Part 4

Malachite is a green opaque mineral whose color indicates a salt of copper. It is a carbonate of copper containing water, the percentages being in the typical mineral, cupric oxide 71.9, carbon dioxide 19.9, and water 8.2. It is the common form which copper assumes when it or even its ores oxidize in the air. Many of the green stains on rocks or minerals can be correctly referred to malachite. It is only valued for ornamental purposes however when it occurs in compact masses usually exhibiting concentric layers. Malachite in this form takes a fine polish. Malachite is not a hard mineral, its hardness being between 3.5 and 4. It can therefore be scratched with a knife. It is comparatively heavy, weighing four times as much as an equal bulk of water. When heated before the blowpipe it fuses easily, coloring the flame green. By heating long enough on charcoal it can be made to yield a globule of copper. It is easily attacked by common acids, causing effervescence of carbon dioxide. This test can be used to distinguish it from the silicate of copper, chryscolla, which has the same color.

Besides its occurrence in massive forms as noted above Malachite not uncommonly occurs in tufts and rosettes incrusting other minerals. This is an especially common occurrence in mines in Arizona and affords specimens of great beauty especially when the green tufts of malachite are seen upon brown limonite, for then the appearance of moss on wood is closely simulated. Such material is of course too fragile to be used for decorative purposes.

Malachite is prepared for ornamental use by sawing masses of the character of those previously referred to into thin strips which are then fastened as a veneer on vessels of copper, slate or other stone previously turned to the desired shape. Putting pieces together so that neither by their outlines nor color will it appear that they are patchwork requires a high degree of skill and such work is done almost exclusively in Russia. Table tops, vases and various other vessels are manufactured in this way and form objects of great beauty. The pillars of the Church of Isaac in St. Petersburg are of malachite prepared in this way and there are similar pillars in the Church of St. Sophia, Constantinople, said to have been taken from the Temple of Diana at Ephesus.

Occasionally the desired object can be turned from a single piece of malachite, but pieces of sufficient size for this purpose are rare. Bauer describes one piece found in the Gumeschewsk mines which was 17½ feet long, 8 feet broad and 3½ feet high and compact throughout. This is probably the largest single mass known.

Russia furnishes most of the malachite suitable for work of this kind and the art of cutting and fitting the stone is possessed almost exclusively in that country. Most of the Russian malachite has been obtained from the mines of Nischne-Tagilsk and Bogoslowsk in the northern Urals, or Gumeschewsk in the southern. The supply has gradually decreased till now only the Nischne-Tagilsk mines are productive. The malachite is said to occur there in veins in limestone.

Besides the Urals, fine malachite suitable for cutting comes from Australia. Burra Burra in New South Wales and Peak Downs in Queensland are localities whence good Australian malachite is obtained.

Malachite as a mineral is common in copper mines in the United States but it is only in Arizona that it is found of a quality suitable for cutting. A variety from Morenci, Arizona, consists of malachite and azurite and gives a combination of green and blue that is unique and pleasing. (See colored plate.) Less use has been made of such material for ornamental purposes than might have been for most of it has unfortunately been smelted as a copper ore.

Malachite is rarely used for rings or small jewels but is cut into earrings, bracelets, inkstands and similar objects. Art objects of malachite seem to have been in much favor with Russian emperors as gifts to contemporaneous sovereigns, and so bestowed are to be seen in numerous palaces in Europe. Perhaps the most famous of these gifts is the set of center tables, mantel pieces, ewers, basins and vases presented by the Emperor Alexander to Napoleon and still to be seen in an apartment of the Grand Trianon at Versailles.

Malachite was well known to the ancients and like other precious stones was worn as an amulet. It was called pseudo-emerald by Theophrastus. Its name is from the Greek malake, the word for mallows and was given doubtless on account of its green color.

Azurite, the blue mineral which often accompanies malachite is likewise a hydrous carbonate of copper and occasionally occurs so that it can be used with malachite for ornamental purposes.

Oliver Cummings Farrington.

THE LEAF BUTTERFLY. (_Kallima paralekta_.)

There are many instances of protective imitation or mimicry in nature, but none are more pronounced, more perfect or more interesting than that shown by the leaf butterflies. Briefly defined, the phenomenon of mimicry is that relation which obtains when “a certain species of plants or animal possesses some special means of defense from its enemies and some other species inhabiting the same district or a part of it, and not itself provided with the same special means of defense, closely resembles the first species in all external points of form and color, though often very different in structure and unrelated in the biological order.” Many animals, such as some tree-lizards, resemble the colors of the environment in which they live, either for protection from enemies or in order that they may more easily catch their prey. Some arboreal snakes hang from the boughs of trees like the drooping ends of creeping vines.

