CHAPTER V
THE PACES OF THE HORSE
As a completion of the studies we have just been making, some notions relative to the paces of the horse seem to us to be absolutely indicated.
Let it be permitted to us to remind the reader in this connection that we have already been for twenty-one years occupied with this question, and that by means of an articulated figure, a sort of movable mannikin, we have endeavoured to demonstrate to artists the differences which characterize the various paces of the horse.[69] The arrangement then employed cannot, evidently, be used in the present volume, but we will inspire ourselves, in the preparation of the present chapter, with the elements of demonstration which we have employed, and which, in the course of our teaching, we have had the satisfaction of seeing favourably received.
[69] Édouard Cuyer, 'Les Allures du Cheval,' demonstrated with the aid of a coloured, separable, and articulated table, Paris, 1883.
This table was the subject of a note communicated to the Academy of Sciences by Professor Marey ('Comptes rendus de l'Académie de Sciences') at the meeting of June 26, 1882. On the other hand, it has been the subject of a presentation which we have had the honour of being permitted to make to the Academy of Fine Arts at the meeting of November 4, 1882.
The fasciculus in question has been since united with a more complete whole as regards the study of the horse. E. Cuyer and E. Alex, 'Le Cheval: Extérieur, Structure et Fonctions, Races,' avec 26 planches coloriées, découpées et superposées, Paris, 1886.
The progressive movements by which an individual transports himself from one place to another do not operate according to a unique method and with a constantly uniform velocity. These various modes of progression are designated under the name of _paces_.
It is extremely difficult to analyze, by simple observation, the movements which characterize these gaits. Let us, for example, examine the displacements made by the limbs of a horse during that of walking; if we have no notion of these displacements, it will be, so to speak, impossible to determine in what order they are executed. The sight of the imprints left on the ground by the hoofs is not a sufficient means of demonstration, especially for artists. The noise made by the blows of these limbs, or by the little bells of different timbre suspended from them, are absolutely in the same case.
Processes enabling us to fix or to register the paces are in every way preferable. Such really exist; they are: instantaneous photography and those which constitute the graphic method of Professor Marey. The results given by the photograph are certainly appreciable; but, from the didactic point of view, we give the preference to the graphic method, the general characters and the mode of application of which we now proceed to analyze.[70]
[70] We cannot too strongly recommend the reading of the excellent works which Professor Marey has published, and which have for their object the study of movements, as well as the exhibition of the procedures which he has employed. E. J. Marey, 'La Machine Animale,' Paris, 1873; 'La Méthode graphique dans les Sciences expérimentales,' Paris, 1884; 'Le Vol des Oiseaux,' Paris, 1890; 'Le Mouvement,' Paris, 1894.
It is necessary to understand first of all, in this connection, that which relates to a man's walking pace.
The method of Professor Marey rests on the following principle: Suppose two rubber globes connected with one another by a tube. If we compress one of these globes, the air which it contains will be driven into the other, and will afterwards return when the pressure has ceased. Nothing more simple, evidently; but it is necessary to describe it in detail in order the better to comprehend that which follows: The walker who is the subject of experiment is furnished with special shoes (Fig. 115), having thick indiarubber soles, hollowed in the interior, so that the whole thus constituted forms a sort of hollow cushion which is compressed under the influence of the pressure of the foot on the ground. A tube which is attached to a registering apparatus, which the person who is walking carries in his hand, communicates with this cavity (Fig. 116). This apparatus is formed of a metal drum, which is closed at its upper part by a flexible membrane. Each time that one of the man's feet presses on the ground, the air contained in the cavity of the sole of the shoe is driven into the drum, which we have just mentioned, and the flexible membrane of this drum is elevated. To this membrane is attached a vertical rod which supports a horizontal style.
When the membrane, as we have just seen, is elevated, the style is lifted, and then descends when the pressure of the foot ceases. It traces these displacements on a leaf of paper, the surface of which is covered with a thin layer of lamp-black, which it removes by its contact; different parts of this surface are successively presented to it, the paper being rolled round a cylinder which is turned on its axis by means of a clockwork movement. It is necessary to add that the inscription is made, in the study of the walk of man, by means of two styles, each corresponding to one of the feet.
