is shorter it is much more gentle than the sugar and gives a more compact dough from start to finish. It will also save the baker considerable money in the course of a year, as it saves sugar and cuts down yeast and you can almost if not entirely cut out shortening.

Too much malt should not be used, as it is a powerful factor in a dough and might defeat the purpose for which it is used. From one pint to one quart of 120 deg. malt to the barrel is a good proportion. Good results are obtained with one pint malt, one pound yeast, eight quarts milk to the barrel of flour. No sugar and no shortening. By a different process with the use of malt, one and a half barrels of flour can be worked with one pound of yeast, obtaining the best of results. Of course, some flours require more than the pint of malt to the barrel, but those flours would also require more sugar. A quart, however, may with safety be used to the barrel of flour.

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A vast amount has been written on the subject of malt extract, many writers disagreeing as to its value. The following article by Henry A. Kohman, of the Fellowship in Baking Technology in the University of Kansas, covers the subject pretty thoroughly, pro and con:

It will be remembered by members of the National Association that last year the Executive Committee established a Fellowship in Baking Technology in the University of Kansas, and that Henry A. Kohman, of Lawrence, Kansas, was appointed to this position for a term of two years. The agreement between the association, on one hand, and the University of Kansas and Mr. Kohman, on the other, was that Mr. Kohman should devote his time and best attention in an endeavor to solve some of the chemical problems which so often perplex the baker, the result of his researches to be the property of the association, on terms to be mutually agreed upon.

At the February meeting of the Executive Committee, in Kansas City, Mr. Kohman was present and made a verbal report on the work so far accomplished by him, and was instructed to prepare a paper on the subject for publication in the trade press, which paper is given herewith. In transmitting his paper Mr. Kohman says that he has spent much time in collecting publications relating to the science of bread-making, in order to get a thorough understanding of the whole subject, and that in order to be practical as well as theoretical he has spent part of his time in the bakeshop.

The paper is as follows:

The Use of Malt Extract in Bread-Making.

When the National Association of Master Bakers made it possible for me to visit a number of the best bakeries in this country and Canada, I met with frequent inquiries in regard to the malt extract question. Some bakers used it to good advantage, but the majority used little or none. Looking over the formulas which I obtained through the kindness of the bakers in these different baking establishments, I find that only about five or six per cent. of the bread contains malt extract.

Practical Experiments.

In order to throw some light upon this question I undertook a series of experiments, the result of which I give below.

Preliminary experiments were made with five different commercial brands of malt extract. Their reducing-sugar content and diastatic activity were determined. The percentage of reducing sugar showed no great variation and needs no further comment. The diastatic activity, however, varied considerably. By the diastatic activity is meant the number of times its (own) weight of maltose a given quantity of extract will produce when allowed to act upon acid-free soluble starch for one hour at a temperature of 40 degrees C. (104 degrees F.).

The activities of the five extracts mentioned above are as follows: No. 1—8.56, No. 2—15.71, No. 3—8.60, No. 4—9.69, No. 5—20.13. These results were obtained under similar conditions, and are, therefore, strictly comparable. It is quite evident that these extracts have different sugar-producing values. No. 5, for example, will produce 2.35 times as much sugar as No. 1.

Malt Extract vs. Sugar.

Having determined the relative diastatic values of the malt extracts, it was desirable to determine their values as sugar producers in bread-making; and to see if the saccharine material in bread could not be supplied cheaper by means of malt extract than by the use of granulated sugar, as is commonly done. Five different breads were made, all conditions and ingredients being kept as nearly similar as possible, except the kind and quantity of saccharine material used. After the breads were made and dried the percentages of reducing sugars were determined. The tabulated results follow:

P’c’t’ge Grams Saccharine Sugar Flour. Material. Pound.

