Chapter 8

"Then the ball, well cleaned by his assistant, since there is danger to the gunner in balls to which sand or dirt adhere, is placed in the piece without forcing it till it touches gently on the wad, the gunner being careful not to hold himself in front of the gun, for it is silly to run danger without reason. Finally he will put in one more wad, and at another roll of drums the piece is ready to fire."

Maximum firing rate for field pieces in the early days was eight rounds an hour. It increased later to 100 rounds a day for light guns and 30 for heavy pieces. (Modern non-automatic guns can fire 15 rounds per minute.) After about 40 rounds the gun became so hot it was unsafe to load, whereupon it was "refreshed" with an hour's rest.

Approved aiming procedure was to make the first shot surely short, in order to have a measurement of the error. The second shot would be at greater elevation, but also cautiously short. After the third round, the gunner could hope to get hits. Beginners were cautioned against the desire to hit the target at the first shot, for, said a celebrated artillerist, "... you will get overs and cannot estimate how much over."

As gunners gradually became professional soldiers, gun drills took on a more military aspect, as these seventeenth century commands show:

1. Put back your piece. 2. Order your piece to load. 3. Search your piece. 4. Sponge your piece. 5. Fill your ladle. 6. Put in your powder. 7. Empty your ladle. 8. Put up your powder. 9. Thrust home your wad. 10. Regard your shot. 11. Put home your shot gently. 12. Thrust home your wad with three strokes. 13. Gauge your piece.

Gunners had no trouble finding work, as is singularly illustrated by the case of Andrew Ransom, a stray Englishman captured near St. Augustine in the late 1600's. He was condemned to death. The executional device failed, however, and the padres in attendance took it as an act of God and led Ransom to sanctuary at the friary. Meanwhile, the Spanish governor learned this man was an artillerist and a maker of "artificial fires." The governor offered to "protect" him if he would live at the Castillo and put his talents to use. Ransom did.

By 1800, although guns could be served with as few as three men, efficient drill usually called for a much larger force. The smallest crew listed in the United States Navy manual of 1866 was seven: first and second gun captains, two loaders, two spongers, and a "powder monkey" (powder boy). An 11-inch pivot-gun on its revolving carriage was served by 24 crewmen and a powderman. In the field, transportation for a 24-pounder siege gun took 10 horses and 5 drivers.

Twelve rounds an hour was good practice for heavy guns during the Civil War period, although the figure could be upped to 20 rounds. By this date, of course, although the principles of muzzle loading had not changed, actual loading of the gun was greatly simplified by using fixed and semi-fixed ammunition. Loading technique varied with the gun, but the following summary of drill from the United States _Heavy Ordnance Manual_ of 1861 gives a fair idea of how the crew handled a siege gun:

In the first place, consider that the equipment is all in its proper place. The gun is on a two-wheeled siege carriage, and is "in battery," or pushed forward on the platform until the muzzle is in the earthwork embrasure. On each side of the gun are three handspikes, leaning against the parapet. On the right of the gun a sponge and a rammer are laid on a prop, about 6 feet away from the carriage. Near the left muzzle of the gun is a stack of cannonballs, wads, and a "passbox" or powder bucket. Hanging from the cascabel are two pouches: the tube-pouch containing friction "tubes" (primers for the vent) and the lanyard; and the gunner's pouch with the gunner's level, breech-sight, pick, gimlet, vent-punch, chalk, and fingerstall (a leather cover for the gunner's second left finger when the gun gets hot). Under the wheels are two chocks; the vent-cover is on the vent, a tompion in the muzzle; a broom leans against the parapet beyond the stack of cannonballs. A wormer, ladle, and wrench were also part of the battery equipment.

The crew consisted of a gunner and six cannoneers. At the command _Take implements_ the gunner stepped to the cascabel and handed the vent-cover to No. 2; the tube-pouch he gave to No. 3; he put on his fingerstall, leveled the gun with the elevating screw, applied his level to base ring and muzzle to find the highest points of the barrel, and marked these points with chalk for a line of sight. His six crewmen took their positions about a yard apart, three men on each side of the gun, with handspikes ready.