The tracings thus obtained, which are read from left to right, are sufficiently simple; but to understand them properly, it is necessary to remember that the style undergoes a movement of ascensional displacement during each pressure of a foot, and that, on the other hand, it descends when the latter is separated from the ground. We also see, on the tracing which it leaves, a line which ascends and then descends; the meaning of this is that first the foot presses on the ground, and is afterwards raised from it.
On the tracing (Fig. 117), the line D relates to the right foot; the line G, which is dotted so that it may not be confused with the preceding, corresponds to the left foot. The line G first ascends; the meaning of which is that the left foot presses on the ground; afterwards it descends: this indicates that the pressure of the foot has ceased. It is the same for the right foot. As we see, the pressures succeed each other; when the left foot touches the ground, the right is separated from it; when the latter presses the ground, it is the left which no longer rests there.
The line O is related to the movements of the body, as indicated by the oscillations of the head. We will neglect these.
But this tracing, which serves us for an example, is not, it must indeed be said, of very easy reading; it would be still less so if the paces of a horse were registered, for there would then be four lines, the entanglement of which would cause greater complication.
These difficulties of reading need be no longer feared, if we transform the tracing into a notation by means of the following diagram.
There are drawn (Fig. 118) below the graphic tracing two horizontal lines (1, 2). From the point where the line D rises (commencement of the pressure of the right foot), and from the point where this same line descends (end of the same pressure), we let fall two vertical lines joining the two horizontal ones mentioned above. At this plane, and between the two vertical lines, we mark a broad white one (_a, b_). This expresses, by its length, the duration of the period of pressure of the right foot. In doing the same for the line G, we obtain for the indication of a pressure of the left foot an interval of the same kind, in which are marked cross-lines, or which is tinted gray, in order to avoid all confusion with the preceding tracing.
This notation can, with sufficient exactitude, be compared to that which is employed in the musical scale. The horizontal lines 1 and 2 represent the _compass_. We there also see _notes_; these are the bars indicating the pressure, of which the value--that is to say, the duration--is represented by the length of these bars. It is the same with regard to the intervals of _silence_: these are expressed by the intervals which separate the pressures, and correspond to the moments in which, during certain paces, such as running, the body is raised from the ground. Besides, we see intervals of this kind on the notation reproduced (Fig. 118) relative to the running of man.
In order to make the signification of these tracings still better understood, we reproduce four varieties of them (Fig. 119).
The first notation is that of ordinary walking. The pressures succeed each other regularly.
The second shows what takes place during the ascent of a staircase. At a certain moment, the weight of the body is upon both feet at the same time, one of them not quitting the lower step, until the other is already in contact with the step above. Accordingly, there is thus produced an overriding of the pressures.
The third is relative to running, and has already been represented in Fig. 118. The pressures of the feet are separated by the times of suspension.
The fourth also represents running, but in this case more rapid and characterized by the shorter pressures, the slightly longer periods of suspension intervals, and the quicker succession of movements.
Before putting aside the indications relating to the walking movements of man--indications which it was necessary to give in order to render intelligible those which are connected with the paces of the horse--we have yet to fix the value of that which we call 'a step.'
It is generally admitted that a step is constituted by the series of movements which are produced between the corresponding phases of the action of one foot and that of the other--for example, between the moment at which the right foot commences its pressure on the ground and that at which the left foot commences its own. It is necessary to adopt here another method of looking at it, and to regard the preceding as being but a _half-step_. The step should then be defined as being constituted by the series of movements which are executed between two similar positions of the same foot--as, for example, between the commencement of a pressure of the right foot and the similar phase of the following pressure of the same foot. We shall soon understand the importance of this definition.
Before entering on the details of the paces of the horse, it is necessary to see how the limbs of the latter oscillate during the period of a complete step; or, which is the same thing, to determine what the displacements are which a limb executes between two similar positions of its foot.
If we examine one of the limbs during a forward movement of the animal, we see that this limb passes through two principal phases: (1) It is raised from the ground; (2) it resumes contact with the ground. Each of these phases is divided into three periods of time, which we proceed to analyze in connection with the anterior limb.
C, Lifting; B, suspension; A, placing.]
[71] G. Colin, 'Traité de Physiologie Comparée des Animaux,' third edition, Paris, 1886.