The coloring of the under surface of the wings of the leaf butterflies very closely resembles the color of a dried leaf. As dried leaves vary in color and appearance, so do the butterflies vary in the color and markings of their wings. It is said that even in the same species, the under surface of the wings may be of various shades of brown, yellow, ash and red. But the imitation of the dried leaf does not alone rest on the color, for often, here and there, may be seen small groups of dark colored spots which strikingly resemble the patches of fungi that are so common on leaves. The mimicry of this butterfly is purely protective and not for the purpose of deceiving its prey.

Dr. Alfred Russel Wallace in his “Malay Archipelago” writes of this butterfly as he found it in its native element. He says, “This species was not uncommon in dry woods and thickets, and I often endeavored to capture it without success, for after flying a short distance it would enter a bush among dry or dead leaves, and however carefully I crept up to the spot, I could never discover it till it would suddenly start out again, and then disappear in a similar place. At length I was fortunate enough to see the exact spot where the butterfly settled, and though I lost sight of it for some time, I at length discovered that it was close before my eyes, but that in its position of repose it so closely resembled a dead leaf attached to a twig as almost certain to deceive the eye, even when gazing full upon it. I captured several specimens on the wing, and was able fully to understand the way in which this wonderful resemblance is produced.

“The ends of the upper wings terminate in a fine point, just as the leaves of many tropical shrubs and trees are pointed, while the lower wings are somewhat more obtuse, and are lengthened out into a short thick tail. Between these two points there runs a dark curved line, exactly representing the midrib of a leaf, and from this radiate on each side a few oblique marks, which well imitate the lateral veins. These marks are more clearly seen on the outer portion of the base of the wings and on the inner side toward the middle and apex, and they are produced by striae and markings which are very common in allied species, but which are here modified and strengthened so as to imitate more exactly the venation of a leaf.

“The habit of the species is always to rest on a dead twig and among dead or dried leaves, and in this position, with the wings closely pressed together, their outline is exactly that of a moderately sized leaf, slightly curved or shrivelled. The tail of the hind wing forms a perfect stalk, and touches the stick while the insect is supported by the middle pair of legs, which are not noticed among the twigs and fibers that surround it. The head and antennae are drawn back between the wings, so as to be quite concealed, and there is a little notch hollowed out at the very base of the wings, which allows the head to be retracted sufficiently. All these varied details combine to produce a disguise that is so complete and marvellous as to astonish everyone who observes it; and the habits of the insects are such as to utilize all these peculiarities, and render them available in such a manner as to remove all doubt of the purpose of this singular case of mimicry, which is undoubtedly a protection to the insect. Its strong, swift flight is sufficient to save it from its enemies when on the wing, but if it were equally conspicuous when at rest, it could not long escape extinction owing to the attacks of the insectivorous birds and reptiles that abound in tropical forests.”

IN AUTUMN.

The waves come galloping up the shore, The trees are flinging their arms about. All night I have heard the wind’s loud roar, And the surf call back with angry shout.

And after the wind a grieving rain Comes sighing and sobbing past my door, “The summer flowers I seek in vain, Is my work of love forever o’er?”

One day ago and a soft sun shone, Butterflies flitted through quiet air, But now both they and the birds are gone And soon will the trees be stripped and bare.

Though winds blow cold and the skies are gray, The sun of summer still shines for me, For naught can drive from my heart away, The memory of bird and flower and tree. Grace Wickham Curran.

BEAUTIFUL VINES TO BE FOUND IN OUR WILD WOODS.

As the summer closes and the trees, flowers and vines have all reached their greatest perfection, have fulfilled their mission in life, and in addition have beautified all the spring and summer our lawns and verandas, and have been admired as wonderful children of the florists’ skill, how many of us know that many of them and especially most of these beautiful vines, could be found in our wild woods just for the looking? That we could with our own hands transplant them to our homes and have just as beautiful vines on our little porches and verandas as any millionaire on our boulevards?

One vine that we see covering our stateliest mansions and growing over our most humble little cottage, is common in all the woods of the United States from Maine to Florida, from New York to California, is the Ampelopsis quinquefolia—or Virginia creeper—American ivy or woodbine—its name changing with the portion of the country you happen to be when you find it, for we see it frequently under its various names in cultivation, and it certainly grows in great abundance and in the most graceful ways in our woods, over trees and shrubs and old rock fences, clinging in the most loving way to any surface with which it comes in contact. It belongs to the order Vitaceæ or Vine family, which is a family of climbing shrubs, and to which all of our wild grapes belong.