_From battery_ was the first command of the drill. The gunner stepped from behind the gun, while the handspikemen embarred their spikes. Cannoneers Nos. 1, 3, and 5 were on the right side of the gun, and the even-numbered men were on the left. Nos. 1 and 2 put their spikes under the front of the wheels; Nos. 3 and 4 embarred under the carriage cheeks to bear down on the rear spokes of the wheel; Nos. 5 and 6 had their spikes under the maneuvering bolts of the trail for guiding the piece away from the parapet. With the gunner's word _Heave_, the men at the wheels put on the pressure, and with successive _heaves_ the gun was moved backward until the muzzle was clear of the embrasure by a yard. The crew then unbarred, and Nos. 1 and 2 chocked the wheels.

_Load_ was the second command. Nos. 1, 2, and 4 laid down their spikes; No. 2 took out the tompion; No. 1 took up the sponge and put its wooly head into the muzzle; No. 2 stepped up to the muzzle and seized the sponge staff to help No. 1. In five counts they pushed the sponge to the bottom of the bore. Meanwhile, No. 4 took the passbox and went to the magazine for a cartridge.

The gunner put his finger over the vent, and with his right hand turned the elevating screw to adjust the piece conveniently for loading. No. 3 picked up the rammer.

At the command _Sponge_, the men at the sponge pressed the tool against the bottom of the bore and gave it three turns from right to left, then three turns from left to right. Next the sponge was drawn, and while No. 1 exchanged it for No. 3's rammer, the No. 2 man took the cartridge from No. 4, and put it in the bore. He helped No. 1 push it home with the rammer, while No. 4 went for a ball and, if necessary, a wad.

_Ram!_ The men on the rammer drew it out an arm's length and rammed the cartridge with a single stroke. No. 2 took the ball from No. 4, while No. 1 threw out the rammer. With the ball in the bore, both men again manned the rammer to force the shot home and delivered a final single-stroke ram. No. 1 put the rammer back on its prop. The gunner stuck his pick into the vent to prick open the powder bag.

The command _In battery_ was the signal for the cannoneers to man the handspikes again, Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4 working at the wheels and Nos. 5 and 6 guiding the trail as before. After successive _heaves_, the gunner halted the piece with the wheels touching the hurter--the timber laid at the foot of the parapet to stop the wheels.

_Point_ was the next order. No. 3, the man with the tube-pouch, got out his lanyard and hooked it to a primer. Nos. 5 and 6 put their handspikes under the trail, ready to move the gun right or left. The gunner went to the breech of the gun, removed his pick from the vent, and, sighting down the barrel, directed the spikemen: he would tap the right side of the breech, and No. 5 would heave on his handspike to inch the trail toward the left. A tap on the left side would move No. 6 in the opposite direction. Next, the gunner put the breech-sight (if he needed it) carefully on the chalk line of the base ring and ran the elevating screw to the proper elevation.

As soon as the gun was properly laid, the gunner said _Ready_ and signaled with both hands. He took the breech-sight off the gun and walked over to windward, where he could watch the effect of the shot. Nos. 1 and 2 had the chocks, ready to block the wheels at the end of the recoil. No. 3 put the primer in the vent, uncoiled the lanyard and broke a full pace to the rear with his left foot. He stretched the lanyard, holding it in his right hand.

At _Fire!_ No. 3 gave a smart pull on the lanyard. The gun fired, the carriage recoiled, and Nos. 1 and 2 chocked the wheels. No. 3 rewound his lanyard, and the gunner, having watched the shot, returned to his post.

_The development of heavy ordnance through the ages is a subject with many fascinating ramifications, but this survey has of necessity been brief._ _It has only been possible to indicate the general pattern. Most of the interesting details must await the publication of much larger volumes. It is hoped, however, that enough information has been included herein to enhance the enjoyment that comes from inspecting the great variety of cannon and projectiles that are to be seen throughout the National Park System._

GLOSSARY

Most technical phrases are explained in the text and illustrations (see fig. 51). For convenient reference, however, some important words are defined below:

*Ballistics*--the science dealing with the motion of projectiles.

