CHAPTER 16
INDUSTRY
Stimulated by a high rate of investment and an infusion of Western technology, industry has expanded at a rapid rate. A qualitatively inadequate labor force, poor organization, and insufficiently experienced management personnel, however, have not been able to attain levels of efficiency and quality acceptable to the Romanian Communist Party and the government. Lowering the cost of production and improving quality are considered to be essential prerequisites for expanding exports, which are needed to pay for imports of materials and equipment. Various measures introduced since 1967 have not achieved the government's objectives. Economic plans for the 1971-75 period call for raising productivity through greater specialization of production and better utilization of plants and materials. To this end, several new economic laws were passed in December 1971, the contents of which were not yet known in early 1972.
NATURAL RESOURCES
Though widely varied, the country's mineral and agricultural resources are generally inadequate to maintain the current and planned levels of industrial production and exports. Natural gas is a major exception. Formerly plentiful supplies of crude oil are falling off, and the likelihood of discovering new deposits is considered poor by oil industry officials. The heavy dependence on outside sources of raw materials led the government to provide economic and technical assistance to several developing countries for the exploitation of their mineral resources in return for shipments of mined products. This dependence has also been a major determinant of the country's political relations with other members of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON), particularly the Soviet Union, and with noncommunist industrial nations of the West (see ch. 10).
Minerals and Metals
Information on the extent of most mineral reserves is unavailable. A delegation of Western petroleum experts who surveyed the petroleum industry at the end of 1970 made a tentative estimate that oil reserves would be exhausted in roughly eleven years at the current annual production rate of about 13 million tons. With a view to ensuring long-term crude oil supplies for the planned expansion of the domestic petroleum refining and petrochemical industries, the government has entered into economic cooperation agreements with several small petroleum-producing countries. The government has also discussed the possibility for joint exploration of offshore petroleum deposits in the Black Sea and elsewhere in the world with oil interests of various countries. In the meantime the government has been importing crude oil from Iran, Saudi Arabia, and Libya in exchange for industrial machinery and equipment. Oil imports from these countries in 1970 amounted to 2.1 million tons.
The major natural gas deposits that were exploited in 1970 are located in the Transylvanian basin and outside the Carpathian arc (see ch. 3). According to Romanian officials, the annual addition to reserves has been double the volume of annual production. Gas output has expanded steadily from about 365 billion cubic feet in 1960 to 845 billion cubic feet in 1969. Natural gas has been used for electric power production in thermal plants, for space heating, and as a raw material for the chemical industry. Less than 1 percent has been exported through a pipeline to Hungary.
Western observers believe that imports of natural gas from the Soviet Union may be initiated in the early 1970s. This belief is based on information that a gas pipeline to be built from the Soviet Union to Bulgaria will pass through eastern Romania, fairly close to the major port of Constanta, which is far removed from domestic sources of gas. Negotiations to this effect are not known to have taken place.
Deposits of coal are small and, with few exceptions, low grade. Known reserves in 1970 were reported to include less than 1 billion tons of bituminous and anthracite coal and 3.5 billion tons of lignite. Fields at Petrosani in the Jiu Valley of the southern Transylvania Alps contain 98 percent of the bituminous coal reserves; 90 percent of the lignite reserves are located in Oltenia, in the southwestern part of the country. Open pit mining is possible in much of the lignite area.
In order to conserve crude oil and natural gas, production of coal and lignite has been substantially increased and is scheduled to rise rapidly in the 1971-75 period. From 1950 to 1970 total coal output increased at an annual rate of 9.2 percent, including a growth of more than 15 percent per year in lignite output. By 1975 coal output is to reach from 37 million to 38.5 million tons, which corresponds to a planned annual increase of about 10.6 percent from the level of 22.8 million tons mined in 1970. The production of lignite is scheduled to advance more rapidly than that of bituminous and anthracite coal.
Two-thirds of the mined coal tonnage with 56 percent of its caloric content was used in 1970 to fuel electric power plants. Only 1.3 million tons were usable in the manufacture of coke, in large part as an admixture to imported coking coals of superior quality. The severe and growing shortage of domestic coke supplies poses a major obstacle to the expansion of the iron and steel industry. In 1969 it was necessary to import 2.1 million tons of metallurgical coke and 633,000 tons of coking coal.
Workable deposits of iron ore are situated in the vicinity of Resita and Hunedoara in the southwest. Other known deposits, particularly those at Ruschita and Lueta, have a low metal content and harmful radioactive admixtures. Suitable mining and processing methods to handle these ores have not been developed and are not believed to be economically feasible. Domestic mines provided about 32 percent of requirements in 1965 but only 17 percent in 1970; by 1975 the importance of native iron ores will have further declined. Imports of iron ores almost quadrupled in the 1960s and reached a volume of 3 million tons in 1969. Most of the imports came from the Soviet Union.
Information on basic nonferrous ore reserves is tenuous and, in part, conflicting. The tenor of published reports points to a scarcity of reserves, low metal content of ores, and difficulties in ore processing. The great majority of existing mines are said to have only enough reserves left for a few years' production. Consideration has been given to the recovery of nonferrous metals from industrial wastes, such as blast furnace slag and metallurgical dross. For the time being, domestic reserves appear adequate to cover the needs of lead and zinc production and a portion of the requirements for smelting copper and aluminum. The bulk of bauxite and alumina and a substantial quantity of copper must be imported.
Romania is reported to be extracting small amounts of gold and silver. It is also mining uranium ore, which has been exported to the Soviet Union in exchange for isotopes and enriched uranium for use in experimental nuclear installations.
Timber
The country's 6 million acres of forests constitute a valuable source of raw material. Information on the volume of the annual tree harvests has not been published. Substantial quantities of lumber and, increasingly, of lumber products and furniture have been exported, although at the expense of domestic consumption.
In a program to conserve and rebuild this important resource, which was severely overexploited during World War II, a strict limitation was placed in the early 1950s on the annual volume of timber cut. A further reduction in the amount of timber felling was decreed for the 1971-75 period. Through a more efficient utilization of the timber and the expansion of wood processing, including the manufacture of plywood, chipboard, and furniture, the value of the output, nevertheless, increased substantially. Exports of lumber and wood products accounted for 13.4 percent of total exports in 1970, but this ratio is scheduled to decline to 6 percent in 1975, not because of a reduction in the volume of these exports but as a result of a planned expansion of other industrial and food product exports.
ELECTRIC POWER
Electrical power development has proceeded at a rapid pace. The installed generating capacity of 7.3 million kilowatts in 1970 was four times larger than the capacity available a decade earlier. Eighty-four percent of the installed capacity in 1970 was in thermal power plants, and the remaining 16 percent, in hydroelectric stations. Hydroelectric capacity development had been relatively more rapid, with a sixfold increase during the decade.
The production of electrical energy increased even faster than installed capacity because newly built plants operated at greater efficiency. The output of 35 billion kilowatt-hours in 1970 was 4.6 times greater than output in 1960. Power output is scheduled to reach 58 billion to 60.8 billion kilowatt-hours in 1975. These figures imply an average annual increase in power production of 10.5 to 11.7 percent, compared with an average increase of 16.5 percent in the 1960-70 period. Thermal power plants accounted for 92 percent of the output in 1970, and hydroelectric stations, for only 8 percent. Output per unit of thermal capacity was more than double that of hydroelectric generators. The total hydroelectric power potential that could be economically developed has been estimated at 24 billion kilowatt-hours per year.
The Romanian power grid is connected to the power grids of Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia. This tie-in makes possible a more efficient use of available power through mutual exchanges to equalize the load and provides some insurance in the event of regional power failures.
Almost two-thirds of the thermal energy output in 1970 was based on natural gas fuel, and one-third, on coal--mostly coal of very low quality. Less than 3 percent of the fuel used was accounted for by oil. The proportion of natural gas in the fuel balance was roughly the same as in 1960 but ten percentage points lower than in 1965. The share of coal, particularly of low-grade coal, has been rising, in line with the government's policy of conserving natural gas for use in the petrochemical industry.
In 1971 construction was virtually completed of a huge hydroelectric station at the Iron Gate on the Danube River, built jointly with Yugoslavia and equipped, in part, with turbines made in the Soviet Union. The station's twelve turbines have a total capacity of 2.1 million kilowatts and are planned to produce about 11 billion kilowatt-hours of electricity per year. The output is to be evenly divided between the two participating countries. Nine of the twelve turbines were reported to have been in operation in September, and six were reported to have been connected to the Romanian national power grid in November. Completion of the Romanian portion of the project almost doubled the country's hydroelectric capacity and increased its power output potential by about 15 percent.
A second, much smaller, hydroelectric station with a capacity of 400,000 kilowatts and a planned output of 1.5 billion kilowatt-hours per year is to be built jointly with Yugoslavia on the Danube River below the Iron Gate plant. Plans for this station were to be initialed by the negotiators before the end of 1971, but information on the dates for the start and completion of construction is not available. Plans for the construction of yet another power station on the Danube River, as a joint venture with Bulgaria in the Cernavoda-Silistra area, were announced in the fall of 1971. This station is to have a capacity of 760,000 kilowatts and an annual output of about 3.8 billion kilowatt-hours. Construction is apparently scheduled to begin in 1975.
An agreement with the Soviet Union to build a 440,000-kilowatt nuclear power station, using a Soviet reactor, was signed in May 1970. Construction of the plant is to begin in 1972, and completion is scheduled for 1978. The agreement culminated extensive negotiations with the Soviet Union and several noncommunist countries. The ultimate choice is believed by Western observers to have been dictated primarily by political considerations.
Initial plans for nuclear power plants called for an installed capacity of 1 million kilowatts by 1975 and 2.4 million kilowatts by 1980. Construction was to begin in the 1966-70 period, but this target was not met. A subsequently revised plan for the 1971-80 period envisaged the construction of nuclear plants with a total capacity of from 1.8 million to 2.4 million kilowatts. Construction of the plants was to begin between 1971 and 1975, and their commissioning was to take place in the 1976-80 period. No information has been made public on the contemplated source or sources of the equipment for these plants, other than the agreed-upon Soviet unit. Romania must rely on foreign technical assistance for its nuclear energy program.
ORGANIZATION
In 1969 industry, excluding construction and small private artisan shops, comprised 1,151 enterprises employing almost 2 million persons. Seventy percent of the enterprises, which included 92 percent of the employed persons, were owned and operated by the state, and the remaining were run by collectives, including collective farms. State industry produced 95.7 percent of the gross output; collective enterprises contributed 4.1 percent; and private establishments accounted for only 0.2 percent of total production.
Seventy percent of the state industrial enterprises, which included 89 percent of the persons employed by the state, were administered by central authorities; the remaining were subject to the jurisdiction of local government bodies. Collective enterprises are subject to governmental controls; their activities are covered by the annual and five-year economic plans, and many of the enterprises act as suppliers of tools, spare parts, and miscellaneous equipment to state enterprises on a contractual basis. Their main function, however, is to provide consumer goods and services for the population.
Centrally administered enterprises include the largest and most important industrial units. A consolidation of these enterprises in 1969 reduced their number by half and correspondingly increased their average size. Employment per enterprise in 1969 averaged 2,860 persons; it ranged from 800 persons in printing to more than 8,000 persons in the leather and footwear industry. Individual enterprises may be composed of more than one plant, which accounts, in part, for the large number of workers. Over 60 percent of the enterprises under central government administration had more than 1,000 workers each, and almost 27 percent employed more than 3,000 workers per enterprise.
Enterprises under local government jurisdiction were generally smaller--95 percent of these employed from 200 to 2,000 workers each--but even in this group there were some enterprises with more than 5,000 workers. Collective enterprises were still smaller--77 percent employed no more than 500 workers per unit. One collective enterprise, nevertheless, employed between 2,000 and 3,000 workers.
Employment in construction totaled 648,000 persons in 1969. Information on the number and organization of construction enterprises is not available.
The internal management structure of state enterprises has undergone a transformation. By decision of the party's Central Committee in April 1968, amplified by another decision in May 1970, the principle of collective management replaced that of one-man management in all enterprises and state economic organizations. Management committees are chaired by enterprise directors and consist of the following members: the managerial personnel, appointed by the ministry; the chairmen of the trade union, as legal representatives of the enterprise trade union committees; the secretaries of the party committees and of the communist youth organizations in the enterprises; and a number of employee representatives.
The secretaries of the two party organizations were given full membership in May 1970 in a move to strengthen the control by the party. Before that date the secretaries of the party committees merely participated in the discussions, and the secretaries of the communist youth organizations played no role at all. County and municipal party organs also provide direction for the management committees' work.