The foot quits the ground (Fig. 120, C); this may be called _lifting_; the limb is oblique in direction downwards and backwards. This same limb is flexed and carried forward (Fig. 120, B), and, as it is supported by the action of its flexors, this is the period named _suspension_; the hoof is vertical. Then the limb is carried still further forward, becoming extended (Fig. 120, A); the heel is lowered, and the foot, being oblique, is directed towards the ground; this is the _placing_.
Then takes place pressure (Fig. 121). The foot has just been placed on the ground; the limb is oblique in direction downwards and forwards; this we call _commencement of the pressure_ (Fig. 121, A). Then the body, being carried forward, whilst the hoof, D, is fixed on the ground, the limb becomes vertical: this stage is _mid-pressure_ (Fig. 121, B). Finally, the progression of the body continuing, the limb becomes oblique downwards and backwards; it is now at the _termination of pressure_ (Fig. 121, C), and proceeds to lift itself anew if another step is to be made.
In conclusion, the inferior extremity of the limb describes, from its elevation to its being placed on the ground, an arc of a circle around its superior extremity (Fig. 121, D); whilst, during the pressure, it is its superior extremity which describes one around its inferior extremity, then fixed on the ground (Fig. 121, D).
If we simultaneously examine the two fore-limbs, we remark that when one of them begins its pressure the other ends it, and _vice versâ_.
As to the hind-limbs, the oscillations are similar to those of the fore ones. In the second half of the pressure--that is, when they are passing from the vertical direction (Fig. 122, A) to extreme obliquity backwards (Fig. 122, C)--the effect of their action is to give propulsion to the body.
The fore and hind limbs make the same number of steps, and the steps have the same length.
The limbs of any quadruped--but we make special allusion to those of the horse--are divided into groups in the following manner:
The anterior pair constitutes the _anterior biped_. The _posterior biped_ is that formed by the posterior limbs.
The name of _lateral biped_ serves to designate the whole formed by the two limbs of the same side. The right fore-limb and the right hind-limb form the _right lateral biped_. The two others form the _left lateral biped_.
A fore-limb and hind-limb belonging to the opposite side form a _diagonal biped_, which also takes the name of the fore-limb which forms a part of it. Thus, _the right diagonal biped_ is formed by the association of the right fore-limb and the left hind one. The _left diagonal biped_ is, consequently, the inverse.
It is necessary to remember well these preliminary indications; it is the only means of comprehending with facility that which is about to follow.
Let us first return to the grouping of the limbs. The denominations _anterior_ and _posterior bipeds_ render clearly perceptible the comparison which consists in regarding a horse when walking as capable of being represented by two men marching one behind the other, and making the same number of steps. According as they move the legs of the same side at the same time in 'covering the step,' or march in contretemps step, we find reproduced all the rhythms which characterize the different paces of the horse.
Professor Marey has studied these paces by a similar method to that which he adopted for the walking of man, and which we have already described. He employed hollow balls fixed under the hoofs, and a registering apparatus with four styles, each corresponding to one of the limbs. The tracing obtained is rather complicated, since two sets of lines are found marked. But a notation similar to that of which we have spoken can be discovered, and its exact signification should now be determined. For this purpose, we have selected the most simple (see Fig. 123). We there see, placed in two superimposed lines, the pressure markings of the right feet (white bands), and of the left feet (gray bands). On the upper line are found those related to the fore-legs; the lower lines contain those associated with the hind-legs. It is, in brief, the superposition of two notations of the human walking movements. And seeing that, as we have previously pointed out, we may make a comparison between a quadruped and two men placed one behind the other, it is easy to understand the significance of the superimposed notations, if we accustom ourselves to look on them as the notations of two bipeds.
To read these notations--that is, to learn to know what occurs at each of the movements of the pace--it is necessary, indeed, to remember that they should be examined in vertical sections; it is to each of these sections--of these vertical divisions--that each of the movements which we more particularly wish to analyze corresponds.
We proceed to study first the pace of ambling, because it is the most simple; we shall then consider the trot, and, finally, we shall examine that which is the most complicated, viz., the step.
[72] The figures which, in the present study, reproduce the different paces, have been made from our articulated horse (see the note on p. 282).