*Barbette carriage*--as used here, a traverse carriage on which a gun is mounted to fire over a parapet.

*Bomb, bombshell*--see projectiles.

Breechblock--a movable piece which closes the breech of a cannon.

*Caliber*--diameter of the bore; also used to express bore length. A 30-caliber gun has a bore length 30 times the diameter of the bore.

*Cartridge*--a bag or case holding a complete powder charge for the cannon, and in some instances also containing the projectile.

*Casemate carriage*--as used here, a traverse carriage in a fort gunroom (casemate). The gun fired through an embrasure or loophole in the wall of the room.

*Chamber*--the part of the bore which holds the propelling charge, especially when of different diameter than the rest of the bore; in chambered muzzle-loaders, the chamber diameter was smaller than that of the bore.

*Elevation*--the angle between the axis of a piece and the horizontal plane.

*Fuze*--a device to ignite the charge of a shell or other projectile.

*Grommet*--a rope ring used as a wad to hold a cannonball in place in the bore.

*Gun*--any firearm; in the limited sense, a long cannon with high muzzle velocity and flat trajectory.

*Howitzer*--a short cannon, intermediate between the gun and mortar.

*Lay*--to aim a gun.

*Limber*--a two-wheeled vehicle to which the gun trail is attached for transport.

*Mandrel*--a metal bar, used as a core around which metal may be forged or otherwise shaped.

*Mortar*--a very short cannon used for high or curved trajectory firing.

*Point-blank*--as used here, the point where the projectile, when fired from a level bore, first strikes the horizontal ground in front of the cannon.

*Projectiles*--_canister or case shot_: a can filled with small missiles that scatter after firing from the gun. _Grape shot_: a cluster of small iron balls, which scatter upon firing. _Shell_: explosive missile; a hollow cast-iron ball, filled with gunpowder, with a fuze to produce detonation; a long, hollow projectile, filled with explosive and fitted with a fuze. _Shot_: a solid projectile, non-explosive.

*Quoin*--a wedge placed under the breech of a gun to fix its elevation.

*Range*--The horizontal distance from a gun to its target or to the point where the projectile first strikes the ground. _Effective range_ is the distance at which effective results may be expected, and is usually not the same as _maximum range_, which means the extreme limit of range.

*Rotating band*--a band of soft metal, such as copper, which encircles the projectile near its base. By engaging the lands of the spiral rifling in the bore, the band causes rotation of the projectile. Rotating bands for muzzle-loading cannon were expansion rings, and the powder blast expanded the ring into the rifling grooves.

*Train*--to aim a gun.

*Trajectory*--curved path taken by a projectile in its flight through the air.

*Transom*--horizontal beam between the cheeks of a gun carriage.

*Traverse carriage*--as used here, a stationary gun mount, consisting of a gun carriage on a wheeled platform which can be moved about a pivot for aiming the gun to right or left.

*Windage*--as used here, the difference between the diameter of the shot and the diameter of the bore.

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

The following is a listing of the more important sources dealing with the development of artillery which have been consulted in the production of this booklet. None of the German or Italian sources have been included, since practically no German or Italian guns were used in this country.

