CHAPTER I
ORIGIN AND HISTORY OF UNIFORM
In its military sense the word “uniform,” as a noun, is specifically used to denote the distinctive style of dress and equipment established by governmental regulation and worn by any naval or military organization in order that all of the individual elements of that organization will present a homogeneous appearance. In general all uniforms are divided into two principal classes, dress uniforms and undress or service uniforms, the modern field uniforms belonging to the latter class. Dress uniforms are for use on occasions of ceremony and, as in the case of civilian attire, they are usually more ornate and gaudy than the working service uniforms.
The use of some form of uniform dress for fighting men both on land and sea is common to all civilized nations and this general custom has resulted from a gradual growth during the whole Christian era. In this growth military necessity, convenience, economical considerations and sentiment have all played a part.
The famed Legions of Cæsar were by imperial order all garbed and armed alike, which is one of the first recorded cases of the use of a uniform for soldiers. Some of the regiments of Hannibal also wore distinctive colors practically amounting to a uniform. The galley slaves of ancient Rome, the “motive power” of the man-of-war of that day, were all garbed in a costume of identical cut and color bearing the number of the galley in which they served, but this should be looked upon more as a badge of servitude than as a naval uniform.
As time went by the leaders in command of the land forces perceived the necessity for some mark or badge to designate the members of their forces and to distinguish them from the foe. This resulted in the use of various distinctive badges, such as plumes of a certain color to be worn upon the helmet, initials, numbers or devices in the nature of a coat of arms to be worn upon the front of the helmet, on the breast plate of armor, on the tops of the shoulders or upon the shield, a custom which still prevails in the armies of to-day.
When Gustavus Adolphus, “the Whirlwind of the North,” swept down over Europe with his victorious army of Sweden, he marked the brigades of his army with sashes worn diagonally across the body from one shoulder, a distinctive color for each brigade, and as a result history records the valorous deeds of the “Red Brigade” or the “Green Brigade” of that wonderful army. This species of uniform survives in the General’s sash for the dress uniforms of the present time.
Early in the seventeenth century the King of France by royal decree established a uniform dress for his army and regulations were issued prescribing the color and style of the various articles of dress for officers and men and the occasions on which they were to be worn. At that time in England various princes and lords had armed forces of retainers and each such force was dressed and armed according to the individual taste of its overlord.
When the Great Rebellion in England resulted in the establishment of the Commonwealth under Cromwell as Protector in 1653, the New Model army was established as a national force and, while this force was clothed in the style of the day, distinctive colors were ordered so that the whole force was uniform in appearance. The hat of the period was the high crowned, wide brimmed felt “slouch” hat, and in its various shapes this head dress has been retained down to the present. First its brim was pinned up on one side by a rosette of the colors of the government of the date, then to add to its jauntiness it was pinned up in three places resulting in the three-cornered “cocked hat” of the American Revolutionary period, and to-day we see it again almost in its original form in the modern “field hat” of the United States Army and Marine Corps, a head dress which is also worn by the British Colonial troops from Australia, Canada and New Zealand.
The wide brimmed hat was not suitable for wear at sea as it “carried too much sail in a gale,” and the naval officers fastened it up against the crown on both sides and crushed the crown together in a “fore and aft” line. In this form the erstwhile “slouch hat” now appears as the chapeau or cocked hat worn with dress uniforms by the officers of all modern navies and by the general officers of the United States Army with full dress uniform.
Cords of various colors were worn around the base of the crown of the “slouch hat” when it was first adopted, and for ornamentation these cords had tassels at the ends, while the different colors of the hat cords indicated the regiment, corps or service of the wearer. These cords in various colors, depending upon the service or corps of the wearer, are now worn on the field hats of officers and men in the United States Army and Marine Corps, as described later in this book, and the tradition of the hat cord tassels is still kept in the cocked hat of the naval officer by the gold bullion tassels at the front and rear peaks. Likewise the influence of the original loop strap and button for fastening up the brim of the original “slouch hat” is seen in the United States naval officer’s cocked hat in the shape of the gold lace strap and gilt button on the side of the crown.
