CHAPTER IV.--THE FIRE FESTIVALS OF EUROPE, Pp. 106-327

§ 1. _The Lenten Fires_, pp. 106-120.--European custom of kindling bonfires on certain days of the year, dancing round them, leaping over them, and burning effigies in the flames, 106; seasons of the year at which the bonfires are lit, 106 _sq._; bonfires on the first Sunday in Lent in the Belgian Ardennes, 107 _sq._; in the French department of the Ardennes, 109 _sq._; in Franche-Comté, 110 _sq._; in Auvergne, 111-113; French custom of carrying lighted torches (_brandons_) about the orchards and fields to fertilize them on the first Sunday of Lent, 113-115; bonfires on the first Sunday of Lent in Germany and Austria, 115 _sq._; "burning the witch," 116; burning discs thrown into the air, 116 _sq._; burning wheels rolled down hill, 117 _sq._; bonfires on the first Sunday in Lent in Switzerland, 118 _sq._; burning discs thrown into the air, 119; connexion of these fires with the custom of "carrying out Death," 119 _sq._

§ 2. _The Easter Fires_, 120-146.--Custom in Catholic countries of kindling a holy new fire on Easter Saturday, marvellous properties ascribed to the embers of the fire, 121; effigy of Judas burnt in the fire, 121; Easter fires in Bavaria and the Abruzzi, 122; water as well as fire consecrated at Easter in Italy, Bohemia, and Germany, 122-124; new fire at Easter in Carinthia, 124; Thomas Kirchmeyer's account of the consecration of fire and water by the Catholic Church at Easter, 124 _sq._; the new fire on Easter Saturday at Florence, 126 _sq._; the new fire and the burning of Judas on Easter Saturday in Mexico and South America, 127 _sq._; the new fire on Easter Saturday in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem, 128-130; the new fire and the burning of Judas on Easter Saturday in Greece, 130 _sq._; the new fire at Candlemas in Armenia, 131; the new fire and the burning of Judas at Easter are probably relics of paganism, 131 _sq._; new fire at the summer solstice among the Incas of Peru, 132; new fire among the Indians of Mexico and New Mexico, the Iroquois, and the Esquimaux, 132-134; new fire in Wadai, among the Swahili, and in other parts of Africa, 134-136; new fires among the Todas and Nagas of India, 136; new fire in China and Japan, 137 _sq._; new fire in ancient Greece and Rome, 138; new fire at Hallowe'en among the old Celts of Ireland, 139; new fire on the first of September among the Russian peasants, 139; the rite of the new fire probably common to many peoples of the Mediterranean area before the rise of Christianity, 139 _sq._; the pagan character of the Easter fire manifest from the superstitions associated with it, such as the belief that the fire fertilizes the fields and protects houses from conflagration and sickness, 140 _sq._; the Easter fires in Münsterland, Oldenburg, the Harz Mountains, and the Altmark, 141-143; Easter fires and the burning of Judas or the Easter Man in Bavaria, 143 _sq._; Easter fires and "thunder poles" in Baden, 145; Easter fires in Holland and Sweden, 145 _sq._; the burning of Judas in Bohemia, 146.

§ 3. _The Beltane Fires_, pp. 146-160.--The Beltane fires on the first of May in the Highlands of Scotland, 146-154; John Ramsay of Ochtertyre, his description of the Beltane fires and cakes and the Beltane carline, 146-149; Beltane fires and cakes in Perthshire, 150-153; Beltane fires in the north-east of Scotland to burn the witches, 153 _sq._; Beltane fires and cakes in the Hebrides, 154; Beltane fires and cakes in Wales, 155-157; in the Isle of Man to burn the witches, 157; in Nottinghamshire, 157; in Ireland, 157-159; fires on the Eve of May Day in Sweden, 159; in Austria and Saxony to burn the witches, 159 _sq._