Its name Ampelopsis is from two Greek words, meaning vine and appearance; quinquefolia, five leaved or fingered; its leaves being alternate and compound, with five leaflets, long and pointed, radiating from the center. It may be that it was meant to signify that our five fingers may handle it recklessly and not run any risk of poisoning, as so many people are fearful of being—they being unable to distinguish it from the Rhus radicans or poison ivy—which belongs with the sumachs, and has only three leaflets or divisions in its leaves. This poison ivy could be so easily exterminated if every one who finds a plant of it would dig it up and burn it. It surely is as much one’s duty to help exterminate a poisonous plant as it is to cultivate and nourish an ornamental, beautiful, harmless one. Yet there is hardly a park in our larger cities where you will not find the Rhus radicans or poison ivy growing.

In the Virginia creeper we will find tendrils growing from the base of its leaves, that swell at their tips into sucker like disks, by means of which the plant clings firmly to walls and trees in its extensive climbing. The flowers of this beautiful vine are small, inconspicuous and greenish in color, with five concave thick spreading petals, with a calyx slightly five toothed, a two celled ovary or seed vessel, each cell containing two seeds. It blooms early in June and in the early autumn, when its leaves are turning the most exquisite shades of scarlet and crimson, these little flowers develop into clusters of deep blue or purple berries about the size of peas.

The whole vine is really more beautiful in the autumn than it is in the spring, and it surely does more than its part in making our American woodlands such great expanses of gorgeous coloring in the fall as to attract the attention and remarks of all visiting foreigners.

Miss J. O. Cochran.

SOME SNAILS OF THE OCEAN.

The Marine snails outnumber all of the other mollusks and their shells are far more beautiful, those in the tropics having the most gaudy colors imaginable. The animals are all formed on the same plan although each family has some peculiarity not shared by its relatives. They are found in all parts of the world, and in all climates. While the majority of species live either between tides on near low water, there are not a few which live in the abysses of the ocean and have been dredged at a depth of three thousand fathoms, a distance of over three miles. The average depth at which mollusks are found in any number is about one thousand fathoms. The variability of marine snails is so great that only a few typical forms can be mentioned.

The Limpet or Patella is a familiar mollusk to many visitors at the sea shore. This shell is a depressed, conical, oval disk, looking not unlike a miniature shield. They live on rocks, to which they tenaciously cling. Some experiments which were made on the English limpet several years ago showed that they could sustain a weight of thirty pounds attached to their shell without being pulled from the rock. The animal seems to have a pretty clear idea of local geography, for it invariably returns to the same place after its excursions for food and the rock in some localities has been hollowed out to a considerable depth by the continuous dwelling thereon of the limpet. If the surface of the rock is uneven the shell grows in such a manner as to fit these inequalities. While grazing along the sides of a rock covered with fine sea weed it will leave a track like a worm and will clear off quite an area in a very short space of time. This track is made by the radula, which is very long and is thrust out and loaded with food which it carries to the mouth. When at rest the radula is coiled like a watch spring. On the British coast the limpet is used as an article of food and primitive man not only ate the mollusks but made a necklace by stringing the shells together. There are several hundred species of limpet-like shells and they are found in all parts of the world, especially on rocky shores.

A family of shells closely related to the limpets is the Fissurellidæ, or keyhole limpet, distinguished from the last family by having a slit or foramen in the apex of the shell, through which the waste products of digestion are discharged. This slit resembles a key-hole and for this reason they are called key-hole limpets. The shells of Fissurella are generally rougher than those of Patella and they live, as a rule, in warmer seas. In habits the key-hole limpet resembles the limpet, living in one rocky place and making excursions for food. In the young shell the spire is without a perforation, this appearing as the shell increases in age. There are over one hundred species of key-hole limpets, several handsome species of which inhabit Florida and the West Indies.

The Haliotis or abalone shells abound in many parts of the world and are widely known for their beauty. The largest and finest shells live on the coast of California where they attain a length of ten inches. The shells are flat, though made in the form of a spiral and are perforated near the edge of the last whorl, which is many times the size of all the rest combined, and through this perforation the water from the gills, together with the waste products of the animal, are poured out. As the shell increases in size the old holes are filled up and new ones are formed. The inside of the shell is resplendent with iridescent colors, particularly about the region of the huge muscle scar, and when the outside is polished they become objects fit for the palace of a king. A large part of the mother-of-pearl is furnished by these shells and a vast number are annually exported for the purpose of making pearl buttons. In England they are called “Ormers” but the correct name, if we translate the generic title, is “Sea-ear” or ear-shells. To the Chinese the abalone is an object of great economic importance and they gather them in large quantities, dry the animals and use them as food, principally in the form of soup, which is said to be very delicious. The abalone clings to the rocks with terrible power and many a lonely fisherman has been drowned while gathering this mollusk, by getting his fingers caught between the shell and the rock.