=The Amble.=--To give an exact idea of the general character of the amble, let us fancy the two men whom we discussed above marching one behind the other and walking in step--that is, moving the legs of the same side simultaneously. They will thus represent the amble, which, indeed, results from the alternate displacements of the lateral bipeds; the limbs of the same side (right or left) execute the same movements in the same time.
This is what the notation indicates (Fig. 123). We there see that the pressures of the right fore-foot, marked by the white bands in the upper range, are exactly superposed on those of the right hind one, which are marked by a similar band on the lower line; this means that the pressures took place in the same time. We there see also a similar arrangement of the gray bands, which has a similar significance for the left fore and hind feet.
And if we recollect the three phases of pressure (see p. 289, and Figs. 121, 122), we shall comprehend, in looking at the diagrams, that, at the initial stage (A), the limbs are commencing their pressure, and are oblique downwards and forwards; that afterwards (B) the two limbs are vertical, since they are at the middle of the pressure stage; and that finally (C) they are oblique downwards and backwards, for it is then the termination of their pressure (Fig. 124).
During the time that the right limbs are pressing (notation, white bands) the left limbs are raised; afterwards these latter take up the pressure (gray bands), and then the right limbs are raised in their turn.
During the pace of ambling the weight of the body, which is wholly sustained by the limbs of one side only, is not in equilibrium, so that the limbs which are raised return by a brisk movement to the position of support in order to re-establish it.
=The Trot.=--We have just seen that, in order to represent the amble, the two marchers moved their right limbs simultaneously, and then their left ones.
Let us suppose now that the hinder man anticipated by half a pace the movement of the front one, then will be found realized the association and the nature of the displacements of the limbs during the pace of the trot.
By this anticipation of a half-step (we have defined, p. 288, what is to be understood by the word _step_), it follows that when the marcher who is in front advances his right leg it is the left leg of the marcher who follows him that is carried in the same direction. We should thus conclude from this that the trot is characterized by a succession of displacements of the diagonal bipeds.
Indeed, if we examine the notation of this gait (Fig. 125), we see that with the pressure of the right fore-foot is found associated the pressure of the left hind-foot. It is, accordingly, a typical diagonal biped (Fig. 126).
But it is necessary to add that these groups of pressures do not succeed one another without interruption, except in the slow trot. In the ordinary trot, or in that in which the animal's strides are very long, the body between each of the double pressures which we have just been considering is projected forward with such force that it remains for an instant separated from the ground. This is what we designate by the name of _time of suspension_ (Fig. 127). The notation in this case would be slightly different from that which we reproduce above, in this sense: that between the diagonal pressures there then would be found an interval, since during the time the body is suspended none of the feet can produce a pressure-mark (see, with regard to these intervals, the notations of the running of a man, Fig. 118, and Fig. 119, 3, 4).
=The Walk.=--Although slow, a feature which would seem to make it possible to permit its analysis in a horse when walking, this pace is difficult to comprehend without sufficient preliminary study.
We saw above that in order to represent the amble the marchers had to move the legs of the same side simultaneously. We have also just seen that in order to represent the trot the marcher at the back had to anticipate by a half-step. Suppose, now, that this same marcher anticipates the man in front by a quarter-step only, or by a half-pressure period, and thus will be found realized the order of succession of the limbs in the gait or pace called the _walk_. The feet meet the ground one after the other, since they are each in advance by half the duration of a pressure. The strokes are four in number during the period of a step of this pace; in the amble and in the trot they do not exceed two, for then the limbs strike the ground in lateral diagonal pairs.
If we examine the notation of the pace of walking (Fig. 128), we see that the right fore-foot commences its pressure when the right hind-foot is in the middle of its own, and that the hinder left begins in the middle of that of the right fore-foot, and that it is itself at the midst of its pressure when the left fore-foot touches the ground, etc. In a word, the foot-fallings occur in the following order and at regular intervals--the fore right foot is here considered as acting first: right fore, left hind, left fore, right hind, and so on in succession.
As to the nature of the bipeds which succeed one another, it is easy to understand them by means of the notation. In reading this from left to right, we see that the associations of pressure are first made by the two right feet, then by a right foot and a left one, then by two left feet, and, finally, by a left and right. It is, accordingly, a succession this time of lateral and diagonal pressures.