When the Restoration in England brought Charles II to the throne in 1660 a royal army was organized in England, this action being due to the fact that the success of the revolutionists under Cromwell had proved the unreliability of the previous system. The standard colors chosen by the king for his soldiers were red and blue, the colors of the royal livery, and these colors survive to-day in the British infantry full dress uniforms of red with blue facings.
As time went by various regiments of foot and horse were raised, the men from any given regiment coming as a rule from one locality or county. The officers of these troops were practically all drawn from the nobility and upper classes, and it became common for the colonelcy to be conferred upon the head of the local noble house. These colonels chose many slight variations in uniform for their men in accordance with their tastes in dress and style, in deference to some local habits of dress or as might be limited by the length of their purse.
These regiments came to be known by the name of the county or city from which they were recruited; a custom which still prevails in the British service, and which to a great extent has been followed in the army of the United States, especially with the volunteers of our former wars.
In England this brought about a condition as to uniform that was apparently directly the opposite of uniform, as each territorial regiment had its own distinctive dress and decorations. Gradually, however, with the consolidation of all of the armed forces of the United Kingdom into one national army, the regulars forming the first line and the militia or “Territorials” forming the second line, or reserve, a universal service uniform was adopted for active service and came to be known as a “field” uniform. The older distinctive colors and styles of regimental uniforms were preserved in the full dress uniforms and reserved for peace time parade.
As a result of the use of heraldic devices for badges of the different regiments and corps under the old territorial system, each regiment has its own coat of arms, and in the later national army of Great Britain these were retained as “regimental badges.” These badges bear the coat of arms of some great colonel of the regiment, the name and date of some famous victory in which the regiment won renown, or some distinctive device appropriate to the county or colony from which the men of the regiment are recruited.
Such regimental badges, founded largely upon sentiment but still appealing mightily to the imagination of the young recruit that joins the colors with the high heart of youth, are a great aid to discipline and efficiency, since discipline means the implicit obedience on the part of every one in the service to the orders from higher authority in such a manner as to secure the greatest cohesion and coordination and hence the greatest effect. These little metal badges bearing the symbols and mottoes that bring daily to the minds of their wearers the valorous deeds that their regiment has done in the past arouse the spirit of emulation and competition, the desire to fight as well or better than the old regiment fought on some other bloody field perhaps a century ago, and help to create _esprit de corps_—the soul of an army.
In the United States services there are also distinctive regimental and corps devices which, while indicating the branch and corps to which the wearer belongs, also keep alive the glorious traditions of the past wars.
As France was the first country of modern times to establish by governmental regulation and order a uniform dress for her armed forces on shore, so has she been the most consistent of all countries in dressing all branches of her service on much the same color scheme, though here as in the other countries is sometimes seen the influence of the native dress of the lands into which the French have extended their colonial activities.
Until quite recently the common uniform of the French army consisted of red trousers or breeches, blue coats and red caps. From the Barbary coast of North Africa and especially the French colony of Algeria the French colonial troops derived the style of dress known as “Zouave” uniform, with baggy trousers, short braid decorated jacket and tasselled turban. But even in these uniforms the general color scheme of red trousers and blue coat with red head dress was carried out.
In the United States the influence of the Zouave uniform can be traced to the same style of dress used by certain regiments of our great Civil War of 1860-65. Notable among these regiments were the “Louisiana Tigers” of the Confederate Army and the “Zouave Division” of the Union Army.
In the uniforms of Germany the influence of the many individual states and principalities which went to form the greater Germany of to-day is seen in the colors and styles of the various regiments. The dress uniforms of the German Army still retain some of the distinctive colors of the original armies of Prussia, Bavaria, Saxony, Wurttemburg and Brandenburg, but for field service in war the whole army has a uniform of dull gray color, the various territorial distinctions being indicated by colored stripes and straps only.