No. 1 800 20 gm. cane sugar 5.37 No. 2 800 None 3.64 No. 3 800 8 gm. malt extract No. 5 6.00 No. 4 800 8 gm. malt extract No. 1 5.68 No. 5 800 1 gm. malt extract No. 5 and 30 gm. cooked flour 5.27

The percentages found are calculated on the dry bread. The results reveal several interesting and significant facts. The eight grams of the lowest diastatic extract (activity 8.56) produced more sugar in the bread than the twenty grams of cane sugar. It is also evident that the lowest diastatic extract produced nearly as much sugar as the highest. The ratio of their activities is 8.56 to 20.13, while the ratio of the percentages of sugar produced is only 5.68 to 6.00. We might expect that the extract with an activity of 20.13 would produce more sugar than the one having an activity of only 8.56, but the results show that it did not. The explanation seems to be that both have an activity sufficiently high to convert into sugar and dextrin all the starch that is freed from the cellulose by having the cell walls broken, and neither attacks the starch granules that are still enclosed by cellulose.

It is a quite significant fact, too, that the one gram Of malt extract No. 5, together with thirty grams cooked flour, produced nearly as much sugar in the bread as the twenty grams of granulated sugar. This bread, No. 5, in addition to having the sugar supplied in the cheapest way, had its moisture and freshness retained longer than the other breads.

The bread having no saccharine material added showed on analysis to have 3.64 per cent. of reducing sugar. Some of this sugar was in the flour, but the larger part of it was formed by the enzymes in the flour during the fermentation period and the baking of the bread.

Knowing the percentage of sugar and the weight of dry bread produced from the 800 grams of flour, I calculated the amount of sugar in the total quantity of bread produced in each baking. Then by deducting the amount of sugar in bread No. 2, which had no sugar added, from the amount in the other breads, the total amount of sugar produced by the malt extract was obtained. In this way it was found that the malt extract No. 5 produced 2.65 times its weight of sugar when added directly to the dough as is commonly done, and that it yielded 14.67 times its own weight of sugar when a portion of the flour was cooked, as in experiment 5; or it produced 5.5 times as much sugar when added to flour, the starch of which had been gelatinized by cooking, as it did when added to the raw flour. The cooked flour was cooled to 120 degrees F. and then the malt extract added. The results show that while malt extract produces considerable sugar when added directly to the raw flour, it produces much more sugar when a portion of the flour is cooked.

Now, one might suppose that the heat of the oven would certainly gelatinize a portion of the starch, and thus aid the diastase in the conversion of the starch into sugar, and avoid the necessity of cooking a portion of the flour. But when we consider the fact that the starch does not begin to gelatinize until the temperature is raised to 152 degrees, which is already about 30 degrees above the most favorable temperature for the activity of the diastase, and the fact that the diastase is killed at a temperature of about 175 degrees F., we can readily see why the gelatinization of starch in the oven is of little assistance to the diastase in the conversion of starch into sugar.

This also throws some light upon the fact that the low diastatic extract produced approximately as much sugar as the one having the high activity. As stated above, both of the extracts, when used to the extent of one per cent., figured on the flour, have sufficient diastase to convert the broken starch granules into sugar, and the higher activity then can be of value only in the conversion of starch into sugar after gelatinization of a portion of the starch by the heat of the oven, and then only while the temperature rises from 152 degrees F., at which temperature the starch is gelatinized, until it reaches about 175 degrees, when the diastase is killed, and under very unfavorable conditions, for the temperature is far above the most favorable activity of the diastase.

While the high diastatic extract seems to yield but little more sugar than the one of low activity when added directly to the raw flour, it has a decided advantage when a portion of the flour is cooked, for then the amounts of sugar produced by different extracts will bear much more nearly the same ratios to each other as the activities of the extracts.

Besides supplying saccharine material in the bread, malt extract has other advantages. In addition to the sugar it contains mineral salts, peptones, and other protein materials which stimulate fermentation. These proteins, besides being a source of nitrogenous food for the yeast, act upon the proteins of the flour, making them assimilable by the yeast.