Thus, we find at the start a right lateral pressure (Fig. 129), next a right diagonal (Fig. 130), then a left lateral; finally, a left diagonal pressure. It is thus that the initial letters L, D, L´, D´ further indicate the notations represented in Fig. 128.
=The Gallop.=--The ordinary gallop is a pace of three phases. The first is characterized by the fact that one hind-limb alone rests on the ground (Fig. 131); in the second the animal is on a diagonal support (Fig. 132); in the third it comes down on a fore-limb (Fig. 133). The body is then raised (Fig. 134), and to this period of suspension succeed anew the three modes of pressure indicated above.
The gallop is said to be from either right or left. In the gallop from the right, the right fore-leg is the more frequently in advance of its neighbour; it is the last to be placed on the ground. The left foot of the posterior biped is the one which commences the action.
An entirely opposite arrangement characterizes the gallop from the left.
The notation reproduced in Fig. 135 corresponds to the gallop from the right. It is there seen, as we pointed out above, that in the first phase the exclusive support of the left hind-foot takes place (1); that afterwards, in the second, commence simultaneously, the pressures of the left fore and the right hind foot (2); this is the left diagonal support; and that finally, in the third, the body comes down on a fore-limb, which is then the right (3); and that for a moment it is on this limb alone that the animal rests.
To these three phases on the notation succeeds an interval; this is the period of suspension.
The gallop of four phases only differs from the preceding in that the foot-fallings of each diagonal biped occur at slight intervals, and give distinct sounds. The notation is reproduced in Fig. 136.
=The Leap.=--The leap is an act by which the body is wholly raised from the ground and projected upwards and forwards to a greater or less distance.
It is prepared for by the flexing of the hind-limbs, which, by being suddenly extended, project the body, and thus enable it to pass over an obstacle.
This preparatory arrangement is very remarkable in the leap of the lion, the cat, and the panther, which execute springs of great length; in the horse, in which the leap is not an habitual mode of progression, this flexion of the hinder limbs is less marked. With this animal the leap is generally associated with the gallop; nevertheless, it is sometimes made from a stationary position. In observing the hare or the rabbit, in which the leap is habitual, we notice (Fig. 137) that the hind-limbs, being extremely flexed, rest on the ground as far as the calcaneum, are then straightened by the action of their extensors, become vertical and then oblique backwards at the moment the body is thrown forward into space by the sudden extension of these limbs.
The action of the extensors is energetic and instantaneous, and their energy is greater than in ordinary progression, for it is required to lift the body and to project it forcibly a more or less considerable distance. It is the extreme rapidity of this action which enables the animal to clear an obstacle, for without this condition the body would be raised, but not separated from the ground.
First of all, in reaching the obstacle to be cleared, the horse prepares to leap by taking the attitude of rearing; the hind-limbs are flexed and carried under the body, the fore-quarters are raised, and the different segments of the fore-limbs are flexed (Fig. 138).
One sudden trigger action produced by the violent contraction of the extensors of the hind-legs then takes place, and the animal is projected forwards, while he flexes the fore-legs more and more (Fig. 139). He has then risen above the obstacle (Fig. 140). Then while he makes the downward and forward balancing movement, and points his fore-limbs in the same direction, he flexes the hind ones (Fig. 141). Whilst the latter are further flexed, in order to pass the obstacle in their turn, the fore-limbs which are extended come into contact with the ground (Fig. 142). Finally, in the last phase of the leap, the animal, raising himself in front, after the impact of his hind-feet has taken place (Fig. 143), prepares to continue the pace at which he progressed before meeting the obstacle which he had to clear.