According to party decisions, the management committees are deliberative organs with powers to make decisions concerning the conduct of the technical, economic, and social activities of the enterprise. Two-thirds of the membership constitutes a quorum, and decisions can be adopted by a simple majority of those present. In cases of disagreement between the committee chairman (the enterprise director) and a majority of the management committee, the matter is submitted for resolution to the higher administrative body.
A lack of legislation to legalize the institution of the management committees and conflict of the new party directive with earlier legislation that established the principle of one-man management hampered the introduction of the new management system. No clear-cut guidelines were provided for the scope of the management committees' competence or the numerical strength of employee representation. The function of the management committees was also undermined by higher administrative echelons through continued imposition of detailed directives concerning the work of the enterprises--contrary to the announced party policy of loosening central controls. Confusion prevailed about the relationships between management, management committees, and higher economic bodies.
There is no evidence on the effectiveness of the supplemental party decision of May 1970 in resolving the problems besetting the functioning of the management committees. A new law on the organization and management of state enterprises and institutions was passed by the General Assembly toward the end of 1971, but information on the provisions of that law was not available in early 1972.
Another new element in the management of enterprises is the general assembly of employees, introduced in 1968 along with the management committees in accordance with the principles of collective management and socialist democracy. Adequate legislation to formalize the new institution had not been passed by late 1971, but an appropriate provision may have been included in the new law on industrial organization.
As described by a high government official, the general assembly of employees or, in the case of large enterprises, of employee representatives is a forum that will assure effective participation by workers and specialists in the organization and management of the economy and in decisionmaking concerning the fulfillment of enterprise plans. General assemblies are supposed to exercise control over the activities of management committees. Their authority extends beyond the discussion of problems and evaluation of performance to recommending and adopting decisions.
General assemblies are convened twice a year. On these occasions the enterprise management committee must present to the assembly reports on the committee's activities, on the results of enterprise operations, and on the fulfillment by the enterprise of its economic and social obligations. Together with the trade union committee of the enterprise, the management committee must also present to the assembly for discussion and approval the draft of a new collective contract listing mutual obligations of the management committee and of the employees. Decisions reached by the general assembly are obligatory for the management committee. Decisions on measures that require action by higher authorities must be handled by the relevant bodies responsibly and expeditiously.
Representatives of superior economic organs, including the ministries, and of county and local party committees participate in the work of the general assemblies of employees. The reason given for this participation is the opportunity that it provides for the management to become more familiar with problems of interest to the enterprise.
Available evidence indicates a wide variation among enterprises in the degree of influence exercised by the general assemblies of employees. Toward the end of 1971 some management committees were still reported to be disregarding or downgrading general assembly proposals, but such instances were said to be growing progressively fewer.
Industrial enterprises are grouped into combines, trusts, and, since 1969, so-called industrial centrals. The centrals were created in an attempt to improve the organizational structure of industry, reduce control by the ministries and other central government agencies, and provide greater flexibility, in order to increase industrial efficiency. A major task assigned to the centrals is to introduce specialization of production.
Neither the organizational forms of the centrals nor their authority and responsibility vis-à-vis the enterprises and ministries have been clearly defined or legally established. The resultant uncertainty, experimentation, and bureaucratic disharmony have created considerable confusion in the administration of industry, which has been inimical to the attainment of the efficiency goal. At the same time, a variety of factors, including a shortage of investment funds, an inflexible price structure, and the method of evaluating enterprise performance, have militated against the expansion of specialization. Industry officials believe that it may require from three to five years to resolve the organizational problems posed by the creation of the centrals and that many other problems will have to be solved before specialization can become a reality.
Industrial combines, trusts, and centrals function under the jurisdiction of industrial ministries, of which there were eleven at the end of 1971 (see ch. 8). Industrial ministries have undergone an almost continuous process of reorganization. New ministries have been created; old ones, abolished; still others, amalgamated and split. Spheres of the ministries' activities have been reshuffled, and their internal structures have been modified--all in the interest of improving socialist industrial organization and raising the efficiency of production. One foreign observer remarked that, whenever something went wrong in the economy, reorganization in one form or another was undertaken in an effort to solve the problem through administrative means.
LABOR
The average number of persons employed in industry in 1969 was 1,980,000, or about 40 percent of total employment excluding those employed on collective farms. Industrial employment had increased by 725,000 persons in the 1960-69 period. Employment in construction grew more rapidly--from 372,000 persons in 1960 to almost 648,000 in 1969. At the end of 1969 women constituted 43 percent of employment in industry and less than 9 percent in construction. In industry, the proportion of women in blue-collar and white-collar jobs was about equal. In construction, however, women occupied one-third of the white-collar positions and only 5 percent of the blue-collar jobs.
A distribution of employment by industry branches is available only for enterprises under the direct jurisdiction of the central government. Of these, machine building and metalworking absorbed 27 percent of the employed; fuels and metallurgy, 15 percent; forestry and woodworking, 15 percent; textile production, 12 percent; and chemicals and food processing, 7 percent each. Several less important industry branches accounted for another 11 percent of industrial employment, and an unlisted residue of fifty enterprises employing almost 100,000 persons, presumably constituting the defense industry, made up the balance of 6 percent.
The growth of employment in the 1960-69 period varied widely among the different industry branches. Whereas the number of employed rose by 60 percent for centrally administered industry as a whole, it increased by almost 2.4 times in the chemical branch, somewhat more than doubled in the production of cellulose and paper, and grew by 80 percent in nonferrous metallurgy and in machine building and metalworking. The lowest increases in employment occurred in the production of fuels, in ferrous metallurgy, and in the manufacture of glass and china. The increases in employment did not necessarily correspond to the priority ratings of the individual branches; high priority branches received relatively much larger investment.
The labor force is numerically redundant but qualitatively inadequate for the needs of modern industry. Despite the existence of labor training programs, there is a shortage of skilled personnel at the intermediate level, such as technicians and foremen. Few workers have professional school training; most acquire their skills through short courses or on-the-job training. The number of skilled workers is too small to allow efficient two-shift operation of plants throughout most of industry. The lack of adequate skills and the associated inept handling and poor maintenance of imported sophisticated machinery have been responsible for frequent breakdowns. The resultant work stoppages and the under-utilization of available capacity have had a deleterious effect on productivity.
Because of a high rate of investment and large-scale imports of advanced Western technology and equipment, productivity per worker nevertheless has been rising at a relatively rapid rate. According to official data, productivity in industry increased by an annual average of 7.5 percent in the 1960-69 period, but the increase in 1969 was less than 5 percent. Official plans for the 1971-75 period call for an annual growth in productivity of at least 7.3 percent. Western economists, however, estimated the rise in productivity to have been only 5.6 percent per year in the 1960-67 period, compared to an official figure of 8 percent. Despite the impressive gains, productivity in industry remains low, mainly because of the inadequate qualifications and work habits of the labor force and the shortcomings of industrial organization and management.
Industrial labor discipline has been a subject of continuing concern to party and government. Both labor turnover and absenteeism have been high. During the first nine months of 1969 almost 455,000 workers left their jobs in centrally administered enterprises, in many instances without the requisite official permission. During the same period worktime losses from absenteeism amounted to about 12 million man-hours. Abuse of the provision for leave without pay and loafing on the job have also contributed significantly to losses of worktime. For centrally administered industry as a whole, the loss of worktime from all causes, including stoppages caused by deficiencies of the supply and distribution system, amounted to almost 47 million man-hours in the third quarter of 1969--the equivalent of about 74,400 workers.
Poor labor discipline was officially blamed on the failure of the prevailing wage system to provide adequate work incentives. After some experimentation in the food-processing industry during 1968 and 1969 a new wage system was introduced throughout industry on March 1, 1970, still on an experimental basis. Some of the changes brought about by the highly complex new system included: a reduction in the spread between wage rates in different industry sectors and between the upper and lower limits within certain wage categories; the establishment of in-grade wage differentials depending upon the personal achievement of the worker; a rise in the proportion of basic wages to total pay (which also includes bonuses); and a tightening of the provisions concerning the payment of bonuses. Provision was also made for withholding a portion of the pay in the event that production targets are not fulfilled.
Downgrading the importance of bonuses was intended to stimulate the raising of skill levels by making higher earnings dependent primarily upon promotion to higher wage categories, based on qualification rather than on surpassing quantitative production norms. As a means of reducing labor turnover, a seniority system was introduced, with wage increases based on length of service in the same unit. The reform of the wage system was accompanied by a general rise in wages averaging 12.3 percent.
A further increase in wages is planned for the 1971-75 period. The minimum wage of 800 lei (for value of leu, see Glossary) is to be raised to 1,000 lei in September 1972 and to 1,100 lei in 1975. The average wage is scheduled to reach almost 1,500 lei in 1972 and 1,805 lei at the end of the five-year period. In accordance with past policy, the rise in wages will be kept well below the increase in productivity (see ch. 14).
Along with the modification of the wage system, legal measures were enacted to tighten labor discipline. These measures provide for the imposition of fines up to 10,000 lei for violations of economic contracts and fines of from 50 to 1,000 lei for negligence while on duty; they oblige employees to make good the full amount of any damage for which they are responsible; and they enable the enterprise management to reduce workers' wages when standards of social behavior are not met. Penalties may be imposed by the enterprise director or the management committee. The only recourse open to workers is an appeal to the higher administrative bodies.
The broad concept of standards of behavior offers a wide latitude for the exercise of individual judgment by management. No criteria have been provided for determining the conditions under which wages may be cut or the maximum permissible amount of the wage cuts. The new rules thus introduced an element of discretionary exercise of punitive authority. They also deprived the accused of recourse to the courts, which had been available to them under earlier legislation.
INVESTMENT AND CONSTRUCTION
Industry has consistently received more than half the total investment in the economy. In the 1966-70 period industrial investment out of the state budget (centralized investment) amounted to 162.1 billion lei--a volume almost as great as that invested during the preceding fifteen years. Additional investment out of enterprise resources was only about 1 percent of the total and had been even less in earlier years. From 86 to 90 percent of the industrial investment was channeled into branches producing capital goods. Centralized investment in industry during the 1971-75 period is planned at 281.2 billion lei, or about 60 percent of the total planned investment.
Industries producing fuels and energy absorbed the largest share of investment, but their share declined from 51 percent in the 1951-55 period to 31 percent in the 1966-70 period. The high priority accorded to the development of the chemical industry was reflected in a doubling of that industry's investment share from less than 7 percent in the former period to 14 percent in the 1960s. Similarly, a drive for qualitative improvement in machine building and metalworking was accompanied by an increase in the proportion of investment devoted to that industry from a level of 7 to 8 percent in the 1951-65 period to 14 percent in the second half of the 1960s. Ferrous metallurgy absorbed about 10 percent of the investment in the fifteen-year period that ended in 1970. A need to expand exports of manufactured goods and to provide material incentives for the working population stimulated a rise of investment in the light and food industries to 13 percent of the total in the 1966-70 period, compared to a share ranging from 7.5 to 10 percent in earlier five-year periods.
About 48 percent of the industrial investment was absorbed by building construction and installation work, 37 percent was spent on machinery and equipment, and 15 percent was devoted to the increase of working capital. One-third of the investment in machinery and equipment from 1966 to 1969 was used for procurement abroad, that proportion having increased from about one-fifth in the 1956-60 period.
Although substantial progress has been made in the expansion of industrial capacity, construction of new industrial plants has been beset by many problems and has consistently lagged behind official plans. Inadequate planning, poor design, disregard of the limitations of the materials base and of potential markets, improper location, excessive size of projects, and long delays in project development and in construction have been among the difficulties most frequently discussed in the country's press. Completed plants often require years to attain the projected output level, and many plants have never reached it.
Large losses to the economy have also been caused by long delays in installing new equipment, much of it imported at a heavy cost in foreign exchange. At the end of 1969 the Grand National Assembly was officially informed that the volume of unused equipment amounted to 3.5 billion lei; some of the equipment had been lying idle for from ten to twelve years. Government officials realize the urgent need to improve investment performance, particularly in view of the large investment program planned for the 1971-75 period.
PRODUCTION
Industrial production in 1970 was 3.8 times larger than it had been ten years earlier, according to official data. This increase is equivalent to an average annual growth rate of 12.8 percent. A rise of 11.2 percent in industrial output was unofficially reported for 1971. In terms of Western statistical concepts and methods, the annual increase in industrial output was estimated at 11.5 percent for the 1960-68 period, compared to an officially reported growth rate of 13.2 percent. Industrial growth in Romania has been among the highest in countries of Eastern Europe.