In addition to the amylolytic ferment, the diastase, which converts starch into sugar, malt extract contains proteolytic ferments which act upon the gluten much as the ferments of the yeast. These ferments aid the yeast in preparing the gluten, and hence a smaller quantity of yeast can be used when malt extract takes the place of granulated sugar. In other words, the dough matures quicker, owing to the presence of these ferments in the malt extract. While the extracts with the higher diastatic activity produce only a little more sugar than the lower diastatic extracts, they act upon the gluten much more vigorously, and consequently the dough matures much sooner when a high diastatic malt is used. This latter, then, is better suited to hard flours, while the former can be used to good advantage with weak flours.

The dextrin formed by the diastase gives a very desirable color to the crust of the bread, which is often lacking when no malt extract is used. In addition to these advantages, malt extract produces an agreeable flavor, and this is, perhaps, one of the best arguments for its use.

From the table above it is evident that a given weight of malt extract goes much farther toward producing sugar in bread than does the same weight of cane sugar, but there has been nothing said of prices. By a few calculations I think we can show, approximately, how much the baker can save in dollars and cents by using malt extract in place of cane sugar. We will assume the flour to be worth $4.50 per barrel or 2.29 cents per pound, cane sugar 5 cents per pound and malt extract 7 cents per pound. As a basis of comparison we will take 100 pounds of cane sugar, which at 5 cents per pound will be worth $5.00. As stated above, one part of malt extract will produce 2.65 times its weight of sugar when added to the dough directly and 14.67 times its weight of sugar when a portion of the flour is cooked. Then it will take 100 divided by 2.65 equals 37.7 pounds of malt extract to produce 100 pounds of sugar by the first method. Since malt extract contains sixty per cent. or more of sugar, the 37.7 pounds would supply 22.6 pounds of sugar and there would be used up 77.4 pounds of starch from the flour to make up the 100 pounds of flour. The 77.4 pounds of flour at 2.29 cents per pound would cost $1.77 and the 37.7 pounds malt extract at 7 cents per pound would cost $2.64, making a total of $4.41 for the 100 pounds of sugar, against $5.00, the cost of the cane sugar.

By the second method, in which a portion of the flour was cooked, it would take 100 divided by 14.67 equals 6.81 pounds of malt extract to produce 100 pounds of sugar. This would contain 4.1 pounds of sugar and there would be used up 95.9 pounds of starch from the flour to make up the 100 pounds of sugar. The cost of the 6.81 pounds malt extract would be $0.50 and the cost of the flour $2.20, a total of $2.70. Then there would be a saving of $5.00 minus 4.41 equals $0.59 by the first method and $5.00 minus $2.70 equals $2.30 by the second method on every hundred pounds of cane sugar used. So far we have considered only the saccharine material. The cane sugar, of course, contains nothing but saccharine material. The malt extract, however, in addition to the sugar, contains about seven per cent. of protein material, which has not been mentioned, and which is an item of considerable importance, and also mineral salts which stimulate yeast fermentation. Besides, the malt extract gives a color to the crust of the bread and a flavor which is quite desirable. When the starch of the flour is converted into sugar, the gluten remains and makes the bread that much richer in protein, which is one of the essential constituents of white bread; also it absorbs several times its weight of water and thus increases the yield of the bread.

It is quite evident that there are many points to be considered in connection with the use of malt extract in bread baking. Most of the evidences, however, seem to indicate that it can be used to good advantage. The principle that “If a little is good, more is better,” will not apply, however. Two pounds to the barrel may give splendid results, while four pounds to the barrel may cause a miserable, soggy loaf of bread. The amounts that can be successfully used depend upon the strength of the flour and the diastatic activity of the extract. With a weak flour one must use low diastatic extracts, while with strong flours one may use larger quantities of extracts with a greater diastatic power.

COTTON SEED OIL IN BREAD-MAKING

BY DAVID CHIDLOW

Cotton seed oil has received so much attention from bread makers in the past few years that it would seem there was nothing left unsaid regarding its advantages in bread-making; but thoughtful bakers will be alert to learn anything new regarding the properties of oil for shortening, which will make them better bakers by using shortenings, with an understanding of their properties in bread-making.

Why Are Shortenings Used?