THE END
_London: Baillière, Tindall and Cox, 8, Henrietta Street, Covent Garden, W.C._
THE ARTISTIC ANATOMY OF ANIMALS
SECTIONAL INDEX
PAGE
=Generalities of Comparative Anatomy= 1
OSTEOLOGY AND ARTHROLOGY
=The Trunk:= _Vertebral Column_ 4 Sacrum 10 Coccygeal vertebræ 11 Direction and form of the vertebral column 11 _Thorax_ 12 Sternum 14 Ribs and costal cartilages 14
=The Anterior Limbs:= _Shoulder_ 20 Scapula 21 Clavicle 25 _Arm_ 28 Humerus 28 General view of the form of the forearm and hand 34 Forearm 38 Hand 44
=The Anterior Limbs in Certain Animals:= _Plantigrades_: Bear 49 _Digitigrades_: Cat, dog 51 _Unguligrades_: Pig 57 Sheep, Ox 60 Horse 64 Proportions of the arm, the forearm, and metacarpus 70 Articulations of the anterior limbs 71 Scapulo-humeral articulation 72 Humero-ulnar articulation, or elbow 74 Radio-ulnar articulation 75 Articulation of the wrist 75 Metacarpo-phalangeal articulations 76 Interphalangeal articulations 77
=The Posterior Limbs:= _Pelvis_ 78 Iliac bone 78 _The Thigh_ 83 Femur 83 Knee-cap 85 _The Leg_ 85 Tibia 86 Fibula 87 _The Foot_ 87
=The Posterior Limbs in Some Animals:= _Plantigrades_: Bear 90 _Digitigrades_: Cat, dog 91 _Unguligrades_: Pig 94 Sheep, ox 95 Horse 99 Articulations of the posterior limbs 105 Coxo-femoral articulation 105 Femoro-tibial articulation, or knee 106 Tibio-tarsal articulation, and of the bones of the tarsus 107
=The Head in General, and in Some Animals in Particular:= Direction of the head 109 The skull 112 The face 118 The skull of birds 127
MYOLOGY
=Muscles of the Trunk:= Pectoralis major 131 Pectoralis minor 133 Serratus magnus 134
=Muscles of the Abdomen:= External oblique 136 Internal oblique 137 Transversalis abdominis 138 Rectus abdominis 138 Pyramidalis abdominis 139
=Muscles of the Back:= Trapezius 140 Latissimus dorsi 142 Rhomboid 144
=The Cutaneous Muscle of the Trunk= 147
=The Coccygeal Region:= Ischio-coccygeal muscle 149 Superior sacro-coccygeal muscle 150 Lateral sacro-coccygeal muscle 150 Inferior sacro-coccygeal muscle 150
=Muscles of the Neck:= Mastoido-humeralis 150 Sterno-mastoid 153 Omo-trachelian 155 Levator anguli scapulæ 156 Splenius 158
=Infrahyoid Muscles:= Sterno-thyroid and sterno-hyoid 160 Omo-hyoid 160
=Suprahyoid Muscles:= Mylo-hyoid 161 Digastric 161
=Panniculus of the Neck= 162
=Muscles of the Anterior Limbs:= _Muscles of the Shoulder_ 162 Deltoid 162 Subscapularis 163 Supraspinatus 164 Infraspinatus 165 Teres minor 166 Teres major 166 Panniculus muscle of the shoulder 167 _Muscles of the Arm_ 168 Anterior region 169 Biceps 169 Brachialis anticus 170 Coraco-brachialis 170 Posterior region 171 Triceps 171 _Supplemental or Accessory Muscle of the Latissimus Dorsi_ 173 _Muscles of the Forearm_ 174 Anterior and external region 176 Supinator longus 176 First and second external radial 176 Supinator brevis 179 Extensor communis digitorum 179 Extensor minimi digiti 183 Posterior ulnar 185 Anconeus 185 Long abductor of the thumb 186 Short extensor of the thumb 187 Long extensor of the thumb 187 Proper extensor of the index 187 Internal and posterior region 188 Pronator teres 188 Flexor carpi radialis 189 Palmaris longus 189 Anterior ulnar 191 Superficial flexor of the digits 193 Long proper flexor of the thumb 197 Pronator quadratus 198 _Muscles of the Hand_ 199
=Muscles of the Posterior Limbs:= _Muscles of the Pelvis_ 200 Gluteus medius 200 Gluteus maximus 201 _Muscles of the Thigh_ 204 Muscles of the posterior region 205 Biceps 205 Semi-tendinosus 206 Semi-membranosus 207 Muscles of the anterior region 210 Triceps 210 Tensor fascia lata 211 Sartorius 211 Muscles of the internal region 213 Gracilis 213 _Muscles of the Leg_ 213 Muscles of the anterior region 214 Tibialis anticus 214 Extensor proprius pollicis 219 Extensor longus digitorum 219 Peroneus tertius 224 Muscles of the external region 224 Peroneus longus 224 Peroneus brevis 225 Muscles of