In line with the government's priorities, production of capital goods increased at an annual (official) rate of 14.2 percent, and that of consumer goods advanced by 10.2 percent. The proportion of capital goods in the total output therefore increased from 62.9 percent in 1960 to 70.6 percent in 1970; it is scheduled to reach 72.8 percent by 1975. Although the output of consumer goods increased 2.6 times during the ten-year period, the availability of goods to consumers did not rise proportionately because an increasing volume was exported to pay for imports of machinery and raw materials. Shortages of consumer goods, including foodstuffs, were not eliminated by 1971. The output of newly introduced products, such as chemicals and television sets, increased more rapidly in the 1960s than did the output of traditional items (see table 13).
Improving the quality of manufactured products has been a major concern of the party and government, particularly from the point of view of competitiveness in foreign markets. With some exceptions, such as men's and women's knitwear, a lack of competitiveness was clearly demonstrated in mid-1971 by the results of a giant Romanian trade exhibition in Duesseldorf, West Germany. This exhibit was reported to have achieved just the reverse of what was intended and to have demonstrated the inferiority of Romanian goods compared to Western European and Japanese products. Quality considerations, however, did not inhibit an attempt to market a Romanian-built motor vehicle of the jeep type in the United States.
_Table 13. Output of Selected Industrial Products in Romania, 1960 and 1969_
---------------------------------------------------------------------- Product Unit of Measure 1960 1969 ----------------------------------------------------------------------
Pig iron thousand metric tons 1,014 3,477 Steel do 1,806 5,540 Coal and lignite do 6,768 16,976 Crude oil do 11,500 12,346 Natural gas billion cubic feet 365 850 Electricity million kilowatt-hours 7,650 31,509 Fertilizers[1] thousand metric tons 71 720 Artificial fibers do 4 56 Plastics do 12 137 Synthetic rubber do 0 55 Tires thousand units 743 3,166 Paper thousand metric tons 140 398 Tractors units 17,102 24,895 Motor vehicles do 12,123 56,998 Cement thousand metric tons 3,054 7,515 Timber million cubic feet 139 186 Textiles million square yards 393 672 Footwear million pairs 30 63 Radios thousand units 167 428 Television sets do 15 221 Sugar thousand metric tons 391 428 ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 1. In terms of plant nutrients. Source: Adapted from _Anuarul Statistic al Republicii Socialiste Romania, 1970_ (Statistical Yearbook of the Socialist Republic of Romania, 1970), Bucharest, 1970, pp. 186-195.
By decrees issued in 1970 and 1971 the State Inspectorate General for Product Quality was established as an organ of the Council of State with wide powers to establish and enforce quality standards, including the imposition of economic and criminal sanctions. At the same time, the decrees provided that extra payments be made to individuals and groups of workers who turn out products of superior quality. In announcing the creation of the new agency, Romanian commentators remarked that an administrative approach to the solution of the quality problem was made necessary by the failure of other measures.
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Langer, W.L. (ed.) _An Encyclopedia of World History._ Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1968.
Lendvai, P. _Eagles in Cobwebs._ Garden City: Doubleday, 1969.
Liber, Benzion, M.D. _The New Rumania: Communist Country Revisited After Sixty Years._ New York: Rational Living, 1958.
Lindsay, Jack. _Romanian Summer._ London: Lawrence and Wishart, 1953.
Lovinescu, Monica. "The Wave of Rumanian Writers," _East Europe_, XVI, No. 12, December 1967, 9-11.
Mackintosh, May. _Rumania._ London: Robert Hale, 1963.
Manolache, Anghel. _General Education in Rumania._ Bucharest: Meridiane Publishing House, 1965.
Matley, Ian M. _Romania: A Profile._ New York: Praeger, 1970.
Mellor, R.E. _COMECON: Challenge to the West._ New York: Van Nostrand, Reinhold, 1971.
Osborne, R.H. _East-Central Europe._ New York: Praeger, 1967.
Parkin, Frank. _Class Inequality and Political Order._ New York: Praeger, 1971.
Pounds, Norman J.G. _Eastern Europe._ Chicago: Aldine, 1969.
Roberts, Henry L. _Eastern Europe: Politics, Revolution, and Diplomacy._ New York: Knopf, 1970.
"Romania." Pages 1068-1092 in _Europa Yearbook, 1971_, I. London: Europa Publications, 1971.
"Romania." Pages 241-250 in M. Sachs (ed.), _Worldmark Encyclopedia of the Nations_, V: Europe. New York: Harper and Row, 1967.
Roucek, J., and Lottich, K. _Behind the Iron Curtain._ Caldwell, Idaho: Caxton Printers, 1964.
"Rumania." Pages 726-746 in _Encyclopaedia Britannica_, XIX. Chicago: William Benton, 1969.
"Rumania." Pages 965-975 in _World Survey of Education_, IV. New York: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, 1966.
"Rumanian Literature." Pages 749-750 in _Encyclopaedia Britannica_, XIX. Chicago: William Benton, 1969.
Sbarces, George. "Jora at the Peak of His Creative Power," _Romania Today_ [Bucharest], No. 151, July 1967, 25.
Schöpflin, George (ed.). _The Soviet Union and Eastern Europe._ New York: Praeger, 1970.
Seton-Watson, Hugh. _The East European Revolution._ New York: Praeger, 1968.
Seton-Watson, Robert W. _A History of the Roumanians from Roman Times to the Completion of Unity._ New York: Archon Books, 1963.
Singleton, F.B. _Background to Eastern Europe._ New York: Pergamon Press, 1965.
_Statistical Pocket Book of the Socialist Republic of Romania, 1970._ Bucharest: Central Statistical Board, 1970.
Stavrianos, L.S. _The Balkans, 1815-1914._ New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1963.
Steele, Jonathan. "The Maverick of Eastern Europe," _Manchester Guardian Weekly_ [Manchester, England], CVI, No. 1, January 1, 1972, 6.
----. "Problems of an Old-Style Pedagogue," _Manchester Guardian Weekly_ [Manchester, England], CVI, No. 1, January 1, 1972, 6.
Steinberg, Jacob (ed.). _Introduction to Rumanian Literature._ New York: Twayne Publishers, 1966.
Thompson, Juliet. _Old Romania._ New York: Scribner's, 1939.
Toland, John. _The Last 100 Days._ New York: Random House, 1966.
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. _International Conference on Public Education: Summary Report_ (XXXI Session.) Geneva: 1968, 110-112.
U.S. Department of Commerce. Office of Technical Services. Joint Publications Research Service--JPRS (Washington). The following items are from the JPRS series _Translations on Eastern Europe: Political, Sociological, and Military Affairs_.
"Adult Education Program Examined," _Lupta de Clasa_, Bucharest, August 1970. (JPRS: 51,572, Series No. 272, 1970.)
"Adult Education Program, Examined, Praised," _Munca_, Bucharest, September 3, 1970. (JPRS: 51,745, Series No. 283, 1970.)
"Better Coordination Between Specialized Schools and Production," _Scinteia_, Bucharest, April 20, 1971. (JPRS: 53,539, Series No. 377, 1971.)
"Care in Criticism of Past Culture Urged," _Scinteia_, Bucharest, December 1, 1968. (JPRS: 47,202, Series No. 59, 1969.)
"Center for Education Information and Documentation," _Buletinul Oficial al Republicii Socialiste Romania_, Bucharest, April 15, 1971. (JPRS: 53,289, Series No. 364, 1971.)
"Changes in the Social Structure, 1960-1969," _Viata Economica_, XVI, Bucharest, April 16, 1971. (JPRS: 53,159, Series No. 356, 1971.)
"Changes Urged in Policy of Admitting Students to Higher Education," _Scinteia_, Bucharest, January 12, 1971. (JPRS: 52,452, Series No. 317, 1971.)
"Decree Governing Assignment of Graduates," _Buletinul Oficial al Republicii Socialiste Romania_, Bucharest, June 8, 1970. (JPRS: 51,399, Series No. 261, 1970.)
"Delays in Providing Modern School Equipment Cited," _Scinteia_, Bucharest, January 8, 1969. (JPRS: 47,598, Series No. 76, 1969.)
"Development of School System Discussed," _Scinteia_, Bucharest, January 12, 1969. (JPRS: 47,411, Series No. 68, 1969.)
"Economy Modernization Discussed in Relation to Socioprofessional Mobility," _Lupta de Clasa_, V, Bucharest, May 1970. (JPRS: 50,830, Series No. 308, 1970.)
"Equality at Law for National Minorities," _Scinteia_, Bucharest, April 11, 1971. (JPRS: 53,155, Series No. 355, 1971.)
"Government Revises Setup of Education," _Buletinul Oficial al Republicii Socialiste Romania_, Bucharest, December 29, 1968. (JPRS: 47,447, Series No. 68, 1969.)
"Harmful Influence of Religion Stressed," _Romania Libera_, Bucharest, May 9, 1969. (JPRS: 48,249, Series No. 105, 1969.)
"Law on Education in Rumania," _Romania Libera_, Bucharest, May 15, 1968. (JPRS: 45,795, Series No. 8, 1968.)
"New Secondary School Class Program Discussed," _Gazeta Invatamintului_, Bucharest, August 28, 1968. (JPRS: 46,589, Series No. 32, 1968.)
"New Stage in General Education Discussed," _Revista de Pedagogu_, Bucharest, September 1969. (JPRS: 49,412, Series No. 162, 1969.)
"Organization, Operation of the Department of Cults," _Buletinul Oficial al Republicii Socialiste Romania_, Bucharest, August 15, 1970. (JPRS: 51,850, Series No. 289, 1970.)
"Political Education at Universities, Examined," _Scinteia_, Bucharest, January 29, 1969. (JPRS: 47,585, Series No. 75, 1969.)
"Position of First Deputy Minister of Education Established," _Buletinul Oficial al Republicii Socialiste Romania_, Bucharest, August 4, 1971. (JPRS: 54,004, Series No. 409, 1971.)
"Program for the Advanced Training of Teachers Explained," _Scinteia Tineretului_, Bucharest, January 11, 1971. (JPRS: 52,487, Series No 318, 1971.)
"Proper Training of Teachers Stressed," _Scinteia_, Bucharest, January 24, 1969. (JPRS: 47,598, Series No. 76, 1969.)
"Reorganization of Ministry of Education," _Buletinul Oficial al Republicii Socialiste Romania_, Bucharest, January 14, 1969. (JPRS: 47,598, Series No. 76, 1969.)
"Role of Intelligentsia in Socialist Society," _Lupta de Clasa_, Bucharest, April 1971. (JPRS: 53,730, Series No. 393, 1971.)
"Role of Science Education in Economic Development," _Probleme Economice_, Bucharest, April 1971. (JPRS: 53,289, Series No. 364, 1971.)
"Role of Technical Schools in Preparing Labor Force," _Invatamintul Professional si Technic_, Bucharest, June 1970. (JPRS: 52,243, Series No. 249, 1970.)
"Romania Starts 10-Year Compulsory Education," _Scinteia_, Bucharest, June 4, 1969. (JPRS: 48,448, Series No. 115, 1969.)
"Rumanian Education Growth, Improvement Noted," _Scinteia_, Bucharest, September 16, 1968. (JPRS: 46,737, Series No. 37, 1968.)
"School-Workshops Planned for General and Secondary Education," _Scinteia_, Bucharest, August 10, 1971. (JPRS: 53,970, Series No. 408, 1971.)
"Shortcomings in Workers' Universities Examined," _Scinteia_, Bucharest, September 17, 1968. (JPRS: 46,697, Series No. 36, 1968.)
"Social Mobility, Stratification, Examined," _Lupta de Clasa_, Bucharest, October 1970. (JPRS: 52,070, Series No. 298, 1970.)
"Social Responsibility of Schools Stressed," _Scinteia Tineretului_, Bucharest, January 11, 1971. (JPRS: 52,487, Series No. 318, 1971.)
"Special Secondary Schools Train for Jobs," _Lupta de Clasa_, Bucharest, February 1971. (JPRS: 50,552, Series No. 216, 1970.)
"A Study of Rumanian Family Life, I, II," _Munca_, Bucharest, August 29, 1967. (JPRS: 42,826, Series No. 427, 1967.)
"A Study of Rumanian Family Life, III, IV, V," _Munca_, Bucharest, September 9, 1967. (JPRS: 42,881, Series No. 473, 1967.)
"Training of Labor Force, Vocational Guidance of Youth," _Lupta de Clasa_, Bucharest, December 1970. (JPRS: 52,420, Series No. 315, 1971.)
"Unity of Rumanians and Ethnic Minorities Stressed," _Scinteia_, Bucharest, November 6, 1968. (JPRS: 47,118, Series No. 51, 1968.)