Shortenings are used in bread-making to accomplish certain definite results, the most common being: first, the coating of each little cell in the loaf whereby the moisture is retained in the loaf, preventing its escape exactly in the manner that waxed or oiled paper would prevent the escape of moisture from a loaf around which it was wrapped. Cut a good loaf after it has been baked about twelve hours, examine it in full daylight, and notice the sheen reflected from each rounded cell. This sheen is greater in loaves which have been properly fermented, using the right proportion of shortening, than in the loaves where the shortening was either deficient in amount or of improper character. Of this matter we will say more further on. Secondly, the use of shortening whitens the bread. Thirdly, a part of the shortening combines with the gluten to make it elastic, and thereby expands more readily and makes a reasonably large loaf. All of these points you can test very readily by making up small batches, using 100 ounces of flour. Take a reasonably good spring wheat patent flour and use 6 pounds 4 ounces of flour, 1½ ounces of yeast, 1½ ounces of salt, 2 ounces of sugar and 3 pounds 12 ounces of water, taking the water at such a temperature so that you will have the dough at 84. Make up the dough and place it in a wooden pail, previously oiled, then cover the dough. At the end of two hours take the dough out and fold it over two or three times. At the end of three hours do the same thing again; again at three and one-half hours. See that dough temperature is maintained as near 84 as possible. At four hours scale it off into sizes for your pan, and prove about sixty minutes in a proving chamber having a temperature of 90.

So far I have said nothing about the quantity of oil to be used. This is because I want you to realize what an influence the amount of shortening has on dough and its expansion. In one dough of the size given above use 1 ounce of oil; in another use 2 ounces; in the third use 3 ounces. Add the oil to the sugar and salt, rub down smoothly until it is a creamy mass; then add a little of the water and a little of the flour and rub down again. Do this with each of the doughs so that the oil will be uniformly mixed in the dough. You will note that the texture of the loaf containing the least amount of shortening is broken. The loaf will not really stand the amount of proof that is given to it, because the gluten will not stretch sufficiently to hold in the gas. The loaf containing the 2 ounces of shortening will be improved very much, and the one containing the 3 ounces will not only be improved in texture and appearance, but will retain the moisture very much longer, as you will find, if you will put a loaf from each of the doughs aside for two days, weighing before and after standing.

Each Shortening in Its Proper Place.

In a number of experiments at Chidlow Institute, Chicago, seven years ago, it was found that every kind of fat that could be used in bread-making had a character of its own which it exhibited in various ways. In fact, they varied so widely as to suggest much deeper research than was at first contemplated at that time. In making up a number of doughs, small amounts of each shortening was added to the loaves, increasing the amount until a proportion of 40 pounds per barrel of flour was used, the lowest amount of shortening used being 2 pounds per barrel of flour. The loaves from each of these batches were placed aside with a view of finding out how much of the shortening was brought to the outside of the loaf by escape of the moisture, and it was found that nearly all shortenings came to the surface or crust of the loaf in different proportions. These tests were made many times over, and always with the same results. With some shortenings the amount of fat brought out was nearly one-half of what was added; in others it would be less than one-fourth, and in some it was as high as three-fourths. Evidently the shortening that would carry three-fourths of the quantity to the crust was unfitted for bread-making by that particular method and with that particular flour.

The details of these experiments are of no service here. They are only referred to as indicating a difference of result obtained by the use of different shortenings. The same thing was noted in making experimental doughs. These were made of the same weight of flour, yeast, sugar, shortening, and water. They were then placed in a glass jar which was marked off so as to give clear readings of the expansion of each dough. The jars were then placed in a water bath maintained at a uniform temperature, and covered with glass to keep the surface of the dough moist. Some of the shortenings used permitted the doughs to rise very much higher than where other shortenings were used, and it made no difference how often these doughs were made and the tests repeated. The shortenings that permitted a very high expansion of the dough on one test always gave a high expansion in another test, so that the results were uniform. This gave us the very information we were in search of, showing us that we must find the best method for each kind of shortening, and for each kind of flour.

Best Method of Using Cotton Seed Oil.