the posterior region 227 Gastrocnemius 227 Soleus 228 Plantaris 228 Popliteus 228 Superficial flexor of the toes 229 Flexor longus digitorum 230 Tibialis posticus 230 Flexor longus pollicis 231 _Muscles of the Foot_ 231 Dorsalis pedis 231 _Muscles of the Head_ 232 Masticatory muscles 232 Masseter 232 Temporal muscle 234 Cutaneous muscles of the head 234 Occipito-frontalis 234 Orbicularis palpebrarum 234 Pyramidalis nasi 235 Corrugator supercilii 235 Zygomaticus major 235 Zygomaticus minor 236 Levator labii superioris proprius 237 Levator labii superioris alæque nasi 238 Transversus nasi 239 Caninus 239 Orbicularis oris 240 Triangularis oris 240 Quadratus menti 240 Prominence of the chin 240 Buccinator 241 Maxillo-labialis 242 Zygomatico-auricularis 242 Temporo-auricularis externus 243 Scuto-auricularis externus 243 Cervico-auricular muscles 243 Cervico-auricularis superioris 244 Cervico-auricularis medius 244 Cervico-auricularis inferioris 244 Parotido-auricularis 244 Temporo-auricularis internus 244 Zygomatico-auricularis 245
EPIDERMIC PRODUCTS OF THE TERMINAL EXTREMITIES OF THE FORE AND HIND LIMBS
Claws 247 Plantar tubercles 248 Hoofs of the solipeds 250 Hoofs of ox and pig 261
* * * * *
Proportions 262 Proportions of head of horse 273 (front view) 276
Paces of the horse 282 Amble 293 Trot 294 Walk 296 Gallop 300 Leap 364
ERRATA
P. 105, _Articulations_ of the Posterior Limbs.
P. 107, Tibio-tarsal _Articulation_.
THE END
_London: Baillière, Tindall and Cox, 8, Henrietta Street, Covent Garden, W.C._
+--------------------------------------------------------------------+ | TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES: | | | | Footnotes have been moved to underneath the paragraph, table or | | illustration they refer to. | | | | Illustrations have been moved so as to not disrupt the flow of the | | text. Page numbers in the List of Illustrations and in references | | have not been changed, and are therefore not always correct. | | | | The Table of Contents and the Sectional Index are not complete and | | contain slightly different wording than the names of sections in | | the text. This has been left as in the original work. | | | | The Errata have already been changed in the text. | | | | The author uses the terms chromophotograph and chronophotograph | | (and derivations of these words); these words have not been | | changed. The correct term in these cases is chronophotograph. | | | | Page 143, Fig. 69: atlas is mentioned twice (nrs. 12 and 13); only | | nr. 13 indicates the atlas. | | | | The text used is that of the original work, including | | inconsistencies in spelling, hyphenation and lay-out, and | | differences between main text, footnotes and captions, except when | | mentioned below. | | | | Changes made to the text: | | Some minor obvious typographical errors have been corrected | | silently. | | Periods have been removed from some section headings for | | consistency. | | Page 2, footnote [2]: Mathias-Duval changed to Mathias Duval | | (full name: Mathias-Marie Duval). | | Page 23: _see_ replaced with see for consistency. | | Page 44 (footnote 12): Edward Cuyer changed to Édouard Cuyer as | | elsewhere. | | Page 53, captions (2x): AA¹ changed to AA´ as in drawing and | | text. | | Page 120, Fig. 63, caption: 14´, malar bone added, 14 changed to | | anterior orifice of the cavity of the nasal fossæ (as in previous| | figures). | | Page 216: tendo-Achilles changed to tendo-Achillis as elsewhere. | | Page 234: Fig. 0, 92 changed to Fig. 90, 2. | | Page 254, Fig. 98: epternal changed to external. | | Page 269, last paragraph: one anchor to same footnote deleted. | | Page 325: L, D, L', D' changed to L, D, L´, D´. | | Footnotes 13, 17: La Natura changed to La Nature. | +--------------------------------------------------------------------+
End of Project Gutenberg's Artistic Anatomy of Animals, by Édouard Cuyer