"Working Class Role in Modern Romania Sketched," _Probleme Economice_, Bucharest, December 1969. (JPRS: 49,942, Series No. 188, 1970.)
U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. Office of Education. _Education in the Rumanian People's Republic_ by Randolph L. Braham. (Bulletin OE-14087, I, pp 1-229.) Washington: GPO, 1964.
U.S. Department of State. Bureau of Public Affairs. _Background Notes: Socialist Republic of Romania._ (Department of State Publication 7890.) Washington: GPO, 1970.
Vali, F.A. "Transylvania and the Hungarian Minority," _Journal of International Affairs_, XX, No. 1, 1966, 32-44.
Wardle, Irving. "Rumanian Theatre Plays Vital Part in Daily Life," _New York Times_, June 12, 1971, 18.
Warnstrom, Bennett. "With TV Camera Through Rumania," _East Europe_, XVIII, No. 10, October 1969, 11-16.
"Wheeling and Dealing in Rumania," _Newsweek_, LXXVII, No. 14, April 5, 1971, 39.
Wolff, Robert L. _The Balkans in Our Time._ Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1956.
_World Population Data Sheet, 1970._ Washington: Population Reference Bureau, 1970.
"Writer's Block," _Newsweek_, March 2, 1970, 38-43.
Section II. POLITICAL
Andrews, Colman Robert. "The Rumanian Film Today," _East Europe_, XVIII, Nos. 8-9, August-September 1969, 21-24.
_Anuarul Statistic al Republicii Socialiste Romania, 1970_ (Statistical Yearbook of the Socialist Republic of Romania, 1970). Bucharest: Directia Centrala de Statistica, 1970.
Bromke, Adam (ed.). _The Communist States at the Crossroads._ New York: Praeger, 1965.
Brown, J.F. "Rumania Today I: Towards Integration," _Problems of Communism_, XVIII, No. 1, January-February 1969, 8-17.
----. "Rumania Today II: The Strategy of Defiance," _Problems of Communism_, XVIII, No. 2, March-April 1969, 32-38.
Brzezinski, Zbigniew K. "Communist State Relations: The Effect on Ideology," _East Europe_, XVI, No. 3, March 1967, 1-5.
Byrnes, Robert F. (ed.) _The United States and Eastern Europe._ Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1967.
Ceausescu, Nicolae. "Romania's Foreign Policy," _East Europe_, XX, No. 1, January 1971, 28-34.
Cretzianu, Alexandre (ed.). _Captive Romania._ New York: Praeger, 1956.
Davis, Fitzroy. "East Europe's Film Makers Look West," _East Europe_, XVII, No. 5, May 1968, 27-31.
_Editor & Publisher International Yearbook, 1970._ New York: Editor & Publisher, 1970.
Farlow, Robert L. "Romanian Foreign Policy: A Case of Partial Alignment," _Problems of Communism_, XX, No. 6, November-December 1971, 54-63.
Farrell, R. Barry. _Political Leadership in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union._ Chicago: Aldine, 1970.
Fischer-Galati, Stephen. _The Socialist Republic of Rumania._ Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1969.
----. _Twentieth Century Rumania._ New York: Columbia University Press, 1970.
Fischer-Galati, Stephen (ed.). _Romania._ New York: Praeger, 1957.
Griffith, William E. (ed.) _Communism in Europe_, I and II. Cambridge: Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press, 1967.
Ionescu, Ghita. _Communism in Rumania 1944-1962._ London: Oxford University Press, 1964.
Jowitt, Kenneth. "The Romanian Communist Party and the World Socialist System: A Redefinition of Unity," _World Politics_, XXIII, No. 1, October 1970, 38-60.
Matley, Ian M. _Romania: A Profile._ New York: Praeger, 1970.
Olson, Kenneth E. _The History Makers._ Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1966.
"Romania." Pages 1068-1092 in _Europa Yearbook, 1971_, I. London: Europa Publications, 1971.
"Romania." Pages 241-250 in M. Sachs (ed.), _Worldmark Encyclopedia of the Nations_, V: Europe. New York: Harper and Row, 1967.
Schöpflin, George (ed.). _The Soviet Union and Eastern Europe._ New York: Praeger, 1970.
Special Operations Research Office. The American University. Pages 1-69 in _Mass Communications in Eastern Europe-Romania_, VII. Washington: GPO, 1958.
Stanley, Timothy W., and Whitt, Darnell M. _Detente Diplomacy: United States and European Security in the 1970s._ Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1970.
_The Stateman's Year Book, 1971-1972._ (Ed., J. Paxton.) New York: Saint Martin's Press, 1971.
_Statistical Pocket Book of the Socialist Republic of Romania, 1970._ Bucharest: Central Statistical Board, 1970.
Stebbins, R., and Amoia, A. _Political Handbook and Atlas of the World._ New York: Simon and Schuster, 1970.
Steele, Jonathan. "The Maverick of Eastern Europe," _Manchester Guardian Weekly_ [Manchester, England], CVI, No. 1, January 1, 1972, 6.
----. "Problems of an Old-Style Pedagogue," _Manchester Guardian Weekly_ [Manchester, England], CVI, No. 1, January 1, 1972, 6.
"Television in Eastern Europe," _East Europe_, XV, No. 4, April 1966, 12-16.
Triska, Jan F. (ed.) _Constitutions of the Communist Party-States._ Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 1968.
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. _World Communications._ New York: 1970.
_United Nations Statistical Yearbook._ New York: United Nations Statistical Office, 1970.
U.S. Congress. 80th, 2d Session. Senate. Committee on Foreign Relations. _The Warsaw Pact: Its Role in Soviet Bloc Affairs._ Washington: GPO, 1966.
U.S. Congress, 91st, 2d Session. Committee on the Judiciary. _World Communism, 1967-1969: Soviet Efforts to Re-establish Control._ Washington: GPO, 1970.
U.S. Department of Commerce. Office of Technical Services. Joint Publications Research Service--JPRS (Washington). The following items are from the JPRS Series _Translations on Eastern Europe: Political, Sociological, and Military Affairs_.
"Ceausescu on Film Industry Shortcomings," _Scinteia_, Bucharest, March 7, 1970. (JPRS: 52,712, Series No. 330, 1971.)
"Cultural Responsibility of Editors," _Scinteia_, Bucharest, August 18, 1971. (JPRS: 54,448, Series No. 437, 1971.)
"Culture, Ideology and Current Events," _Luceafarul_, Bucharest, May 11, 1968. (JPRS: 45,815, Series No. 9, 1968.)
"Current Publishing System Described," _Carti Noi_, Bucharest, August 1971. (JPRS: 54,538, Series No. 443, 1971.)
"Democracy Equated with Worker Participation," _Lupta de Clasa_, Bucharest, May 1971. (JPRS: 53,722, Series No. 391, 1971.)
"Draft Law on Establishing Judicial Commissions," _Romania Libera_, Bucharest, November 3, 1968. (JPRS: 47,085, Series No. 54, 1968.)
"Favoritism Hampers Bucharest Film Enterprise," _Munca_, Bucharest, March 15, 1970. (JPRS: 50,335, Series No. 206, 1970.)
"Fight Against Immoral Foreign Films Urged," _Scinteia_, Bucharest, July 9, 1971. (JPRS: 53,927, Series No. 406, 1971.)
"Judicial Commissions Seen as Development," _Munca_, Bucharest, November 7, 1968. (JPRS: 47,118, Series No. 55, 1968.)
"Mass and Public Organizations Studied," _Revista Romana de Drept_, Bucharest, Vol. VI, June 1968. (JPRS: 46,478, Series No. 30, 1968.)
"Measure Related to Operative of State Committee for Culture and Art," _Buletinul Oficial al Republicii Socialiste Romania_, Bucharest, July 24, 1970. (JPRS: 51,561, Series No. 271, 1970.)
"Membership in State Committee for Culture and Art Presented," _Buletinul Oficial al Republicii Socialiste Romania_, Bucharest, July 25, 1970. (JPRS: 51,507, Series No. 269, 1970.)
"Membership of Romanian National Radio-Television Council," _Munca_, Bucharest, March 9, 1971. (JPRS: 53,052, Series No. 349, 1971.)
"National Sovereignty, Internationalism Discussed," _Lupta de Clasa_, Bucharest, Vol. 4, April 1970. (JPRS: 50,631, Series No. 221, 1970.)
"New Rules Govern State Radio-TV Committee," _Buletinul Oficial al Republicii Socialiste Romania_, Bucharest, September 21, 1971. (JPRS: 54,687, Series No. 453, 1971.)
"Organization of Planning Commissions," _Buletinul Oficial al Republicii Socialiste Romania_, Bucharest, Part I, No. 87, July 20, 1970. (JPRS: 51,690, Series No. 280, 1970.)
"Party Initiative in Perfecting Socialist Law," _Munca_, Bucharest, April 17, 1971. (JPRS: 53,499, Series No. 376, 1971.)
"Party-Minded Principles Govern Ideology," _Lupta de Clasa_, Bucharest, October 1971. (JPRS: 54,641, Series No. 450, 1971.)
"Popescu Speaks at Party Conference on TV Problems," _Presa Noastra_, Bucharest, April 1970. (JPRS: 50,854, Series No. 231, 1971.)
"Problems in Publishing Sociopolitical Literature," _Scinteia_, Bucharest, November 30, 1971. (JPRS: 54,835, Series No. 461, 1972.)
"Responsibilities of Editors Outlined," _Scinteia_, Bucharest, May 16, 1969. (JPRS: 48,291, Series No. 107, 1969.)
"Socialist Unity Front National Council Members," _Romania Libera_, Bucharest, November 20, 1968. (JPRS: 47,202, Series No. 59, 1969.)
"Textbook Publication Schedule Lags," _Scinteia_, Bucharest, January 16, 1971. (JPRS: 52,347, Series No. 311, 1971.)
"Training of Cadres in Local Administration and Economy," _Romania Libera_, Bucharest, April 17, 1971. (JPRS: 53,499, Series No. 376, 1971.)
"Trofin Attacks Radio-TV Producers for Indecent Attitudes," _Munca_, Bucharest, August 11, 1971. (JPRS: 53,958, Series No. 407, 1971.)
"Work of Association of Jurists in Developing Socialist Awareness," _Revista Romana de Drept_, Bucharest, May 1971. (JPRS: 53,722, Series No. 392, 1971.)
Urbanek, Lida. "Romania." Pages 714-727 in Richard F. Staar (ed.), _Yearbook on International Communist Affairs, 1969._ Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 1970.
----. "Romania." Pages 75-84 in Richard F. Staar (ed.), _Yearbook on International Communist Affairs, 1970._ Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 1971.
Wolfe, Thomas W. _Soviet Power and Europe 1965-1969._ Santa Monica: Rand Corporation, 1969.
_World of Learning, 1970-1971._ London: Europa Publications, 1970.
_World Radio-TV Handbook, 1971._ (Ed., J.M. Frost.) Hvidovre, Denmark: World Radio-TV Handbook, 1971.
(Various issues of the following periodicals were also used in the preparation of this section: _Current History_ [Philadelphia], April 1967; _East Europe_ [New York], January 1967-December 1971; _Economist-Foreign Report_ [London], August-December 1971; _Manchester Guardian Weekly_ [Manchester, England], January 1, 1972; _Newsweek_ [New York], July 20, 1970, and August 9, 1971; _New York Times,_ November 5, 1971-January 1972; _Washington Post_, October 19-December 27, 1971.)
Section III. NATIONAL SECURITY
Baldwin, Godfrey (ed.). _International Population Reports._ (U.S. Department of Commerce, Series P-91, No. 18.) Washington: GPO, 1969.
Blumenfeld, Yorick. _Seesaw: Cultural Life in Eastern Europe._ New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1968.
Bromke, Adam (ed.). _The Communist States at the Crossroads._ New York: Praeger, 1965.
Dupuy, T.N. _Almanac of World Military Power._ Dun Loring, Virginia: T.N. Dupuy Associates, 1970.
Fischer-Galati, Stephen. _The New Rumania._ Cambridge: Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press, 1967.
Liber, Benzion, M.D. _The New Rumania: Communist Country Revisited After Sixty Years._ New York: Rational Living, 1958.
Mackintosh, May. _Rumania._ London: Robert Hale, 1963.
_The Military Balance, 1970-1971._ London: Institute for Strategic Studies, 1970.
"Rumania." Pages 726-746 in _Encyclopaedia Britannica_, XIX. Chicago: William Benton, 1969.
_Statistical Pocket Book of the Socialist Republic of Romania, 1970._ Bucharest: Central Statistical Board, 1970.
U.S. Department of Commerce. Office of Technical Services. Joint Publications Research Service--JPRS Series (Washington). The following items are from the JPRS Series _Translations on Eastern Europe: Political, Sociological, and Military Affairs_.