The following instructions are based upon a part of these experiments under the following specific conditions: In the first place it must be understood that a method of making bread is best suited for a particular flour, and that alteration of flour usually requires an alteration in the method, or at least a modification of the method. Many of the spring wheat patent flours being sold are second patents, and as such they are best made into doughs by use of sponges. Take, then, spring wheat second patent flour and a four to six hour sponge. One-half of the total oil should be used in the sponge and the other half in the dough. This brings shortening in accomplishing the expansion of the loaf, in giving a clear whiteness to the loaf, and a bright sheeny coating of the cells making up the structure of the loaf. The average amount of shortening used for pan bread in the United States is five pounds per barrel of flour. Assuming this proportion, then, at least one-half pound of shortening can be discarded without any loss of the shortening power.

The foregoing instructions are not applicable to other flours than of the type given, nor can they be used properly with straight doughs.—_Cotton Seed._

CORN FLAKES USED IN BREAD

Corn flakes are made from the starchy part of the maize kernel. The starch of corn itself has little value for the bread baker in its crude form. It is insoluble in cold water, and can only be dissolved by the disintegration of the organized structures of the granules.

On being boiled with water it forms a gelatinous looking mass, and dissolves.

When examined after boiling the starch granules are seen to have broken up, a small part remaining in the liquid as minute insoluble particles.

In this condition starch is very susceptible to the action of the bodies known as ferments.

Bearing this in mind, this same change takes place in the process employed in the manufacture of corn flakes, that is, the crude starch granules have become completely gelatinized.

The value of gelatinized starch as formed in corn flakes, especially when used in connection with a small quantity of malt extract or malt flour, is not sufficiently understood by many bakers, and it is hoped that these few remarks will make the matter clearer and be of interest to all bakers who are desirous to increase their knowledge in the works of their chosen vocation.

It has conclusively been shown in text-books, that cooked starch, i. e., corn flakes, are more susceptible to “saccharification,” that is, sugar is sometimes called saccharum or saccharine matter, hence the term which is applied to this change that the starch thus undergoes. This conversion is due to the ferment known as diastase found in malt and has the power to convert the gelatinized starches of the corn flakes into maltose. Maltose, on the other hand, is changed by the ferment zymose, contained in yeast, into glucose.

This body is of interest to the baker as being the ultimate form to which all sugars are changed, and in this state is readily broken down into carbonic acid gas and alcohol, which causes doughs to rise. It follows then that corn flakes are a very valuable article to the baker on account of its gelatinized starch, its low cost, absolute sterility, its purity, and, above all, its great moisture-absorbing qualities.

Its use in connection with malt may eliminate the use of cane sugar entirely, and still furnish all the saccharine necessary to give bread the desired sweet flavor and taste. In order to make this clear, the result of the following experiments will corroborate the above statement. After the bread was baked and dried and ground the quantities of reducing sugar were determined by chemical test:

No. 1—100 gm. flour, 58 c. c. water, 2.5 gm. cane sugar gave 5.5 gm. saccharine.

No. 2—100 gm. flour, 56 c. c. water, no cane sugar, gave 3.9 gm. saccharine.

No. 3—100 gm. flour, 62 c. c. water, .125 gm. malt, 3 gm. corn flakes, gave 5.4 gm. saccharine.

The different quantities of water were increased to give dough equal viscosity.

It must be remembered, in making comparisons from this table, that the saccharine matter in the bread is produced in one instance, by the action of the diastase contained in the malt extract, in the other by the action of the enzymes in the flour upon the partial disrupted starch granules of the flour itself, and in the third instance by the cane sugar used.

The results obtained from these experiments are interesting and worthy of careful consideration, inasmuch as ⅛ gm. of malt with 3 gm. of corn flakes (perfectly gelatinized starch) produced practically as much saccharine matter as when 2½ gm. of cane sugar was used. In other words furnishes the bread sufficient saccharine matter at the least possible cost. In addition to this the corn flakes absorbed twice its weight of moisture in the dough, thereby increasing bulk, a decided gain to the baker.

