Beginners' botany

If one compares _any two plants_ of the same kind ever so closely, it will be found that they _differ from each other_. The difference is apparent in size, form, colour, mode of...

No two plants or parts of plants are identically exposed to the conditions in which they live. The large branches in Fig. 1 probably had more room and a better exposure to light...

The plants that most perfectly meet their conditions are able to persist. _They perpetuate themselves._ Their offspring are likely to inherit some of the attributes that enabled...

In the long course of time in which plants have been accommodating themselves to the varying conditions in which they are obliged to grow, _they have become adapted to every dif...

=The Parts of a Plant.=—Our familiar plants are made up of several distinct parts. The most prominent of these parts are _root, stem, leaf, flower, fruit, and seed. Familiar pla...

The seed contains a _miniature plant_, or =embryo=. The embryo usually has three parts that have received names: the stemlet, or =caulicle=; the seed-leaf, or =cotyledon= (usual...

The entire mass of roots of any plant is called its =root system=. The root system may be annual, biennial or perennial, herbaceous or woody, deep or shallow, large or small.

=The function of roots is twofold=,—to provide _support or anchorage_ for the plant, and to _collect and convey food_ materials. The first function is considered in Chapter VII;...

=The Stem System.=—The stem of a plant is the part that _bears the buds, leaves, flowers, and fruits_. Its office is _to hold these parts up to the light and the air_; and throu...

There are two main types of stem structure in flowering plants, the differences being based on the arrangement of bundles or strands of tissue. These types are _endogenous_ and...

Leaves may be studied from four points of view,—with reference to (1) their _kinds_ and _shapes_; (2) their _position_, or _arrangement_ on the plant; (3) their _anatomy_, or _s...

Besides the =framework=, or system of veins found in blades of all leaves, there is a soft cellular tissue called =mesophyll=, or =leaf parenchyma=, and an =epidermis= or skin t...

We have discussed (in Chap. VIII) the work or function of roots and also (in Chap. X) the function of stems. We are now ready to complete the view of the main vital activities o...

Thus far we have spoken of plants that have roots and foliage and that depend on themselves. They collect the raw materials and make them over into assimilable food. They are =i...

=A bud is a growing point=, terminating an axis either long or short, or being the starting point of an axis. _All branches spring from buds._ In the growing season the bud is a...

We have learned (in Chap. VI) that plants propagate by means of seeds. _They also propagate by means of bud parts,—as rootstocks (rhizomes), roots, runners, layers, bulbs._ The...

We have found that plants struggle or contend for a place in which to live. Some of them become adapted to grow in the forest shade, others to grow on other plants, as epiphytes...

The function of the flower is to _produce seed_. It is probable that all its varied forms and colours contribute to this supreme end. These forms and colours please the human fa...

=Fertilization.=—_Seeds result from the union of two elements or parts._ One of these elements is a cell-nucleus of the pollen-grain. The other element is the cell-nucleus of an...

=Origin of the Flower-cluster.=—We have seen that branches arise from the axils of leaves. Sometimes the leaves may be reduced to bracts and yet branches are borne in their axil...

The ripened ovary, with its attachments, is known as the fruit. _It contains the seeds._ If the pistil is simple, or of one carpel, the fruit also will have one compartment. If...

It is to the plant’s advantage to have its seeds distributed as widely as possible. _It has a better chance of surviving in the struggle for existence._ It gets away from compet...

The plants thus far studied produce flowers; and the flowers produce seeds by means of which the plant is propagated. There are other plants, however, that produce no seeds, and...

The pupil who has acquired skill in the use of the compound microscope may desire to make more extended excursions into the cryptogamous orders. The following plants have been c...