"Border Guards Removed from Ministry of Internal Affairs," _Buletinul Oficial al Republicii Socialiste Romania_, Bucharest, September 25, 1971. (JPRS: 54,397, Series No. 429, 1971.)
"Collaboration with Armies of All Socialist Countries Stressed," _Scinteia_, May 9, 1971. (JPRS: 53,397, Series No. 370, 1971.)
"Decree on Border Protection System Passed," _Scinteia_, Bucharest, November 14, 1969. (JPRS: 49,241, Series No. 156, 1969.)
"Decree Organizes Office of Prosecutor General," _Scinteia_, Bucharest, September 29, 1971. (JPRS: 54,361, Series No. 432, 1971.)
"Draft Law Established Judicial Commissions," _Romania Libera_, Bucharest, November 3, 1968. (JPRS: 47,085, Series No. 54, 1968.)
"Law Concerning Public Prosecutor's Office Passes," _Scinteia_, Bucharest, December 28, 1968. (JPRS: 47,551, Series No. 73, 1969.)
"Law on Execution of Penalties Adopted," _Buletinul Oficial al Republicii Socialiste Romania_, Bucharest, November 18, 1969. (JPRS: 49,760, Series No. 180, 1970.)
"Law on Police Organization, Functions Adopted," _Buletinul Oficial al Republicii Socialiste Romania_, Bucharest, November 18, 1969. (JPRS: 49,760, Series No. 180, 1970.)
"Law Passed on Organization of Court System," _Scinteia_, Bucharest, December 28, 1968. (JPRS: 47,551, Series No. 73, 1969.)
"Mass and Public Organizations Studied," _Revista Romana de Drept_, No. 6, Bucharest, June 1968. (JPRS: 46,478, Series No. 30, 1968.)
"New Law on Identification Cards, Moving, Residence," _Romania Libera_, Bucharest, March 19, 1971. (JPRS: 53,014, Series No. 347, 1971.)
"Provisions of the New Penal Code Explained." _Revista Romana de Drept_, Bucharest, December 1968. (JPRS: 47,525, Series No. 72, 1969.)
"Rumanian Code of Criminal Procedure," _Buletinul Oficial al Republicii Socialiste Romania_, Bucharest, November 12, 1968. (JPRS: 47,556, Series No. 74, 1969.)
"Statute of Union of Communist Youth," _Scinteia Tineretului_, Bucharest, February 27, 1971. (JPRS: 52,726, Series No. 331, 1971.)
"Supreme Court Chairman Discusses Laws, Freedom," _Scinteia Tineretului_, Bucharest, February 5, 1971. (JPRS: 52,726, Series No. 331, 1971.)
"Training Youth for Military Described," _Viata Militara_, Bucharest, July 1969. (JPRS: 48,913, Series No. 136, 1969.)
"Training Youth for National Defense," _Sport si Technica_, Bucharest, February 1971. (JPRS: 52,888, Series No. 340, 1971.)
"Warsaw Pact Defends Against Imperialism," _Romania Libera_, Bucharest, May 7, 1971. (JPRS: 53,454, Series No. 374, 1971.)
Section IV. ECONOMIC
_Anuarul Statistic al Republicii Socialiste Romania, 1970._ (Statistical Yearbook of the Socialist Republic of Romania, 1970). Bucharest: Directia Centrala de Statistica, 1970.
Montias, John Michael. _Economic Development in Communist Romania._ Cambridge: Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press, 1967.
U.S. Congress. 91st, 2d Session. Joint Economic Committee. _Economic Developments in Countries of Eastern Europe._ Washington: GPO, 1970.
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service. _The Agricultural Economy and Trade of Romania._ (ERS-Foreign 320.) Washington: GPO, 1971.
U.S. Department of Commerce. Office of Technical Services. Joint Publications Research Service--JPRS Series (Washington). The following items are from the JPRS Series _Translations on Eastern Europe: Economic and Scientific Affairs_.
"Activities of Romanian Foreign Trade Banks Noted," _Finante si Credit_, Bucharest, August 1971. (JPRS: 54,541, Series No. 568, 1971.)
"Antiquated Methods Hinder Conclusion of Economic Contracts," _Scinteia_, Bucharest, June 13, 1971. (JPRS: 53,695, Series No. 506, 1971.)
"Better Use of Economic Potential," _Probleme Economice_, Bucharest, April 1971. (JPRS: 53,416, Series No. 485, 1971.)
"Development of National Income Discussed," _Probleme Economice_, Bucharest, April 1971. (JPRS: 53,521, Series No. 491, 1971.)
"Development of Trade with Socialist Countries Detailed," _Viata Economica_, Bucharest, March 12, 1971. (JPRS: 53,001, Series No. 459, 1971.)
"Economic Planning Process Described," _Lupta de Clasa_, Bucharest, July 1971. (JPRS: 53,945, Series No. 524, 1971.)
"Foreign Trade, 1966-1970 Reviewed," _Viata Economica_, Bucharest, February 12, 1971. (JPRS: 52,736, Series No. 441, 1971.)
"Foreign Trade Reform Analyzed," _Vierteljahresshefte zur Wirtschaftsvorschung_, West Berlin, July-September 1971. (JPRS: 54,691, Series No. 580, 1971.)
"Improvement of Wholesale Prices Discussed by Specialists," _Viata Economica_, Bucharest, September 11, 1970. (JPRS: 51,680, Series No. 368, 1970.)
"Improvement of Wholesale Price System," _Viata Economica_, Bucharest, September 18 and 25, 1970; October 2 and 16, 1970. (JPRS: 52,117, Series No. 398, 1970.)
"Interest Rates in New Credit System," _Viata Economica_, Bucharest, October 9, 1970. (JPRS: 52,001, Series No. 389, 1970.)
"Local Budgetary Problems, Proposed Measures Cited," _Finante si Credit_, September 1971. (JPRS: 54,748, Series No. 584, 1971.)
"Manpower Distribution Analyzed," _Revista de Statistica_, Bucharest, November 1970. (JPRS: 52,236, Series No. 407, 1970.)
"Measures for Increasing Foreign Trade Efficiency," _Gazeta Finantelor_, Bucharest, December 22, 1970. (JPRS: 52,510, Series No. 426, 1970.)
"Modernization of Planning Advocated," _Probleme Economice_, Bucharest, December 1970. (JPRS: 52,614, Series No. 434, 1970.)
"National Income in 1966-1970, 1971-1975," _Probleme Economice_, Bucharest, May 1971. (JPRS: 53,755, Series No. 510, 1971.)
"New Methods for Planning Agriculture Discussed," _Agricultura_, Bucharest, December 10, 1970. (JPRS: 52,324, Series No. 413, 1970.)
"Profits Termed Essential Indicator of Economic Efficiency," _Scinteia_, Bucharest, November 27, 1971. (JPRS: 54,748, Series No. 584, 1971.)
"Relationship of Domestic, Foreign Prices Influences Export Efficiency," _Finante si Credit_, Bucharest, June 1971. (JPRS: 54,056, Series No. 531, 1971.)
"Significance of Accumulation Rate Analyzed," _Probleme Economice_, Bucharest, October 1971. (JPRS: 54,558, Series No. 570, 1971.)
"Socialist Planning in Light of World Planning," _Probleme Economice_, Bucharest, April 1971. (JPRS: 53,392, Series No. 484, 1971.)
"Structural Changes in Manpower Distribution in 1966-1970," _Viata Economica_, Bucharest, March 12, 1971. (JPRS: 52,942, Series No. 454, 1971.)
GLOSSARY
centrals--Industrial associations that group enterprises engaged in the same or similar lines of production or enterprises at successive stages of production as, for example, iron mines and steel mills.
COMECON--Council for Mutual Economic Assistance. Founded in 1949; headquartered in Moscow. Members are Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Mongolia, Poland, Romania, and the Soviet Union. Purpose is to further economic cooperation among members.
_judet_ (pl., _judete_)--Local administrative division corresponding to county or district. There are thirty-nine such counties plus the municipality of Bucharest, which is administered as a judet. There is no intermediate level between the central government and the _judet_ government.
leu (pl., lei)--Standard unit of currency. Officially rated at the level of 1 leu to US$0.18, the actual exchange rate varies according to specific transactions, such as tourist exchange, foreign trade exchange, hard currency purchase, or black-market transaction.
PCR--Partidul Comunist Roman (Romanian Communist Party). Founded in 1921. Declared illegal in 1924; operated underground until 1944. Known as Romanian Workers' Party from 1948 until 1965.
UGSR--Uniunea Generala a Sindicatelr din Romania (General Union of Trade Unions). Official organization incorporating all labor unions of blue- and white-collar workers. Estimated membership in 1972 was 4.6 million.
UTC--Uniunea Tineretului Comunist (Union of Communist Youth). Official organization that functions as the youth branch of the PCR (_q.v._). Membership open to young people between ages fifteen and twenty-six. Membership estimated in early 1972 at 2.5 million.
Warsaw Treaty Organization--Formal name for Warsaw Pact. Military alliance of communist countries founded in 1955, with headquarters in Moscow. The Soviet minister of defense is traditionally the supreme commander of Warsaw Pact forces. Members are Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Poland, Romania, and the Soviet Union.
