Biology and Its Makers With Portraits and Other Illustrations
CHAPTER XX
Retrospect and Prospect. Present Tendencies in Biology, 434
Biological thought shows continuity of development, 434. Character of the progress--a crusade against superstition, 434. The first triumph of the scientific method was the overthrow of authority, 435. The three stages of progress--descriptive, comparative, experimental, 435. The notable books of biology and their authors, 435-437. Recent tendencies in biology: higher standards, 437; improvement in the tools of science, 438; advance in methods, 439; experimental work, 439; the growing interest in the study of processes, 440; experiments applied to heredity and evolution, to fertilization of the egg, and to animal behavior, 440, 441. Some tendencies in anatomical studies, 442. Cell-lineage, 442. New work on the nervous system, 443. The application of biological facts to the benefit of mankind, 443. Technical biology, 443. Soil inoculation, 444. Relation of insects to the transmission of diseases, 444. The food of fishes, 444. The establishment and maintenance of biological laboratories, 444. The station at Naples, 444. Other stations, 446. The establishment and maintenance of technical periodicals, 446. Explorations of fossil records, 447. The reconstructive influence of biological progress, 448.
READING LIST, 449
I. General References, 449-451. II. Special References, 451-460.
Index, 461
ILLUSTRATIONS
FIG. PAGE
1. Aristotle, 384-322 B.C., 14
2. Pliny, 23-79 A.D., 16
3. Galen, 131-200, 25
4. Vesalius, 1514-1565, 29
5. Anatomical Sketch from Vesalius' _Fabrica_ (1543), 31
6. The Skeleton from Vesalius' _Fabrica_, 33
7. Initial Letters from the _Fabrica_, 34
8. Fallopius, 1523-1563, 37
9. Fabricius, Harvey's Teacher, 1537-1619, 43
10. William Harvey, 1578-1657, 44
11. Scheme of the Portal Circulation according to Vesalius (1543), 49
12. Hooke's Microscope (1665), 55
13. Malpighi, 1628-1694, 59
14. From Malpighi's _Anatomy of the Silkworm_ (1669), 65
15. Swammerdam, 1637-1680, 69
16. From Swammerdam's _Biblia Naturæ_, 74
17. Anatomy of an Insect Dissected and Drawn by Swammerdam, 76
18. Leeuwenhoek, 1632-1723, 79
19. Leeuwenhoek's Microscope, 82
20_a_. Leeuwenhoek's Mechanism for Examining the Circulation of the Blood, 83
20_b_. The Capillary Circulation, after Leeuwenhoek, 84
21. Plant Cells from Leeuwenhoek's _Arcana Naturæ_, 86
22. Lyonet, 1707-1789, 90
23. Larva of the Willow Moth, from Lyonet's Monograph (1750), 92
24. Muscles of the Larva of the Willow Moth, from Lyonet's Monograph, 93
25. Central Nervous System and Nerves of the Same Animal, 93
26. Dissection of the Head of the Larva of the Willow Moth, 94
27. The Brain and Head Nerves of the Same Animal, 95
28. Roesel von Rosenhof, 1705-1759, 97
29. Réaumur, 1683-1757, 98
30. Nervous System of the Cockchafer, from Straus-Dürckheim's Monograph (1828), 101
31. Ehrenberg, 1795-1876, 108
32. Gesner, 1516-1565, 114
33. John Ray, 1628-1705, 116
34. Linnæus at Sixty (1707-1778), 124
35. Karl Th. von Siebold, 135
36. Rudolph Leuckart, 136
37. Severinus, 1580-1656, 142
38. Camper, 1722-1789, 144
39. John Hunter, 1728-1793, 145
40. Vicq d'Azyr, 1748-1794, 147
41. Cuvier as a Young Man, 1769-1829, 152
42. Cuvier at the Zenith of His Power, 153
43. H. Milne-Edwards, 1800-1885, 157
44. Lacaze-Duthiers, 1821-1901, 159
45. Lorenzo Oken, 1779-1851, 160
46. Richard Owen, 1804-1892, 161
47. J. Fr. Meckel, 1781-1833, 162
48. Karl Gegenbaur, 1826-1903, 164
49. Bichat, 1771-1801, 169
50. Von Koelliker, 1817-1905, 173