The Italian troops have a number of distinctive uniforms for different corps and services, but the universal full dress coat is of a dark blue shade, the color of the trousers varying with the corps, and the different colors are used as cuffs and facings to distinguish different branches. Their field uniform is almost universally of a gray shade, though the influence of the prevailing background upon the color of uniform is seen in the white uniforms worn by the troops that must fight in the snow covered mountains of the northern frontier, and the use of khaki is becoming more common.
In Austria-Hungary the effect of the many different peoples that go to make up that empire has resulted in a great variety of colors and styles for uniforms, almost every color and shade being shown in the dress uniforms of the different corps. But for the field uniforms necessity has again ruled and dull shades of gray and green predominate.
Up to 1866 the Austrian regiments wore a great deal of white in their uniforms, while the picturesque dress of the Hungarian civil population was reflected in the gaudy uniforms of the Hussars, a style copied into all of the cavalry troops of Europe to a greater or lesser extent.
In Russia there is a great variety in full dress uniforms, and the effect of the long coat and turban of the Cossack on one hand and the bright plumes and short jackets of the Central European cavalry on the other is traceable. For field service uniforms dull shades of gray-green have become almost universal, and the cold of the long winters has naturally resulted in the use of long and heavy overcoats. The Russian soldiers all wear top boots instead of the low topped laced shoes common for foot troops in the armies of France, England and America. In this respect the Germans follow the same custom as the Russians.
The uniforms of the United States Army and Marine Corps have resulted from an adoption of the styles of the older nations with such modifications as were from time to time dictated by local conditions or national sentiment. Before the Revolution of 1776 the colonial troops naturally followed the example of the British expeditionary troops serving in the Thirteen Colonies, with modifications to suit the climate and the nature of the country occupied. During the War of the Revolution the effect of the alliance with France was seen in the adoption of certain features of the French uniform, and the service of the Prussian generals Von Steuben and De Kalb also resulted in the adoption of certain features of the Prussian armies of that date.
After the establishment of the United States Government the wars with the Indians caused changes in the uniform of some of the troops by the adoption of some of the articles of the frontiersman’s dress, such as deer-skin jackets, coonskin caps and powder horns.
The original idea of the founders of the country was to have every able-bodied man receive some training as a soldier, and from this came the militia of early days and the volunteers that fought the War of 1812. The militia of the different States and territories were uniformed largely by each State or territory designating its own style of military dress copied from the different armies abroad and with trimmings and colors to distinguish the different arms of the service.
The establishment of a small regular army after the War of 1812 brought with it a government regulation uniform for regular troops, which was in turn followed to some extent by the state troops or militia, but there were still many different styles of uniform in use through the Mexican War and up to the breaking out of the Civil War in 1860. Different units of the forces came to be known by the colors of their uniforms, such as the “Richmond Blues,” the “Red Zouaves,” the “Blue Zouaves,” the “Grays,” and many crack regiments of the militia, or as it came to be known later, the National Guard of the different States, had their own distinctive color and cut of uniform dress.
The great Civil War called such large bodies of men to the colors of the two contending sides that the question of economy demanded that the service uniforms for each side be made of one standard color and style, the armies of the North wearing blue and those of the South wearing gray. In each army, however, the different corps were distinguished by a distinctive color for the trimmings or “facings,” a custom which still prevails for the dress uniforms of our troops.
After the war with Spain in 1898 steps were taken to bring the uniforms of the several State National Guards into general conformity with that of the Regular Army, and, with the granting of national financial aid to these state troops and the issue to them of government regulation clothing and equipment, all of the armed forces of the country, regular, state and volunteer, gradually came to wear the same uniform, the different kinds of troops being distinguished by the design of the buttons or by letters worn on the collars.
In one feature the United States troops of to-day, both in the Army and the Marine Corps, still retain a relic of the “stock” of former times; this is the close fitting, standing collar of the coats for both full dress and service uniforms. The original idea of the stock was to make the soldier hold his head up and stand stiffly erect, and it dates from the time when Frederick the Great introduced mathematical precision into every motion of drill and maneuver.
In the early days when the marines wore a leather stock the sailor in his wide collared shirt dubbed the marine a “leatherneck,” a term still applied to him in the slang phrase of the service.