INDEX
abortion: 39, 57
administrative divisions: viii, 38
adult education: 7, 86-87
Africa: 156, 163, 168, 171, 172, 182, 183
Agerpres. _See_ Romanian Press Agency
Agricultural Bank: 261, 267
Agricultural Mechanization Enterprises: 262-264, 267
agriculture (_see also_ collective farms; livestock): v, viii, 8, 30, 31, 36, 41, 227, 229, 231, 232, 233, 236, 237, 241; Commission, 117; education, 76, 85, 87, 145; labor, viii, 61, 233, 253, 262, 264-266; production, 269-273, 274
aid foreign (_see also_ Council for Mutual Economic Assistance): 26, 103, 167, 169, 279; military, 211-212, 216, 223
air forces: ix, 7, 211, 213, 214, 215-216, 219, 221, 224
air transport: ix, 45, 46-47, 196, 216
Albania: 27, 39, 42, 158, 166, 167, 172
Alecsandri, Vasile: 105
Alexandrescu, Grigore: 104
Allied Control Commission: 21, 24
Allies. _See_ World War I; World War II
Aman, Theodor: 97
Anti-Comintern Pact: 21
anti-Semitism: 17, 19, 56
anti-subversion. _See_ counter-subversion
Antonescu, Ion: 21, 175
Apostol, Gheorghe: 130, 131, 134, 136
Arad: 44, 193
archaeology: 94, 95, 99
architecture: 76, 99-100
Arghezi, Tudor: 106
aristocracy: 6, 12, 56, 75
armed forces (_see also_ military): ix, 7, 15, 16, 119, 120, 121, 133, 161, 200, 203, 211-216, 221-227; command, 112, 116, 173, 213; training, 220-221, 223
army (_see also_ ground force): ix, 7
arts and the artists: 7, 91, 92-94, 135, 152, 180; education, 76, 81, 84, 85, 97; union, 135
Asachi, Gheorghe: 104
Asia: 156, 163, 168, 171, 182, 183, 219
Aslan, Ana: 107
atheism: 5
Aurelian, Emperor: 11, 50
Austria (_see also_ Austro-Hungarian Empire): 20, 24, 33, 46, 54
Austro-Hungarian Empire (_see also_ Habsburgs; Hungary): 9, 13, 14, 18, 33, 37
automobiles (_see also_ traffic): 42, 203-204, 288
Avars: 11
Baia-Mare: 44, 52
Balaga, Lucian: 106
Balcescu, Nicolae: 104
Balkans: 22, 29, 163, 167, 170, 171, 185, 211; history, 3, 9, 10
Banat: 10, 11, 32, 254; population, 52, 53, 55
Banks for Agriculture and the Food Industry: 242, 243, 244, 267-268
banks and banking (_see also_ individual banks): 110, 242-246
Bessarabia: 18, 20, 37, 54, 55, 212
Bihor Massif: 30, 31
birth control: 39
birth rate: 39-40, 57
Black Forest: 34
Black Sea: vii, xiv, 29, 32, 33, 34, 35, 38, 46, 47, 48, 216, 217, 218, 224, 276; history, 10
Bokassa, Jean Bebel, president of the Central African Republic: 172
Book Central: 187, 188
Boris, Tsar: 11
boundaries, national (_see also_ individual neighboring countries): vii, xiv, 9, 29, 32, 37-38, 211
Braila: 48
Brancusi, Constantin: 98
Brasov: 38, 44, 53, 102, 182
Brezhnev, Leonid: 165; doctrine, 28, 159, 160, 164, 165
Brincoveanu, Constantin, Prince: 100
Bucharest: viii, xiv, 10, 15, 31, 32, 34, 35, 38, 67, 70, 147, 148, 155, 163, 207, 214, 221, 254, 263; cultural, 67, 91, 96, 97, 98, 104, 107; government, 122, 123, 125; history, 16, 18, 19, 21; information, 177, 181, 182, 186, 188, 189; politics, 139, 141, 142, 147; population, 38, 41, 54; security, 195, 213, 216; transport, 43, 44, 47
Bucharest Declaration: 168, 218
budget: 41, 112, 116, 120, 240-241, 248, 286; local, 126
Bukovina: 10, 18, 20, 33, 37, 71, 72, 212
Bulgaria: 7, 37, 165-166, 167, 172, 182, 218, 219, 276, 278, 279; border, vii, xiv, 10, 29, 32, 48, 216, 217; history, 11, 20, 212
canals: ix, 29, 31, 46
Cantemir, Dimitrie: 104
capital punishment: 205
Carol I, King: 16, 17, 18
Carol II, King: 19, 20, 21, 175
Carpathian Mountains: vii, 29, 30, 31, 47, 94; history, 11, 50
Ceausescu, Nicolae: 1, 2, 3, 27, 28, 93, 109, 113, 118, 119, 124-125, 127, 129, 130, 131-134, 136, 139, 140, 142, 144, 148, 149, 150, 151, 152, 153, 154, 184, 206, 213; foreign relations, 7-8, 28, 132, 155, 156, 159, 160, 162, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168, 169, 170, 171, 172-173
censorship (_see also_ freedom of expression): 176
census: 54, 55; (1930), 79; (1956), 54, 79; (1966), 39, 49, 52, 143
Central European System: 185
cereals: 254, 255, 256, 272, 273, 274
Cernavoda: 43, 44
Cernavoda-Silistra: 279
Charles of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen. _See_ Carol I
chernozem: 35, 254
children (_see also_ students): 6, 14, 40, 57, 58, 183, 187, 199, 200; care, 80, 82-83; education, 74, 75, 76, 79, 82
Christianity (_see also_ Protestants; Roman Catholicism; Romanian Orthodox Church): introduction of, 11, 67
church-state relations: viii, 4, 5, 66-67, 68, 69, 70
civil rights (_see also_ freedom of expression; ownership; religion; suffrage): 3, 16, 66, 111-112, 113, 146, 150, 151, 176, 194, 201, 206
clergy: 5, 14, 65, 66, 67, 68, 70; training, 66, 69, 72, 112
climate: vii, 29, 33, 34-35, 36, 253, 254
Cluj: 44, 52, 71, 72, 91, 102, 182, 186, 189, 213
coal: 238, 276-277, 288
_cobza_: 100
Codreanu, Corneliu: 20
collective farms: 24, 41, 58, 87, 194, 230, 236, 244, 257-261, 262, 263, 266, 267, 273, 280; labor, vii, 264
College of Saint Sava: 104
commerce (_see also_ trade): 15
Communists and communism (_see also_ Romanian Communist Party): v, 3, 56, 127, 157; and culture, 91, 92-94, 98, 101, 102, 103, 106, 107; and economy, 8, 24, 49, 132, 133, 149-150, 229, 234, 275; and education, 73-74, 76-77, 78; government, 2-3, 24-28, 38, 110; and information, 176, 183, 185, 189; and religion, 4, 5, 65, 68, 70; rise to power, 9, 22-24; and social structure, 6, 49, 58-62
Concordat (1927): 69
Congress of Paris: 16
conscripts and conscription (_see also_ military): 7, 212, 219, 220, 221, 223
Constanta: 4, 44, 47, 182, 216, 217, 276
Constitution: 3, 5, 116; (1866), 16, 17; (1923), 18; (1938), 20; (1948), 5, 110, 111; (1952), 5, 110, 112, 119, 150; (1965), vii, 5, 28, 66, 109, 110, 113-114, 117, 119, 120, 121, 122, 124, 125, 126, 146, 160, 161, 163, 206; Commission, 116, 117; development, 110-113
construction: 227, 232, 256, 257, 279, 280, 283, 287; private, 242, 245; youth, 201 consumer goods: 149, 229, 232, 235, 237, 239, 241, 251, 287-288; export, viii; production, 8, 30, 42
cooperatives: 82, 85, 114, 126, 127; agricultural, 59, 153
Council of Ministers: 109, 110, 112, 114, 115, 116, 118, 119-121, 123, 124, 133, 140, 147, 161, 162, 176, 195, 198, 200, 214, 230, 240, 241, 243, 244, 256
Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON): iv, 1, 2, 8, 26, 27, 150, 156, 157-158, 159, 161, 164, 168, 169, 172, 173, 174, 247, 249-250, 275
Council of Romanian Radio and Television: 182, 184
Council on Socialist Culture and Education: 94, 120, 176, 181, 186, 189
Council of State: vii, 109, 112, 114, 115, 116, 117-119, 121, 122, 124, 125, 133, 140, 161, 162, 230, 240, 256, 289
Council of State Security: 119, 120, 121
counter-subversion: ix, 194, 202, 205
county. _See judet_
courts: viii, 115, 122-124, 194, 200, 205, 206-207; military, 223
credit policies: 242, 245-246, 260, 266, 267-269
crime (_see also_ penal system): 193, 194, 196, 199, 201-203, 205, 206, 223, 257
Crimean War: 16
_Crisana_: 10, 32, 179
cultural activity (_see also_ architecture; arts and the artists; folk culture; literature; music; painting; sculpture): 4, 7, 12, 14, 41, 52, 53, 54, 85, 87, 91, 92, 152
cultural influences: 4, 7, 12, 14-15, 50, 51, 62, 63, 69, 76, 93, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 104, 105, 106; nationalism, 7, 92, 97, 102, 104
currency (_see also_ exchange): 246-247
Cuza, Alexander: 16
Cyrillic alphabet: 14
Czechoslovakia: xiv, 20, 21, 30, 46, 163, 165, 172, 182, 190, 218, 224, 250, 278; invasion of, 7, 9, 28, 119, 135, 150, 154, 159, 164, 165, 166, 170, 172, 211, 218
Dacia (_see also_ Dacians): 3, 11, 50, 67, 99
_Dacia Literata_: 104
Dacians (_see also_ Dacia; Daco-Romans): 2, 10, 11, 14, 50
Daco-Romans: 3
Danube River: 29, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 38, 41, 43, 45-46, 47, 48, 55, 167, 216, 217, 254, 279; history, 10, 11, 12, 99
death rate: 39
defense (_see also_ armed forces; security): 116, 195, 241; Commission, 117
Defence Council: 115, 118, 121, 133, 135, 140, 173, 213, 214
Densus: 99
Department of Cults: 5, 66
_Description of Moldavia_: 104
divorce: 57, 58
Dobruja: vii, 31, 32, 33, 34, 72, 99, 253; history, 10, 20, 37; population, 41, 55
Dogmatic Period: 92, 93
Dragan, Mircea: 103
Draghici, Alexandru: 130, 131, 134
droughts: 254
Dubcek, Alexander: 165
Eastern Europe: v, 8, 68, 94, 110, 155, 156, 158, 165, 166, 169, 172, 173, 182, 216, 218, 262; economic relations, viii, 26, 170, 248
Eastern Orthodox Church (_see also_ Romanian Orthodox Church): 11, 13, 14, 53, 67, 99
Economic Council: 115, 119
economic development (_see also_ Five Year Plan): viii, 6, 8, 17, 61, 73, 119, 149-150, 156, 161, 242; plans, 234-237, 242
economy (_see also_ agriculture; economic development; finance; industry): v, viii, 8, 24, 25, 26, 42, 112, 113, 116, 120, 132, 133, 149, 158, 174, 226-227, 229-237; Commission, 117
education (_see also_ adult education; indoctrination; schools; technical/vocational education; universities): viii, 4, 6-7, 14, 15, 16, 60, 61, 62, 66, 73-83, 126, 200; Act (1964), 74; Commission, 117; curricula, viii, 7, 74, 75, 77, 78, 82; higher, 6, 59, 61, 73, 74, 76, 77, 80, 84, 85-86, 107-108; law (1948), 77; law (1968), 78, 87; traffic, 204
Eforie Nord: 100
elections: vii, 23, 116, 117, 126-127; (1937), 19; (1948), 24; (1969), 127, 135
electricity: ix, 277, 278-279, 288; hydro, 29, 36, 167, 278, 279
elite class: 6, 60
emigration: 40-41, 53, 71; illegal, 203; Jews, 4, 72
Eminescu, Mihail: 105, 106
employment (_see also_ labor; wages): 41, 59, 84, 154, 195, 233-234, 253, 265, 266, 280, 284-286
Enescu, Georghe: 101
English language: 83, 181, 183
ethnic groups (_see also_ individual groups; minority ethnic groups): vii, 3, 49-50, 55-56
European Recovery Program (Marshall Plan): 26, 157
Everac, Paul: 102
exchange, foreign: ix, 187, 230, 242, 244, 247
expenditure: 241
export: 236, 239, 244, 248-249, 251, 253, 286; agricultural, viii, 36, 230, 273
Export-Import Bank: 251
family: 49, 56-58, 226, 257, 259
fauna. _See_ wildlife
Federal Republic of Germany: 28, 34, 43, 53, 159, 164, 165, 168-170, 190, 288
Ferdinand, King: 18, 19
films: 103, 175, 177, 189-190
finance (_see also_ budget; foreign exchange; investment; taxation; trade): viii-ix
fishing and fisheries: 33
Five-Year Plan: viii, 8; (1960-65), 26; (1971-75), 8, 149-150, 229, 230, 245, 266, 275
floods: 43, 173, 208, 222, 227, 255, 270
folk culture: 65, 91, 94-96, 98, 100-101, 105
foodstuffs: 42-43; export, viii, 30
foreign exchange. _See_ exchange
foreign relations: 1, 2, 7, 25, 27, 28, 63, 118, 134, 136, 139, 154, 155, 162-174; Commission, 117; diplomatic representation, 118, 155, 159, 162, 163, 164-172; economic. _See_ trade; policy, 116, 120, 133, 152, 156-162, 175
forests and forestry: 29, 30, 32, 33, 35, 36, 85, 233, 255, 277-278, 284; Commission, 117