For the sake of argument, it is admitted that the same chemical action takes place when using any other highly starchy product which has been cooked. Corn flakes, however, eliminates any necessity for previous boiling, since it is already prepared in its manufacture and is very sensitive to the attack of diastasic action.

It is also a fact that some of the starch in the flour, which has become disrupted during the milling, is gelatinized by the heat of the oven during baking, giving diastase opportunity to convert some of the starch into sugar. But since raw starch does not gelatinize until the temperature has reached 150 degrees F., which temperature is already higher than the most favorable one for diastasic action, and the intervening time during which the temperature of the baking is increased to 175 degrees F. (a killing temperature for diastase), is very short, a relatively small amount of the gelatinized starch is converted and the baker therefore is compelled to add the more costly article, cane sugar, in order to produce the desired amount of saccharine matter in his bread. This fully explains the difference of saccharine matter found in experiments No. 2 and No. 3.

It further shows that bread containing gelatinized starch as found in corn flakes is fully as good a sugar producer as when using cane sugar, and, as before said, at the smallest possible cost.

To produce the maximum amount of sugar from corn flakes the proportions of malt extract and corn flakes as given, should be mixed in about two gallons of tepid water for each barrel of flour to be made into dough at a temperature of about 140 degrees F. Allow it to remain at this constant temperature for 1½ hours. In this time nearly all of the gelatinized starch of the corn flakes has become converted into maltose. In practice this would show that if 100 lbs. of cane sugar at a cost of $5 be used in bread work the same saccharine matter could be supplanted by using 116 lbs. of corn flake, a price of about $3.50 plus 18c worth of malt, making a total cost of $3.68, and shows a saving of $1.32 where 100 lbs. of sugar is employed.

Corn flakes, besides furnishing saccharine matter, has other advantages. It contains some mineral salts and proteids which are very acceptable nitrogenous foods and readily assimilated by the yeast, causing a rapid and vigorous fermentation.

They also prepare and soften the gluten, giving to the doughs that much desired velvety feeling, and the maximum expansion in the oven. Corn flakes and malt extract may also be used as a short ferment and makes it possible to decrease the amount of yeast usually used without affecting the quality of the bread.

A formula for pan bread which has been used for years and is giving good results is as follows:

Water, 1 qt.; malt extract, .40 oz.; salt, 1 oz.; corn flakes. 1 oz.; lard, 1.75 oz.; yeast, .33 oz.; dry milk, .75 oz.; flour, 3 lbs. 7 oz.

Of course, this can be increased to any amount.

The directions are: Take ⅛ part of the water to be used at temperature of 82 degrees F. and in it dissolve the corn flakes, malt extract and yeast. Let this stand 20 minutes to ferment. It will have risen considerably in this time and fallen; then add it to the balance of the ingredients and make dough.

Corn flakes give color to the crust, is an absorber of moisture, retains it and keeps bread fresh, and inasmuch as it has no pronounced flavor of its own will not predominate or cover up the flavor obtained from good wheat flour and correct fermentation.

This would indicate a third good quality of corn flakes, that is, used simply as a filler for its value as a water absorber only.

While the above tables indicate the use of 6 lbs. of corn flakes to a barrel of flour, satisfactory results have been achieved when 10 lbs. have been added per barrel of flour.

Much depends, however, where corn flakes are used simply as a filler, upon the strength of the flour.

To conclude, I have tried to show that corn flakes can be used in three different ways.

First as a sugar producer, secondly as a yeast saver, and thirdly as a means to increase bulk and leave it to each individual baker to adopt either method, and trust to have been instrumental in telling something that may be of value, if not to every baker, at least to some.

POTATO FLOUR AND BREAD

Potato flour is a yeast food. It contains gelatinized starch, sugar, dextim amides and mineral matter, all of the bodies are yeast nutrients, the first-named being converted into sugar by a ferment in the yeast. The analysis of pure imported potato flour should approximately show as follows: Water, 10.69 per cent.; protein, 6.59 per cent; fat, 0.23 per cent; nutritious extractive matter, 78.73 per cent; fibre, 1.18 per cent; ash, 2.58 per cent, making in all a total of 100 per cent.