Military necessity has often dictated the color of the clothing worn by troops in the field. An early example of this was the adoption in 1755 of a dark green uniform by the British Royal American Regiment while fighting against the French and Indians in the forest covered country in the northwest of the original American colonies. The North American Indian was an adept at “bush-whacking” and concealment in the forest, and to meet him on anything like an equal footing it was necessary for the British and colonial troops to wear a color suited to the prevailing background. In later years this regiment’s name was changed to “King’s Royal Rifles” and as an heirloom of its first service the rifle regiments of the British Army still wear green coats for their full dress uniform.
In the days when smooth-bore muskets were the arms of infantry, the range of such weapons was very short and the opposing battle lines approached each other so closely that the figures of the men were plainly visible whatever the color of their clothing might be. Histories of the wars of a century ago tell of the colonels’ commands to “wait till you see the whites of their eyes before you fire” and “hold your fire until you can count their coat buttons.”
Under such circumstances striking and distinctive uniforms of gaudy colors bedecked with gold and silver braid and bright buttons were no detriment, but with the great increase in the range and accuracy of modern rifles it has become necessary to render the men on the battle line as inconspicuous as possible, and, as a result, in all of the great armies of the world dull colored uniforms of neutral shade have replaced the brilliant reds, blues, yellows and greens of former times, and brass buttons have given way to buttons of bronze, leather or iron, the bright hued uniforms with their corresponding brass buttons and braid being kept for full dress and peace time parade.
In the United States Army and Marine Corps the prevalent color for the field service uniforms is some shade of the dull brown commonly known as “khaki,” and the bright gilt and silver buttons, corps and regimental devices and numbers and belt buckles have been replaced to a great extent by dull bronze buttons and ornaments, insignia of rank for officers only being still made of silver and gold.
“Khaki” (pronounced _kar-key_, with the accent on the second syllable) is an East Indian word meaning “dust color” or “earth color.” In the dry season in India the fields and vegetation turn brown and the roads are heavy with dust which, carried by the winds, soon covers the foliage of trees and shrubbery, so that the whole landscape presents a somber aspect in one brown, dust-colored hue.
In the earlier days of the British occupation of India the British and loyal Indian troops wore white cotton or duck uniforms in the hot weather of the dry season, but these stood out so plainly against the prevailing dust color of the roads and surrounding country as to make their wearers distinct targets for the bush-whacking snipers of the enemy tribesmen. Learning from bitter experience the necessity for making themselves less conspicuous, the soldiers dipped their uniforms in muddy pools and streams to give them the same color as the background against which they must appear.
This expedient showed good results in reducing the casualty lists, and dust-colored or “khaki” uniforms gradually replaced the white uniforms with bright colored trimmings for summer service, and later for the same reasons the same or a similar color was also adopted for the winter field or “fighting” uniforms of the British Army.
Grim necessity gradually overcame the natural conservatism of the military mind and the sentimental traditions that hung around the colors of the uniforms that the troops had worn in famous campaigns, until all of the great nations have now adopted “khaki” or other dull colored uniforms for their troops in the field. This has taken away from the battlefield much of its former picturesqueness and pomp; gone from the battlefield is the “thin red line” of English poetry and song, the red and blue of the French infantry, the gray and white of the Austrians, and the blue, white and gold of the German Uhlans, while the “American Boys in Blue” no longer charge with bayonets glittering in the sun beneath the Stars and Stripes. To paraphrase a well-known quotation, “It is not magnificent but it is war.”
In the naval services of the world the adoption of a regulation uniform dress for officers and enlisted men came at a much later date than in the armies, although the marines, being essentially “sea soldiers,” followed the uniform regulations of the shore forces to a great extent and were put in uniform much earlier than the sailors of the ships’ crews.