France: 16, 20, 103, 168, 171, 212, 250; cultural influence, 15, 62, 63, 76, 101, 104, 105, 106, 107, 190; language, 83, 181, 183
freedom of expression (_see also_ press): 91-92, 111, 113, 175, 176
frontier troops: ix, 7, 211, 213, 214, 217, 221
fruit (_see also_ orchards and vineyards): 254, 272
Galati: 44, 48
gems: 243, 247
General Military Academy, Bucharest: 214, 221
General Regulation for Religious Cults (1948): 66, 70
General Union of Trade Unions: 120, 121, 133, 134, 136, 147, 148-149, 178, 198, 237, 243
geology: 30-32
Georgescu, Ion: 98
German Democratic Republic: 165, 172, 182, 190, 250
German ethnic group (_see also_ German language): vii, viii, 3, 4, 18, 49, 51, 53-54, 55, 56, 57, 69, 71, 102, 127, 135, 143, 151; history, 11, 99
German language: vii, 51, 53, 54, 69, 83, 89, 180, 181, 183
Germany (_see also_ Federal Republic of Germany; German Democratic Republic; Nazis): 18, 71, 101, 107, 212
Gheorghiu-Dej, Gheorghe: 3, 22, 23, 24, 25, 27, 47, 110, 112, 130, 131, 134, 168; foreign relations, 156, 157, 158, 159, 165
Giurgiu: 43, 44
gold: 277
Goths: 50
government (_see also_ Constitution; local government): vii, 17, 109-110, 115, central, 114-124, 126
Grand National Assembly: 88, 109, 110, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 121, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 133, 140, 151, 161, 162, 173, 237, 240, 241
Great Britain: 20, 23, 158, 171, 190, 212
Greater Romania: 18
Greece: 170-171
Grigorescu, Nicolae: 97
gross national product (GNP): 227, 233
ground force: 215, 224
Groza Petru: 23
Habsburgs (_see also_ Austro-Hungarian Empire): 14
handcrafts: 94-96
health: 42, 126; Commission, 117; education, 85
Heinemann, Gustav, president of the federal Republic of Germany: 170
Higher Political Council: 213
_History of the Rise and Fall of the Ottoman Empire_: 104
Hitler, Adolf: 20
Holy See. _See_ Vatican
housing: 40, 41, 42, 57, 58, 59, 61, 99, 195, 201, 233, 245, 256
Hungarian Autonomous Region (Mures-Magyar): 52, 111, 114, 150
Hungarian ethnic group (Magyars) (_see also_ Hungarian language): vii, viii, 3, 4, 18, 49, 51, 52-53, 55, 56, 57, 69, 71, 72, 102, 111, 127, 135, 143, 151, 166; history, 3, 11, 13, 37, 52, 63, 99
Hungarian language: vii, 51, 53, 69, 83, 89, 180, 181, 183
Hungarian People's Union: 23
Hungary (_see also_ Austro-Hungarian Empire): 37, 43, 46, 54, 163, 165, 166, 167, 172, 182; border, vii, xiv, 10, 29, 38, 52, 203, 217; history, 11, 19, 20, 21, 52, 53, 55, 67; revolt, 26, 157
Iasi: 15, 105, 182, 186, 189, 213
ideological campaign: 152, 153, 154, 175, 178, 184
imports: 229, 239, 248, 249, 251, 253, 277, 284, 287; substitute, 244
income: 40, 41, 59, 60, 61, 153, 240, 260, 264; church, 66; national, 231, 232, 253; per capita, 230
independence: 15-17, 113, 135, 160; 'declaration of', 1, 2, 27
indoctrination, political (_see also_ propaganda): viii, ix, 132, 133, 139, 141, 144, 145, 146, 175, 176, 178, 183, 191, 201; armed forces, 211, 221-222; youth, 7, 73, 76, 77, 78-79, 80, 83, 84, 87, 132, 148, 180
industrialization (_see also_ industry): v, 6, 8, 15, 17, 18, 26, 41, 43, 49, 77, 85, 150, 161, 229, 247, 251, 253
industry (_see also_ construction; electricity; industrialization; investment; nationalization): viii, 25, 110, 149, 157, 229-230, 232, 233, 275-283, 287-289; commission, 117; labor, vii-viii, 61, 264, 275, 283-286
information (_see also_ newspapers; periodicals; press; radio; television): ix, 65, 175-177, 190-191; foreign, 132, 152, 175, 181-182, 184, 185, 186, 189, 190
Institute of Historical and Social-Political Studies: 139, 145
intelligentsia (_see also_ arts and the artists; professionals): 59, 60, 62, 142, 148
international commitments (_see also_ individual pacts): v, ix, 121, 160, 172-174, 218-219
Intervision: 185
Investment Bank: 242, 243-244
investment, capital: 30, 42, 229, 233, 243, 268; in agriculture, viii, 266-267; foreign, 18; in industry, viii, 232, 275, 286-287
Ionescu, Eugene: 102
iron: 277, 288
Iron Gate: 31, 34, 55; hydroelectricity, 167, 279
Iron Guard: 19, 20, 21
irrigation: 201, 227, 254
Islam: 4, 72
Israel: 4, 28, 41, 72, 159, 164, 171
Italy: 20, 21, 101, 168, 171, 190, 250
Jalea, Ion: 98
Japan: 21
Jews and Judaism: 3, 4, 17, 18, 19, 41, 54, 56, 72, 199
Jiu Valley: 276
journalists: 7
_judet_: 109, 110, 114, 124, 148; courts, 122, 123, 124, 207; political, 137, 141, 142; security, 195
judges: 122, 206, 223
judiciary (_see also_ courts; military): 122-124, 194, 202, 206
Junimea: 105
justice (_see also_ courts; judiciary; military; penal system): viii
Justinian, patriarch: 70
Khrushchev, Nikita, premier of the Soviet Union: 2, 25, 26, 156, 157, 166
Kingdom of Romania: v, vii, 16, 18, 19
Kiselev, Pavel, Count: 15
Koenig, Cardinal: 70
Kogalniceanu, Mihail: 104, 105
labor force (_see also_ labor unions): vii-viii, 43, 57, 73, 149, 211, 226, 230, 233, 253, 262, 264-266, 269, 280, 282, 283-286; code, 197; conditions of, 111; disputes, 123
labor unions (_see also_ General Union of Trade Unions): 5, 22, 80, 87, 123, 126, 127, 132, 135, 144, 176, 180, 199, 243
lakes: 32, 33-34
land (_see also_ forests and forestry; marshland; reform): viii, 237; agricultural, 33, 36, 254-257; conservation, 256, 257; ownership, 230
languages (_see also_ individual languages): vii, 4, 83, 87, 88, 177, 181, 183
_lautari_: 100
leu: viii, 246, 305
Liberal Party: 18, 19, 23
libraries: 188-189
life expectancy: 39, 42
Lipatti, Dinu: 101
literacy: 6, 68, 73, 76, 79, 219
literature: 7, 14, 93, 103-107, 152, 187
livestock: 260; products, 253, 254, 268, 269-270, 271, 272, 273, 274
living standards: 17, 30, 41-43, 57, 59, 60, 61, 88, 149, 153, 202, 239, 240, 264
local government: viii, 6, 38, 109, 110, 111, 114, 124-126, 198
_Luceafarul_: 105
Luchian, Stefan: 97
Lupescu, Magda: 19
Magyars. _See_ Hungarian ethnic group
Mairescu, Titu: 105
Mamaia: 100
Manescu, Corneliu: 162
Manescu, Manea: 140
Mangalia: 48, 100, 216
Maniu, Iuliu: 19
Maramures: 10, 32
marriage: 57, 195
Marshall Plan. _See_ European Recovery Program
marshland: 31, 32, 34, 35, 41, 43
Marxism-Leninism: v, 5, 76, 83, 107, 146, 147, 148, 151, 155, 160, 184, 187, 189
mass organization (_see also_ labor unions; women; youth): 145, 146-149, 178, 198-201
Maurer, Ion Gheorghe: 112, 127, 130, 131, 134, 135, 158, 162, 169
medical services: 42; military, 222
merchant marine: ix, 30, 47-48
metallurgy: 283, 286
Michael the Brave (1593-1601): 12, 13
Michael, King (son of Carol II): 19, 21, 23, 176
Middle East (_see also_ Israel): 46, 171, 276
migration, historical: 3, 11, 13, 50
military (_see also_ aid; armed forces): 7, 8, 118-119, 134, 198; foreign, 167, 171, 173; honours, 226; justice, viii, 122, 123, 205, 207-208, 222-223; personnel, 195, 213, 219-220; service, 7, 112, 211, 212; volunteers, 220
Military Achievement Exhibit: 224
militia: 194, 195-197, 200, 203, 204, 206, 221
minerals (_see also_ coal; iron; natural gas; oil): 36-37, 275
ministries and ministers (_see also_ Council of Ministers; individual ministries): 115, 119, 120, 133; economic, 231, 234, 282, 283
Ministry of Agriculture, Food, Industry and Waters: 243, 244, 259, 261, 262
Ministry of the Armed Forces: 7, 121, 145, 195, 208, 212, 213, 214, 215, 217; minister, 119, 121, 213-214
Ministry of Defense: 211
Ministry of Education: 75, 80-82, 84, 86
Ministry of Finance: 237, 241, 242, 243, 247
Ministry of Foreign Affairs: 162, 163; minister, 119
Ministry of Foreign Trade: 162, 163, 248
Ministry of Internal Affairs: ix, 145, 195, 196, 208, 217, 221; minister, 119, 121, 195
Ministry of Justice: 122, 123, 203, 207; minister, 122
Ministry of Technical Material Supply and Control of the Management of Fixed Assets: 236
Ministry of Transportation: 43, 46
Ministry of Youth Problems: 147; minister, 200
minority ethnic groups (_see also_ individual ethnic groups): vii, 3-4, 49-50, 54-55, 91, 135, 139, 149, 150-151, 166; education, 78, 88-89; rights, 111
missiles: 216
Mobutu, Joseph, president of Zaire: 172
Moldavia: vii, 30, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 254; cultural, 95, 96, 99, 103, 104; history, 3, 10, 12, 13, 15, 16, 33, 37, 67, 74; population, 41, 54
monarchy, constitutional: 19, 23
mountains (_see also_ individual ranges): ix, 29, 30, 32, 33, 34, 36, 41, 253, 254
_Munca_: 178
Muntenia: 31
music: 100-101, 184; education, 75, 83
Muslims (_see also_ Islam): 4
Mures-Magyar. _See_ Hungarian Autonomous Region
National Bank of the Romanian Socialist Republic: viii, 242, 243, 245, 246
National Center for Cinematography: 189
National Democratic Front: 22, 23
National Peasant Party: 19, 22, 23
National Popular Party: 23
National Renaissance Party: 20
National Union of Agricultural Production Cooperatives: 133, 259
nationalism: 2, 3, 7, 9, 14, 25, 56, 67, 92, 97, 102, 104, 129, 130, 132, 154
nationalization: 24, 55, 58, 110, 244
natural gas: ix, 29, 30, 36, 37, 47, 275, 276, 278, 288
navy: ix, 7, 48, 211, 213, 214, 216, 221
Nazis: 9, 19, 20-21, 37, 54, 157, 168
Negruzzi, Constantine: 104, 105
news agencies: 175, 181-182
newspapers: 53, 54, 104, 175, 176, 177-180, 182
Niculescu-Mizil, Paul: 140
Nixon, Richard M., president of the U.S.A.: 159, 170
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO): 8, 161, 171, 218
nuclear free zone: 167, 171
nuclear power: 279
Official Bulletin of the Socialist Republic of Romania: 117
oil: ix, 29, 36, 47, 275-276, 288
Old Catholics: 72
Old Church Slavonic: 67, 103
Old Kingdom. _See_ Kingdom of Romania
Olt River: 31
Oltenia: 10, 11, 31, 95, 276
Oradea: 52
orchards and vineyards: 31, 32, 36, 254, 255, 257, 268
Ottoman Empire and the Turks: 9, 12, 13, 16, 32, 55, 63, 67, 72, 91
ownership (_see also_ private sector): 110, 113-114, 259, 260
PCR. _See_ Romanian Communist Party
Paciurea, Dimitrie: 98
painting (_see also_ arts and the artists): 95-98
Pana, Gheorghe: 140
Pann, Anton: 101
party politics (_see also_ individual parties): 14, 17, 20, 22, 175; single party, 2, 5
pasture: 32, 33, 36, 254, 255, 257
Patrascanu, Lucretiu: 131, 134
Pauker, Ana: 22, 24, 25
peasantry (_see also_ folk culture, working class): 53, 58, 61, 62, 68, 74, 148, 153; history, 12, 13; revolt, 17
penal system: 201-202, 257; code, 194, 205-206, 222; institutions, 207-209
people's councils: 111, 114, 115, 116, 124, 125, 126, 196; Commission, 117
People's Democratic Front: 24, 127, 135
People's Republic of China (_see also_ Sino-Soviet issue): 1, 27, 157, 158, 164, 167, 168, 250
periodicals: 53, 176, 180-181, 182; library, 105, 107, 152
Peter, tsar of Russia: 2
petroleum: ix, 17, 20, 29, 37, 47, 276, 278
Petrosani: 276
Phanariots: 12-13, 15
Pioneers Organization: 77, 80, 198, 199, 201
pipelines: ix, 29, 47
Ploiesti: 37, 41, 44, 47, 216
Plowmans Front: 22, 23
Poland: xiv, 165, 172, 182, 224
police (_see also_ militia): ix, 24, 195, 196, 197, 198, 202, 203; secret, 3, 25, 193, 197