§ 4. _The Midsummer Fires_, pp. 160-219.--The great season for fire-festivals in Europe is Midsummer Eve or Midsummer Day, which the church has dedicated to St. John the Baptist, 160 _sq._; the bonfires, the torches, and the burning wheels of the festival, 161; Thomas Kirchmeyer's description of the Midsummer festival, 162 _sq._; the Midsummer fires in Germany, 163-171; burning wheel rolled down hill at Konz on the Moselle, 163 _sq._; Midsummer fires in Bavaria, 164-166; in Swabia, 166 _sq._; in Baden, 167-169; in Alsace, Lorraine, the Eifel, the Harz district, and Thuringia, 169; Midsummer fires kindled by the friction of wood, 169 _sq._; driving away the witches and demons, 170; Midsummer fires in Silesia, scaring away the witches, 170 _sq._; Midsummer fires in Denmark and Norway, keeping off the witches, 171; Midsummer fires in Sweden, 172; Midsummer fires in Switzerland and Austria, 172 _sq._; in Bohemia, 173-175; in Moravia, Austrian Silesia, and the district of Cracow, 175; among the Slavs of Russia, 176; in Prussia and Lithuania as a protection against witchcraft, thunder, hail, and cattle disease, 176 _sq._; in Masuren the fire is kindled by the revolution of a wheel, 177; Midsummer fires among the Letts of Russia, 177 _sq._; among the South Slavs, 178; among the Magyars, 178 _sq._; among the Esthonians, 179 _sq._; among the Finns and Cheremiss of Russia, 180 _sq._; in France, 181-194; Bossuet on the Midsummer festival, 182; the Midsummer fires in Brittany, 183-185; in Normandy, the Brotherhood of the Green Wolf at Jumièges, 185 _sq._; Midsummer fires in Picardy, 187 _sq._; in Beauce and Perche, 188; the fires a protection against witchcraft, 188; the Midsummer fires in the Ardennes, the Vosges, and the Jura, 188 _sq._; in Franche-Comté, 189; in Berry and other parts of Central France, 189 _sq._; in Poitou, 190 _sq._; in the departments of Vienne and Deux-Sèvres and in the provinces of Saintonge and Aunis, 191 _sq._; in Southern France, 192 _sq._; Midsummer festival of fire and water in Provence, 193 _sq._; Midsummer fires in Belgium, 194-196; in England, 196-200; Stow's description of the Midsummer fires in London, 196 _sq._; John Aubrey on the Midsummer fires, 197; Midsummer fires in Cumberland, Northumberland, and Yorkshire, 197 _sq._; in Herefordshire, Somersetshire, Devonshire, and Cornwall, 199 _sq._; in Wales and the Isle of Man, 200 _sq._; in Ireland, 201-205; holy wells resorted to on Midsummer Eve in Ireland, 205 _sq._; Midsummer fires in Scotland, 206 _sq._; Midsummer fires and divination in Spain and the Azores, 208 _sq._; Midsummer fires in Corsica and Sardinia, 209; in the Abruzzi, 209 _sq._; in Sicily, 210; in Malta, 210 _sq._; in Greece and the Greek islands, 211 _sq._; in Macedonia and Albania, 212; in South America, 212 _sq._; among the Mohammedans of Morocco and Algeria, 213-216; the Midsummer festival in North Africa comprises rites of water as well as fire, 216; similar festival of fire and water at New Year in North Africa, 217 _sq._; the duplication of the festival probably due to a conflict between the solar calendar of the Romans and the lunar calendar of the Arabs, 218 _sg._; the Midsummer festival in Morocco apparently of Berber origin, 219.

§ 5. _The Autumn Fires_, pp. 220-222.--Festivals of fire in August, 220; "living fire" made by the friction of wood, 220; feast of the Nativity of the Virgin on the eighth of September at Capri and Naples, 220-222.

§ 6. _The Halloween Fires_, pp. 222-246.--While the Midsummer festival implies observation of the solstices, the Celts appear to have divided their year, without regard to the solstices, by the times when they drove their cattle to and from the summer pasture on the first of May and the last of October (Hallowe'en), 222-224; the two great Celtic festivals of Beltane (May Day) and Hallowe'en (the last of October), 224; Hallowe'en seems to have marked the beginning of the Celtic year, 224 _sq._; it was a season of divination and a festival of the dead, 225 _sq._; fairies and hobgoblins let loose at Hallowe'en, 226-228; divination in Celtic countries at Hallowe'en, 228 _sq._; Hallowe'en bonfires in the Highlands of Scotland, 229-232; Hallowe'en fires in Buchan to burn the witches, 232 _sq._; processions with torches at Hallowe'en in the Braemar Highlands, 233 _sq._; divination at Hallowe'en in the Highlands and Lowlands of Scotland, 234-239; Hallowe'en fires in Wales, omens drawn from stones cast into the fires, 239 _sq._; divination at Hallowe'en in Wales, 240 _sq._; divination at Hallowe'en in Ireland, 241-243; Hallowe'en fires and divination in the Isle of Man, 243 _sq._; Hallowe'en fires and divination in Lancashire, 244 _sq._; marching with lighted candles to keep off the witches, 245; divination at Hallowe'en in Northumberland, 245; Hallowe'en fires in France, 245 _sq._