51. Rudolph Virchow, 1821-1903, 174
52. Franz Leydig, 1821-1908 (April), 175
53. S. Ramon y Cajal, 176
54. Albrecht Haller, 1708-1777, 182
55. Charles Bell, 1774-1842, 184
56. Johannes Müller, 1801-1858, 187
57. Ludwig, 1816-1895, 188
58. Du Bois-Reymond, 1818-1896, 189
59. Claude Bernard, 1813-1878, 191
60. Frontispiece of Harvey's _Generatione Animalium_ (1651), 201
61. Selected Sketches from Malpighi's Works, 203
62. Marcello Malpighi, 1628-1694, 204
63. Plate from Wolff's _Theoria Generationis_ (1759), 209
64. Charles Bonnet, 1720-1793, 212
65. Karl Ernst von Baer, 1792-1876, 216
66. Von Baer at about Seventy Years of Age, 217
67. Sketches from Von Baer's Embryological Treatise (1828), 221
68. A. Kowalevsky, 1840-1901, 225
69. Francis M. Balfour, 1851-1882, 227
70. Oskar Hertwig in 1890, 231
71. Wilhelm His, 1831-1904, 233
72. The Earliest Known Picture of Cells, from Hooke's _Micrographia_ (1665), 238
73. Sketch from Malpighi's Treatise on the Anatomy of Plants (1670), 239
74. Theodor Schwann, 1810-1882, 245
75. M. Schleiden, 1804-1881, 246
76. The Egg and Early Stages in Its Development (after Gegenbaur), 253
77. An Early Stage in the Development of the Egg of a Rock Limpet (after Conklin), 254
78. Highly Magnified Tissue-Cells from the Skin of a Salamander (after Wilson), 255
79. Diagram of the Chief Steps in Cell-Division (after Parker), 256
80. Diagram of a Cell (modified after Wilson), 257
81. (_A_) Rotation of Protoplasm in Cells of Nitella. (_B_) Highly Magnified Cells of a Tradescantia Plant, Showing Circulation of Protoplasm (after Sedgwick and Wilson), 261
82. Félix Dujardin, 1801-1860, 265
83. Purkinje, 1787-1869, 267
84. Carl Nägeli, 1817-1891, 268
85. Hugo von Mohl, 1805-1872, 269
86. Ferdinand Cohn, 1828-1898, 271
87. Heinrich Anton De Bary, 1831-1888, 272
88. Max Schultze, 1825-1874, 273
89. Francesco Redi, 1626-1697, 280
90. Lazzaro Spallanzani, 1729-1799, 283
91. Apparatus of Tyndall for Experimenting on Spontaneous Generation, 290
92. Louis Pasteur (1822-1895) and His Granddaughter, 295
93. Robert Koch, born 1843, 301
94. Sir Joseph Lister, born 1827, 302
95. Gregor Mendel, 1822-1884, 315
96. Francis Galton, born 1822, 317
97. Charles Lyell, 1797-1875, 331
98. Professor Owen and the Extinct Fossil Bird of New Zealand, 333
99. Louis Agassiz, 1807-1873, 334
100. E.D. Cope, 1840-1897, 336
101. O.C. Marsh, 1831-1899, 337
102. Karl von Zittel, 1839-1904, 339
103. Transmutations of Paludina (after Neumayer), 352
104. Planorbis Shells from Steinheim (after Hyatt), 353
105. Bones of the Foreleg of a Horse, 356
106. Bones of Fossil Ancestors of the Horse, 357
107. Representation of the Ancestor of the Horse Drawn by Charles R. Knight under the Direction of Professor Osborn. Permission of the American Museum of Natural History, 359
108. Fossil Remains of a Primitive Bird (Archæopteryx), 360
109. Gill-clefts of a Shark Compared with those of the Embryonic Chick and Rabbit, 361
110. Jaws of an Embryonic Whale, showing Rudimentary Teeth, 362
111. Profile Reconstructions of the Skulls of Living and of Fossil Men, 365
112. Lamarck, 1744-1829, 373
113. Charles Darwin, 1809-1882, 381
114. August Weismann, born 1834, 400
115. Hugo de Vries, 403
116. Buffon, 1707-1788, 412
117. Erasmus Darwin, 1731-1802, 413
118. Geoffroy Saint Hilaire, 1772-1844, 416
119. Charles Darwin, 1809-1882, 423
120. Alfred Russel Wallace, born 1823, 428
121. Thomas Henry Huxley, 1825-1895, 430
122. Ernst Haeckel, born 1834, 432
123. The Biological Station at Naples, 445