The extractive matter is mostly carbo-hydrates (sugar). The ash, the mineral matter, mostly phosphates.

We have here three important bodies for yeast production—carbo-hydrates, protein and phosphates, and the last two, moreover, act as powerful stimulants. Owing to these facts, the writer thinks a closer acquaintance about the use of potato flour will be of some interest to the progressive bread baker.

It is often said that formerly, before the introduction of compressed yeast, when potato ferments were mostly used, that bread was superior in flavor and keeping qualities than most of the bread baked at present.

Furthermore, bakers of to-day find it absolutely necessary to add large quantities of sugar, lard and often milk to their dough to overcome the effect that compressed yeast has brought about. It is not the writer’s intention to belittle the value of compressed yeast, as this product is now an inseparable commodity in the bakeshop.

It is, however, possible to get back the advantages obtained from the old potato ferment process by the judicious use of pure potato flour.

It eliminates entirely the old cumbersome method of boiling and mashing potatoes, scalding flour and setting away the ferment until ready for use, for five or six hours. Pure potato flour used in connection with a small quantity of diastasic malt extract will accomplish results gratifying to the baker and assist in cutting down cost of production.

In the first place, the diastasic power of the malt extracts converts the carbo-hydrates of the potato flour into maltose, and if this is carried in far enough produces more than enough saccharine matter for any dough. Secondly, the extractive and mineral matter of potato flour gives great assistance to the raising properties of yeast by stimulating and increasing yeast cells in a medium befitting their propagation according to the laws of nature. While this may seem clear in theory, any baker can easily ascertain the above bespoken values of potato flour by practical tests. The following formula will be sufficient to guide the baker to make any size test he contemplates to make for a straight dough: 1 qt. water, .08 oz. malt extract, 1 oz. potato flour, .75 oz. lard, 1 oz. salt, .33 oz. yeast, 3 lb. 5 oz. spring patent flour. For a barrel of flour this would equal 15 gals. water, 7 oz. malt extract, 3¾ lbs. potato flour, 3 lbs. lard, 3½ lbs. salt, 1¼ lbs. yeast, 196 lbs. flour.

Weigh the potato flour into a clean tub, pour 4 gals. of water, at 90 degrees F., in, also the 7 oz. of malt extract, and mix up; then break into it the yeast and see to it that it is all dissolved. Cover up with a clean bag. Now get all your other ingredients into the mixer or trough, the balance of the water, your salt and lard scaled off, and your barrel of flour ready. By this time your ferment in the tub will have risen, and be on the point of falling. It is then ready to mix all together and dough. The water should be tempered so as to bring the dough out between 82 and 85 degrees F.

Mix the dough well until clear. Allow it to stand and give it full proof before knocking down first time, which will take about 3½ hours. When it has come up again about three-quarters proof knock down again. Give it another one-half proof in the trough and your dough should be ready to take; in all, 5½ to 6 hours. You will find that potato flour makes your bread keep moist. It will give a rich nutty flavor and will give a much larger yield on account of its moisture, absorbing qualities, and on the whole make a very satisfactory loaf. This, in the writer’s estimation, is the best way to use potato flour in order to get best results at lowest cost of production.

Potato flour may be used dry. When making straight dough this way the potato flour must always be sifted into the flour dry. The quantity to use varies according to strength of the flour and the baker’s own ideas, say 4 to 6 pounds for each barrel of flour. Without changing your usual formula, except cutting some of sugar and increasing water, it will produce good bread.

If the potato flour is scalded and then cooled before using it will assist such as want to get a solid home-made loaf.

No other ingredient, to the writer’s knowledge, will produce bread that will compare in flavor and texture with the old style potato ferment bread than when employing pure imported potato flour judiciously, according to any of the above methods described, nor can any bread be made, considering quality, cheaper or as cheap.