Top row: Strombus puris dianae (Philippines). Bulla ampulla (Philippines). Harpa nobilis (Philippines). Second row: Littorina angulifera (United States). Fissurides listeri (United States). Third row: Nerita peloronta (Florida). Crepidula fornicata (United States). Terebra lamarckii (Sandwich Islands). Turbo petholatus (Indian Ocean). Fourth row: Nitra politificalis (Indian Ocean). Haliotis assimilis (California). Cerithalma aluco (East Indies).

There are three families of shells which are much sought after by conchologists, these are the top shells (Trochidæ), the turban shells (Turbinidæ) and the pheasant shells (Phasionellidæ). Altogether they embrace nearly five hundred species which live from the shore between tides to the lowest depths of the ocean. The shells of the top shells vary to a wonderful degree; some are large, others small; some are perfectly plain and smooth while others are ornamented by impressed lines, ribs and granules, some are very thin and delicate while others are large and massive. Many of the species are richly colored with brown, purple, black, green and yellowish, and all are more or less pearly. They are all vegetable eaters.

One of the best known is Trochus niloticus, a large, massive shell striped with brown, which is seen on the mantle of many households. One of the prettiest top shells is the ringed top shell (Calliostoma annulatum) found abundantly in some parts of California. The surface is marked by several rows of delicate points and the suture is bordered by a rich line of purple. It lives in the seaweed off shore and may be seen in pleasant weather crawling about among the weeds. During storms or rough weather this frail mollusk sinks to the bottom of the sea. The top shells inhabit many parts of the world, the coasts of Florida and California producing several very handsome and interesting species.

The Turban shells include many fine and large shells, a notable species being Turbo marmoratus, the “green turban” of the dealers. This shell is about seven inches in diameter, rich green outside and pearly inside. It is largely used for mother-of-pearl work and for making pearl buttons. It is said that the early Scandinavian monarchs used this shell as a drinking cup. At the present time it is used for ornamental purposes, richly mounted. In Japan the animal is used for making chop suey, being cut in little dice-like pieces.

The Pheasant shells are beautifully variegated with red, black, white and brown and are very interesting animals to study alive. When crawling, the left side of the foot moves forward while the right remains stationary, and when the right side moves the left remains stationary. This curious mode of progression has been likened to the canter of a horse. The larger species, with beautifully variegated shells, inhabit Australia, while the smaller species live in the Mediterranean Sea, South Africa, the West Indies and California.

The Neritas are very abundant in tropical and semi-tropical countries where they live on rocks and stones near low water mark. They are said to be nocturnal and spend the night feeding on seaweed. The shell of the Nerita is solid and heavy and variously ornamented with ribs, pustules and color patterns. The “bleeding tooth shell” (Nerita peloronta), so named from the presence of a red spot near one of the columella teeth, is a typical member of this genus. A species living in the Philippine Islands is said to climb trees to a considerable height.

The family Cerithiidae comprises some very handsome shells which inhabit salt, brackish and fresh water. They are found throughout the world but the finest species live in the tropics. The spire is very long and is composed of many whorls. Some shells are smooth and polished, while others are marked by frills, knobs, spines and ribs. The name Cerithium is from the Greek word ceration, meaning a small horn, and is used because of the horn-like shape of the shell. This family has its giants and also its pygmies, the latter being pretty, reticulated shells from one fourth to three fourths of an inch in length, living among the eel grass and other vegetation along the shore. There are over a hundred species of these small shells, and some when handled discharge a bright green fluid.

Whoever visits the seashore is bound to become intimately acquainted with the Littorinas, or periwinkles, for they cover the rocky shores everywhere, millions of their rounded shells clinging to the rocks when the tide goes out. They feed on the algae which grows on the shore. They are found in both brackish and fresh water. The common periwinkle (Littorina littorea) is extremely abundant on the shores of southern Europe and the northern part of the United States. In England it is used as an article of food and it is said that nearly two thousand tons are gathered annually and that a thousand persons are employed in capturing it. In London and other large cities they are sold on the street, the animal being picked out with a pin. It is used for bait in some of the fisheries and the oystermen plant many bushels on their oyster beds yearly to keep the seaweeds from accumulating. From these facts it will appear that this periwinkle is of considerable economic importance. All of the species are amphibious, living for a long time out of the water.