pope: 14, 67, 68, 70, 71
Popescu-Gopo: 103
population: vii, 3, 30, 35, 38-41, 74
ports (_see also_ individual ports): ix, 17, 48, 196, 217
president, office and functions: 117, 118, 161, 214
Presidium: 110, 112
press: ix, 23, 93, 139, 176; freedom, 16, 113, 153, 176
prices: 237-240, 249, 283
prime minister, office and functions: 110, 119, 120
private sector: 113-114, 230, 258, 268-269, 273, 280
professionals (_see also_ intelligentsia): 6; unions, 94
propaganda (_see also_ indoctrination): v, 92, 139, 141, 153, 175, 176, 184, 190
Prosecutor General: 112, 115, 116, 118, 122, 123-124, 202
Protestants (_see also_ religion): viii, 4, 5, 13, 53, 71-72
Provisional Revolutionary Government of the Republic of South Vietnam (VietCong): 163, 171
Prut River: 29, 30, 31, 33, 38, 46
publishing: 147, 175, 176, 177, 185-187
purges, political: 3, 24, 25, 77, 142, 156
Radescu, Nicolae, General: 22, 23
radio: ix, 54, 101, 175, 176, 177, 182-184, 191, 288
Radulescu, Ehade: 104
railways: ix, 16, 29, 43-45, 194, 196, 227
reform: 14, 16, 19, 132, 133, 153; economic, 8, 19, 231, 237, 248, 285; education, 73, 77-79; land, 16, 17, 18, 55, 58
religion (_see also_ church-state relations; clergy; Protestants; Roman Catholicism; Romanian Orthodox Church): viii, 4, 5, 62, 65-66, 127; education, 4, 14, 66, 69, 72, 75, 76, 112; freedom of, viii, 5, 65, 68, 111; persecution of, 4, 65, 68, 70
Republic of Vietnam (South Vietnam): 170, 171
research: 107-108
revenue (_see also_ taxation): 241, 269
riparian rights: vii
rivers (_see also_ individual rivers; riparian rights; waterways): ix, 29, 31, 33-34, 36
roads and highways: ix, 29, 43, 44, 99, 203, 227
Rodin, Auguste: 98
Roman Catholicism (_see also_ church-state relations; religion): viii, 4, 13, 53, 67, 69-71
_Romania Libera_: 178, 179
Romanian Academy of Social and Political Sciences: 82
Romanian Air Transport (TAROM): ix, 46
Romanian Communist Party (Partidul Comunist Roman, PCR): vi, vii, 1, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 19, 22, 27, 55, 84, 92, 94, 98, 101, 109, 110, 111, 114, 118, 123, 125, 126, 127, 129, 130, 132-134, 135, 136-146, 147, 149, 153, 160, 161, 164, 167, 168, 169, 171, 174, 176, 177, 196, 198, 211, 226, 229, 234, 235, 237, 248, 275, 280; Central Auditing Committee, 133, 137, 140; Central Collegium, 140; Central Committee, 26, 27, 118, 119, 121, 125, 131, 132, 133, 134, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140, 143, 145, 153, 158, 162, 176, 178, 180, 181, 182, 213, 268; Executive Committee, 120, 121, 131, 138, 139, 140, 152, 198; membership, 61, 129, 142-144, 153, 281; organization, 137-142; policies, 149-153; Secretariat, 119, 138, 139, 140, 152; Standing Presidium, 8, 119, 131, 133, 138, 139, 155, 160, 162, 230
Romanian ethnic group: 3, 17, 18, 33, 49, 50-52, 52-53, 55, 57, 143; history, 13-14
Romanian Foreign Trade Bank: 242, 243, 244, 247
Romanian language: vii, 2, 4, 11, 14, 51, 54, 67, 75, 83, 103, 104, 209
Romanian Orthodox Church (_see also_ church-state relations; clergy religion): viii, 4, 65, 67-69
Romanian People's Army. See armed forces
Romanian People's Republic: v, vii, 5, 24, 110, 111, 131
Romanian Press Agency (Agentia Romana de Presa, Agerpres): 181, 182
Romanian Workers' Party: 23, 27, 111, 112, 130, 137, 142
Romans and the Roman Empire: 3, 10-11, 14, 50, 67, 91, 99
rural society (_see also_ villages): 38, 41, 57, 62, 65, 68, 79, 87, 153, 154, 183, 187, 264; population, 17, 52, 53
Russia (_see also_ Soviet Union): history, 2, 9, 15, 16, 18, 37, 54; revolution, 19, 37
Russian language: 2, 27, 83, 181
Sadoveanu, Mihail: 106
sanitation: 42
Sarmizegetusa: 99
Savings and Loan Bank: 242, 244, 245
schools (_see also_ education; religion; students; universities): 2, 14, 27, 53, 54, 57, 65, 73, 74, 75, 77, 80, 81, 82, 83-88, 89, 97, 104, 148, 200, 201, 204
_Scinteia_: 178, 179
_Scinteia Tineretului_: 178-180
sculpture: 98
security (_see also_ crime; defence; police): 133, 139; internal, 116, 120, 193-201; national, ix, 20
security troops: 193, 194, 197-198, 203, 206, 219
services: 232, 239
Sibu: 53
Sighisoara: 53
Sino-Soviet issue: v, 1, 27, 158, 164, 166, 167
Siretul River: 30, 31, 41
size and location (_see also_ boundaries): vii, xiv, 3, 29, 32
Slavs: 2, 4, 9, 11, 12, 49, 51, 55, 127, 151; language and culture, 50, 51, 67
social benefits: 88, 260, 262
Social Democratic Party: 19, 22, 23, 137, 142
social structure: 6, 17, 58-62
socialism (_see also_ collective farms; nationalization; Socialist Realism): v, 5, 73, 105, 151-153, 154, 198, 207, 230, 240
Socialist Party: 142
Socialist Realism: 7, 92, 93, 106
Socialist Republic of Romania: v, vii, 1, 3, 5, 28, 66, 113, 131
Socialist Unity Front: 126, 127, 135, 151, 177, 198
soils: 29, 35-36, 253, 254
Soviet Union (_see also_ Czechoslovakia; Sino-Soviet issue): 22, 23, 33, 34, 37, 54, 131, 159, 163, 164-165, 167, 172, 182, 199, 212, 216, 218, 223, 224, 275, 279; border, vii, xiv, 10, 29, 46, 217; Communist Party, 137, 156, 166; Constitution (1936), 5, 111; independence of, 1-2, 3, 5, 8, 25, 26, 27, 28, 63, 113, 129, 134, 136, 154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 159, 161, 164, 169, 211, 227, 248; influence over Romania, v, viii, 1, 5, 7, 9, 24, 76, 92, 110, 111, 137, 152, 156, 158, 198; trade, viii, 190, 250, 276, 277; World War II, 9, 20, 21
Stalin, Joseph (_see also_ Stalinism): 2, 7, 9, 25, 156
Stalinism: 2, 25, 156; de-Stalinization, 7, 92, 134-136, 157
State Committee for Prices: 115,120, 237, 239, 240
state enterprises: 80, 82, 87, 119, 120, 126, 141, 188, 194, 230, 231, 234-237, 238, 239, 242, 243, 246, 248, 281, 283; farms, 257, 258, 261-262, 267, 273; industry, 280, 283
State Inspectorate General for Product Quality: 289
State Planning Committee: 119, 120, 121, 237, 242, 243
State Security Council: 195, 197, 198
Stephan Gheorghiu Academy of Social-Political Education and the Training of Leading Cadres: 139, 144
Stephen the Great (1457-1504): 12
Stoica, Chivu: 130, 131, 133, 136
Storck, Carol: 98
Storck, Karl: 98
students (_see also_ schools): 73, 80, 86, 87, 148; organizations, 77, 78, 80, 87, 199, 200
suffrage: 126
sugar beet: 255, 256, 272
Superior Council of Agriculture: 256, 257
Supreme Court: viii, 109, 112, 116, 118, 122, 124, 201, 223
Szeklers: 13, 52, 53
Szekelys. _See_ Szeklers
_tambal_: 100
TAROM. _See_ Romanian Air Transport
Tatars: 3, 4, 11, 12, 50, 51, 72
Tattarescu, Gheorghe: 97
taxation: 233, 239, 241, 245
teachers: 78, 79, 82, 83, 88, 154; training, 75, 76, 77, 82, 84, 85, 87-88, 89, 144
technical/vocational education: viii, 6, 7, 73, 74, 75, 76, 78, 80, 81, 84, 85, 87, 145, 284
television: ix, 54, 101, 152, 175, 176, 177, 182, 184-185, 288
text books: 2, 78, 80, 82
textiles: 95, 284, 288
theater: 53, 101-102, 105, 152
Thracians. _See_ Dacians
timber: 277-278, 288
Timisoara: 44, 193
Tirgu Mures: 44, 52
Tisza River: 31, 33, 46
Tonitza, Nicolae: 97
topography (_see also_ mountains; rivers): vii, 31, 253
tourists and tourism: 33, 217, 252; exchange rate, ix, 247
trade (_see also_ export; import; individual countries): 232; balance, viii, 8, 169, 173, 229, 242-243, 248, 251-252; domestic, 236; foreign, viii, 27, 155, 162, 163, 164, 167, 168, 170, 171, 172, 173, 217, 229, 230, 237, 246, 247-252
traffic, vehicular: 203-204
Trajan, Column of: 14
Trajan, Emperor: 11, 50, 99
transport (_see also_ air transport; pipelines; railways; roads and highways; traffic; waterways): 43-48, 110, 216, 232
Transylvania (_see also_ Transylvanian Alps): vii, 3, 4, 32, 34, 35, 37, 47, 68, 99, 166, 254, 276; cultural, 94, 95, 99, 103; history, 3, 10, 11, 13-14, 16, 18, 20, 21, 37, 50, 55, 67, 70; population, 41, 52, 53, 54, 56; transport, 43, 47
Transylvanian Alps: vii, 30, 31-32, 33, 35, 47, 276
travel: 61
Treaty of Berlin (1878): 16
'Tudor Vladimirescu': 21
Turkey (_see also_ Ottoman Empire and the Turks; Turks): vii, 15, 16, 170, 171
Turks (_see also_ Ottoman Empire and the Turks): 3, 4, 15, 50, 53, 55
Turnu Severin: 44, 99
UTC. _See_ Union of Communist Youth
underemployment: 233, 253, 264, 265
Uniate Church: 4, 13, 67, 68, 69
Union of Communist Youth (Uniunea Tineretului Comunist, UTC): 77, 78, 80, 87, 120, 133, 147-148, 178, 181, 198-199, 200, 201, 213
Union of Student Associations: 77, 80, 198, 200
Unitarians: 4, 5, 13, 53, 73
United Nations: ix, 155, 168, 170, 172
United Principalities: 16
United States: 23, 167, 170, 190; trade, 158, 246, 250-251
universities (_see also_ University of Bucharest): 75, 76, 80, 81, 84, 85-86, 88, 199, 200, 221; foreign, 15; teachers, 116; workers, 87
University of Bucharest: 107
uranium: 277
urban society: 4, 15, 17, 38, 41, 49, 54, 57, 62, 75, 87, 102, 141, 255, 264; government, 124, 125, 126
Vacarescu, Iancu: 104
Valbudea, Stefan Ionescu: 98
values and traditions: political, 153-154; social, 49, 62-63, 65
Vatican (_see also_ pope): 69, 71
vegetables: 254, 256, 261, 268, 270, 272, 273
vegetation (_see also_ forests and forestry): 36
Vietnam (_see also_ Provisional Revolutionary Government of South Vietnam; Republic of Vietnam): 158
villages: 38, 41, 91, 100; justice, 194
Vlachs: 11, 12, 50
Vyshinsky, Andrei: 23
wages (_see also_ income): 88, 149, 260-261, 263-264, 285; prisoners, 208
Walachia: vii, 31, 32, 34, 35, 36, 43, 47, 254; cultural, 96, 97, 99, 103; history, 3, 10, 11, 12, 13, 15, 16, 37, 67, 74; population, 41, 54
Warsaw Pact. _See_ Warsaw Treaty Organization
Warsaw Treaty Organization (_see also_ Czechoslovakia): ix, 1, 2, 7, 8, 28, 46, 135, 136, 156, 159, 161, 164, 166, 167, 168, 171, 172, 203, 211, 212, 215, 216, 218, 219, 220, 223, 224, 225, 226, 227
waterways: ix, 29, 44, 45-46, 48
West Germany. _See_ Federal Republic of Germany
Western nations (_see also_ individual nations): 163, 164, 169, 171, 182; cultural influence (_see also_ France), 91, 93, 95, 98, 99, 100, 101, 104, 105, 107, 132, 152, 168, 187, 189, 190; economic relations, 8, 25, 27, 158, 168, 229, 230, 246, 247, 248, 250, 251, 275
wildlife: 32-33
women: viii, 39, 40, 57, 79, 141, 143, 180, 181, 208, 209; labor, 56-57, 58, 264, 283; organizations, 5, 126, 127, 135, 147, 199
working class (_see also_ peasantry): 6, 17, 58, 59-60, 61, 86, 92, 126, 142, 143, 148, 149, 152
World Council of Churches: 72
World War I: 3, 4, 9, 17-18, 32, 37, 40, 74, 212
World War II: 9, 20-21, 32, 33, 37, 40, 41, 54, 72, 113, 226, 277
youth (_see also_ students; Union of Communist Youth): 7, 73, 76, 78, 82, 141, 152, 180, 193, 199-201, 203, 219; organizations, 5, 57, 77, 78, 105, 126, 127, 132, 135, 144, 147, 152, 198, 199, 200, 201, 281
Yugoslavia: 3, 33, 39, 46, 164, 166, 167, 182, 219, 278, 279; border, vii, xiv, 10, 29, 34, 37, 216, 217
Zhivkov, Todor: 166
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