§ 7. _The Midwinter Fires_, pp. 246-269.--Christmas the continuation of an old heathen festival of the sun, 246; the Yule log the Midwinter counterpart of the Midsummer bonfire, 247; the Yule log in Germany, 247-249; in Switzerland, 249; in Belgium, 249; in France, 249-255; French superstitions as to the Yule log, 250; the Yule log at Marseilles and in Perigord, 250 _sq._; in Berry, 251 _sq._; in Normandy and Brittany, 252 _sq._; in the Ardennes, 253 _sq._; in the Vosges, 254; in Franche-Comté, 254 _sq._; the Yule log and Yule candle in England, 255-258; the Yule log in the north of England and Yorkshire, 256 _sq._; in Lincolnshire, Warwickshire, Shropshire, and Herefordshire, 257 _sq._; in Wales, 258; in Servia, 258-262; among the Servians of Slavonia, 262 _sq._; among the Servians of Dalmatia, Herzegovina, and Montenegro, 263 _sq._; in Albania, 264; belief that the Yule log protects against fire and lightning, 264 _sq._; public fire-festivals at Midwinter, 265-269; Christmas bonfire at Schweina in Thuringia, 265 _sq._; Christmas bonfires in Normandy, 266; bonfires on St. Thomas's Day in the Isle of Man, 266; the "Burning of the Clavie" at Burghead on the last day of December, 266-268; Christmas procession with burning tar-barrels at Lerwick, 268 _sq._

§ 8. _The Need-fire_, pp. 269-300.--Need-fire kindled not at fixed periods but on occasions of distress and calamity, 269; the need-fire in the Middle Ages and down to the end of the sixteenth century, 270 _sq._; mode of kindling the need-fire by the friction of wood, 271 _sq_.; the need-fire in Central Germany, particularly about Hildesheim, 272 _sq._; the need-fire in the Mark, 273; in Mecklenburg, 274 _sq._; in Hanover, 275 _sq._; in the Harz Mountains, 276 _sq._; in Brunswick, 277 _sq._; in Silesia and Bohemia, 278 _sq._; in Switzerland, 279 _sq._; in Sweden and Norway, 280; among the Slavonic peoples, 281-286; in Russia and Poland, 281 _sq._; in Slavonia, 282; in Servia, 282-284; in Bulgaria, 284-286; in Bosnia and Herzegovina, 286; in England, 286-289; in Yorkshire, 286-288; in Northumberland, 288 _sq._; in Scotland, 289-297; Martin's account of it in the Highlands, 289; the need-fire in Mull, 289 _sq._; in Caithness, 290-292; W. Grant Stewart's account of the need-fire, 292 _sq._; Alexander Carmichael's account, 293-295; the need-fire in Aberdeenshire, 296; in Perthshire, 296 _sq._; in Ireland, 297; the use of need-fire a relic of the time when all fires were similarly kindled by the friction of wood, 297 _sq._; the belief that need-fire cannot kindle if any other fire remains alight in the neighbourhood, 298 _sq._; the need-fire among the Iroquois of North America, 299 _sq._

§ 9. _The Sacrifice of an Animal to stay a Cattle-plague_, pp. 300-327.--The burnt sacrifice of a calf in England and Wales, 300 _sq._; burnt sacrifices of animals in Scotland, 301 _sq._; calf burnt in order to break a spell which has been cast on the herd, 302 _sq._; mode in which the burning of a bewitched animal is supposed to break the spell, 303-305; in burning the bewitched animal you burn the witch herself, 305; practice of burning cattle and sheep as sacrifices in the Isle of Man, 305-307; by burning a bewitched animal you compel the witch to appear, 307; magic sympathy between the witch and the bewitched animal, 308; similar sympathy between a were-wolf and his or her human shape, wounds inflicted on the animal are felt by the man or woman, 308; were-wolves in Europe, 308-310; in China, 310 _sq._; among the Toradjas of Central Celebes, 311-313 _sq._; in the Egyptian Sudan, 313 _sq._; the were-wolf story in Petronius, 313 _sq._; witches like were-wolves can temporarily transform themselves into animals, and wounds inflicted on the transformed animals appear on the persons of the witches, 315 _sq._; instances of such transformations and wounds in Scotland, England, Ireland, France, and Germany, 316-321; hence the reason for burning bewitched animals is either to burn the witch herself or at all events to compel her to appear, 321 _sq._; the like reason for burning bewitched things, 322 _sq._; similarly by burning alive a person whose likeness a witch has assumed you compel the witch to disclose herself, 323; woman burnt alive as a witch in Ireland at the end of the nineteenth century, 323 _sq._; bewitched animals sometimes buried alive instead of being burned, 324-326; calves killed and buried to save the rest of the herd, 326 _sq_.