In the British Navy of Nelson’s time the officers wore uniforms following certain prescribed styles, and the rank of the officer was marked by insignia upon the epaulets and by sleeve and cuff decorations as well, but the sailors who set and worked the sails and manned the guns had no prescribed dress. It was the custom of those days for each commodore and captain to prescribe a uniform dress for the crew of his “barge” or “gig” (the “barge” being the special small boat propelled by oars in which the admiral or commodore went from ship to shore and _vice versa_, and the “gig” being the name for a similar boat used especially by the captain of the ship).
These uniforms for the special boats’ crews were often fanciful in design and gay in color schemes and served to enliven the landing places at many a busy port.
During the Revolution the ships of the American Navy consisted at first of merchantmen armed with a few guns and manned by the hardy seamen of the merchant marine of the colonies. Later men-of-war were especially built for that service and manned by duly commissioned officers and men enlisted into the government service, but the British Navy was so large that the colonials could make no headway against its strong fleets, and a cruising and raiding warfare was resorted to for the purpose of destroying as much British merchant shipping as possible. This warfare was carried on principally by privateers, merchantmen armed and heavily manned for the purpose and in some cases fast ships especially built for such service. These privateers were officered by the splendid sea captains of that date who were granted “letters of marque” by the Colonial Government to carry the flag and prey upon the commerce of the enemy, dividing the profits derived from the captured cargoes in fixed proportion between the owners and crew of the privateers and the Government.
Under such conditions there was no fixed uniform, and though the officers frequently provided themselves with a dress patterned after that of the French Navy with which they were allied, the men wore any kind of clothing suited to their fancy.
After the Revolution the standing or regular army went out of existence, but it soon became necessary to establish a regular navy which consisted of a few fast, heavily gunned sailing frigates of the type of the _Constitution_, _Constellation_ and _Chesapeake_. When the War of 1812 came on it was this small but remarkably efficient regular navy that alone saved the United States from disaster and dishonor.
By 1812 a regulation uniform had been prescribed for the officers of the Navy, but the men were still allowed to wear any kind of clothing suited to their work. Long cruises in distant seas made it necessary, however, for a supply of clothing for the members of the crew to be carried by the purser (the paymaster of that day), and as a measure of economy and convenience these clothes were all made in the same style, a custom which gradually brought about a certain uniformity in the garb of the enlisted personnel of the Navy.
Thus it came about that the accepted sailor uniform consisted of easy fitting garments suited to the work of hauling on the ropes, working aloft on the rigging, masts and spars of the sailing ships and pulling at the oars of the small boats. From this beginning came the sailor uniform of to-day, the bell-mouthed trousers that could be rolled up quickly and easily when the barefooted sailors washed down the decks, the easy-fitting, loose-necked shirt or “jumper,” the short overcoat or “peacoat” for winter wear, and the loose-topped, brimless cap which to give it a smarter appearance when going ashore “on liberty” (the sailor term for leave of absence) was provided with a light ring or “grommet” to stretch the crown out flat, resulting in the common sailor “flat-hat” of to-day.
This sailor uniform was originally designed for wear aboard ships driven by sail-power, and though it is not especially suited to the great steam-driven dreadnaughts of the modern navy it is still retained, partly on account of sentiment and tradition and partly on account of the fact that the Navy is probably more conservative than any other profession or calling.
The uniforms of both officers and enlisted men in the United States Navy follow rather closely in style, color and cut those worn in the British Navy, and some interesting traditions of the latter service may be seen even in our naval service. For instance, the black neckerchief worn alike by the British and American sailor was made black after Trafalgar as an emblem of mourning for the Great Nelson, and the three white stripes around the edges of the collar were so placed to commemorate Nelson’s three great victories, Copenhagen, the Nile and Trafalgar.
In all countries naval uniforms follow much the same patterns and practically all are of the same colors; dark blue, the so-called “navy blue,” for winter wear, and white for summer wear.
The need of an inconspicuous uniform for naval officers and men is not so apparent as it is in the case of the land forces, since in the battles of ships at sea it is the ship which is the target and not the personnel as in the battles on land.
Thus we see how tradition, sentiment and military necessity have each played a part in the development of the uniforms worn by the fighting forces of our country on land and sea.