FERMENTATION

A Few Remarks by E. Wilfahrt, an Authority Upon the Subject

The term fermentation, as applied to baking, we find first described as a form of spontaneous decay, changing the carbohydrates contained in the dough into alcohol and dioxide gas. Such fermentation is termed alcoholic. Other varieties of fermentation also exist during the process of doughing, and are termed lactic, acetous, viscous and putrefactive.

The process of fermentation which has for its object the manufacture of bread must be of alcoholic nature, containing ½ of 1 per cent. acidity in proportions of 95 per cent. lactic and 5 per cent. acetic. The presence of lactic fermentation softens the gluten, while the presence of acetic fermentation causes a larger expansion of the loaf.

Of course, the larger the percentage of the acetic acid in proportion to the lactic acid, the larger would be the ultimate expansion of the finished loaf; that is, if no excessive percentage of acidity is produced. While the presence of acetic acid in minute proportions acts favorably on the expansion of the loaf, an excess of it must result in sour bread. Consequently, the acids contained in their proper proportions in the fermented dough exert a beneficial influence, both as to the flavor of the bread and assistance in fermentation.

Viscous fermentation produces the much dreaded disease “rope in bread,” and is really the beginning of putrefaction of the raw material employed. This trouble is caused by over-acidity in the dough and heat, or by uncleanliness, which generates over-acidity, or excess growth of microbes, and this causes rope in bread.

Putrefaction means decomposition of materials employed. It is a non-alcoholic ferment, and the material undergoing putrefaction always gives out a decidedly bad odor.

In making a dough the first point to consider, after proper ingredients have been selected, is the temperature of the dough and of the proving room. The utmost care should be exercised to keep the dough room at a uniform temperature. The best temperature for dough is 78 degrees F., after mixing, and the temperature of the shop should be about 82 degrees F.

To keep a dough thus made at the proper temperature during the period of fermentation it is necessary to use salt in the proper proportions to the amount of sugar and shortening added in the mixing of the dough. So that the rising acidity during the process of fermentation may be properly neutralized salt is used, first to govern the fermentation, and secondly, to give the bread the necessary flavor. Although it is generally conceded that salt retards fermentation, nevertheless this action is most powerful on non-alcoholic ferments. Consequently, salt, if used in the proper proportion, really acts as a stimulant to produce a healthy dough, or perfect loaf of bread.

My experience has taught me that for plain white bread three ounces of salt to a gallon of water is the proper amount. For each two ounces of sugar and shortening added to a gallon of water, one-quarter ounce of salt should be correspondingly added, until four ounces of salt are used to the gallon.

Such a dough, therefore, will call for one-half pound each of sugar and shortening and four ounces of salt to each gallon of water. This would make a very rich home-made dough with a large yield, on account of its moisture retaining power.

In adding more than one-half pound each of sugar and shortening to the gallon, as in making rolls and sweet doughs, the amount of salt must be reduced one-quarter of an ounce for each additional two ounces of sugar, and shortening added to the gallon, until two ounces of salt is all that remains to be used to the gallon of water. From this limit only one-eighth of an ounce is deducted for each additional two ounces of sugar and shortening added.

The amount of flour added to the gallon of liquid depends upon the class of bread to be made. It averages 12½ to 15 pounds to the gallon.

Malt extract is one of the best acquisitions in the manufacture of bread, as it is very useful in increasing the keeping qualities of the product, and gives a better flavor to the loaf, such as is produced by the use of milk.

The shortening should be added after the dough is thoroughly incorporated with the balance of ingredients, as if added first, it will not give the desired results and the flour will not absorb the same quantity of water, as if the shortening were added last.

The temperature of the bakeshop during the operation of molding is another important feature. The dough room should be kept at as uniform a temperature as possible, as the dough is very susceptible to changes of temperature.

In some bakeries the water used is hard, while in other shops soft water is used. The character of the water used has as much to do with the fermentation as the temperature of the water. The softer the water the quicker the fermentation. Generally speaking, dough should never be made without the use of a thermometer to insure uniformity day after day. All ingredients used should be carefully weighed, then the so-called ill-luck in the shop will be a thing of rare occurrence.