*SPANISH ORDNANCE.* Luis Collado, "Platica Manual de la Artillería" ms., Milan 1592, and Diego Ufano, _Artillerie_, n. p., 1621, have detailed information on sixteenth century guns, and Tomás de Morla, _Láminas pertenecientes al Tratado de Artillería_, Madrid, 1803, illustrates eighteenth century material. Thor Borresen, "Spanish Guns and Carriages, 1686-1800" ms., Yorktown, 1938, summarizes eighteenth century changes in Spanish and French artillery. Information on colonial use of cannon can be found in mss. of the Archivo General de Indias as follows: Inventories of Castillo de San Marcos armament in 1683 (58-2-2,32/2), 1706 (58-1-27,89/2), 1740 (58-1-32), 1763 (86-7-11,19), Zuñiga's report on the 1702 siege of St. Augustine (58-2-8,B3), and Arredondo's "Plan de la Ciudad de Sn. Agustín de la Florida" (87-1-1/2, ms. map); and other works, including [Andres Gonzales de Barcía,] _Ensayo Cronológico para la Historia General de la Florida_, Madrid, 1723; J. T. Connor, editor, _Colonial Records of Spanish Florida_, Deland, 1930, Vol. II., Manuel de Montiano, _Letters of Montiano_ (Collections of the Georgia Historical Society, v. VII, pt. I), Savannah 1909; Albert Manucy, "Ordnance used at Castillo de San Marcos, 1672-1834," St. Augustine, 1939.

*ENGLISH ORDNANCE.* For detailed information John Müller, _Treatise of Artillery_, London, 1756, has been the basic source for eighteenth century material. William Bourne, _The Arte of Shooting in Great Ordnance_, London, 1587, discusses sixteenth century artillery; and the anonymous _New Method of Fortification_, London, 1748, contains much seventeenth century information. For colonial artillery data there is John Smith, _The Generall Historie of Virginia, New-Englande, and the Summer Isles_, Richmond, 1819; [Edward Kimber] _Late Expedition to the Gates of St. Augustine_, Boston, 1935; and C. L. Mowat, _East Florida as a British Province_, 1763-1784, Los Angeles, 1939. Charles J. Foulkes, _The Gun-Founders of England_, Cambridge, 1937, discusses the construction of early cannon in England.

*FRENCH ORDNANCE.* M. Surirey de Saint-Remy, _Mémoires d'Artillerie_, 3rd edition Paris, 1745, is the standard source for French artillery material in the seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries. Col. Favé, _Études sur le Passé et l'Avenir de L'Artillerie_, Paris, 1863, is a good general history. Louis Figurier, _Armes de Guerre_, Paris, 1870, is also useful.

*UNITED STATES ORDNANCE.* Of first importance is Louis de Tousard, _American Artillerist's Companion_, 2 vols., Philadelphia, 1809-13. For performance and use of artillery during the 1860's the following sources are useful: John Gibbon, _The Artillerist's Manual_, New York, 1863; Q. A. Gillmore, _Engineer and Artillery Operations against the Defences of Charleston Harbor in 1863_, New York, 1865; his _Official Report ... of the Siege and Reduction of Fort Pulaski, Georgia_, New York, 1862; and the _Official Records of Union and Confederate Armies and Navies_. Ordnance manuals of the period include: _Instruction for Heavy Artillery_, U. S., Charleston, 1861; _Ordnance Instructions for the United States Navy_, Washington, 1866; J. Gorgas, _The Ordnance Manual for the Use of the Officers of the Confederate States Army_, Richmond, 1863. For United States developments after 1860: L. L. Bruff, _A Text-book of Ordnance and Gunnery_, New York, 1903; F. T. Hines and F. W. Ward, _The Service of Coast Artillery_, New York, 1910; the U. S. Field Artillery School's _Construction of Field Artillery Matériel_ and _General Characteristics of Field Artillery Ammunition_, Fort Sill, 1941.

*GENERAL.* For the history of artillery, as well as additional biographical and technical details, there is the Field Artillery School's excellent booklet, _History of the Development of Field Artillery Matériel_, Fort Sill, 1941. Henry W. L. Hime, _The Origin of Artillery_, New York, 1915, is most useful, as is that standard work, the _Encyclopedia Britannica_, 1894 edition: Arms and Armour, Artillery, Gunmaking, Gunnery, Gunpowder; 1938 edition: Artillery, Coehoorn, Engines of War, Fireworks, Gribeauval, Gun, Gunnery, Gunpowder, Musket, Ordnance, Rocket, Small arms, and Tartaglia.

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