Chapter 10

INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL SECURITY

The armed forces in 1970 were under the Ministry of People's Defense, and all elements were included within the People's Army. Total personnel strength was about 40,000. Most troops were acquired by conscription, and about one-half of the eligible young men were drafted, usually at age nineteen. All of the tanks, aircraft, and vehicles used by the armed forces were of Soviet design, but since 1961 all external assistance has been provided by the Communist Chinese. Military ranks were abolished in 1966, but the force organization at lower levels in all service components was conventional.

The modern armed forces grew out of the partisan units of World War II, during which they fought against the Italians, the Germans, and each other. By the time of the German evacuation of Albania in November 1944, the Communist-led National Liberation Front held the dominant position among the partisans and was able to assume control of the country without fighting any major battles.

The Albanian Workers' Party (Communist Party) had an active organization within the services. All or nearly all officers in the regular services were Party members in 1970. All cadets over eighteen years of age in the officer candidate military schools were also Party members. Younger cadets were members of the Union of Albanian Working Youth. Probably only a very few of the conscripts were Party members, but nearly all were members of the youth organization. In addition to the influence exerted by Party cells, political commissars throughout the armed forces structure enforced ideological conformity.

The Albanian fighting man has had an excellent reputation for 2,000 years but, with the exception of Skanderbeg, the fifteenth-century national hero--he was born Gjergi Kastrioti and renamed Skanderbeg after Alexander the Great--the military forces of the country have disclaimed any heritage antedating the partisan activities of World War II. Skanderbeg gained brief independence for the country during his opposition to the Turkish invaders, but his exploits in support of nationalism stood almost alone over the entire period between Roman times and the twentieth century.

Moreover, national independence in 1912 did not result from a major military victory. National feelings, aroused late in the nineteenth century, became more intense during the early 1900s but, although there were clashes between fairly sizable armed groups of Turks and Albanians, freedom was not attained from armed struggle involving organized military forces. Rather, in the interests of the balance of power the greater European powers recognized the declared independence of Albania (see ch. 2, Historical Setting).

Police and security forces were under the control of the Ministry of the Interior. They were organized into three directorates: the Directorate of State Security, Frontier Guards, and the People's Police. Except for the fact that they were subject to the same system of military justice, they were entirely separate from the armed forces of the Ministry of People's Defense. The Albanian security police in 1970 were believed to exert more rigid controls over the population than was exercised by similar forces in any other East European Communist country or in the Soviet Union.

The Directorate of State Security contained the internal security police. Organized to protect the Party and governmental system, they were responsible for suppressing resistance to, and deviation from, Party ideology, and for combating crimes that had a national character. Frontier Guards, as their name implies, accomplished border security. The People's Police were the local or municipal police, with the typical routines and local interests of such forces.

It is difficult to ascertain the overall effectiveness of the various police and security forces in the maintenance of public order because no official crime statistics are published. Official statements in the press provide little or no information on the extent of crime other than the inordinate coverage of those crimes that are political in nature and considered threatening to the Party or the state. Statements by the rare Western visitors to the country concerning the police state atmosphere have led to the assumption that public order is rigidly maintained.

Although military and security forces were small in proportion to the size of the military age male population, they were nearly double the per capita average maintained by the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) or by Warsaw Pact nations. Whether or not the people recognized the armed forces as a burden, the country has never had the industrial or economic base to maintain them. Since World War II it has relied, in turn, on Yugoslavia, the Soviet Union, and Communist China for aid. Chinese assistance since 1961 has been sufficient to maintain equipment previously furnished by the Soviet Union and to replace some of the older weapons as they became obsolete.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

The free-spirited and hardy Albanian mountaineers have had excellent reputations as individual fighters. The Romans recruited some of their best soldiers from the regions that later became Albania. In succeeding periods many Albanians became famous in the military service of the Ottomans.

Nationalism was rarely necessary to motivate these men. Before 1912 the country had independence for only one brief period. It was gained then by the national hero, Skanderbeg, and freedom evaporated almost immediately upon his death in 1468. The history and legends attached to him make up a large part of the national military tradition. Other than in his day, freedom was rarely fought for except in the context of defense of tribal areas against the incursions of marauding neighbors. There were few occasions when Albanians rose up against occupying foreign powers. Conquerors generally left the people alone in their isolated mountain homelands and, as a feudal tribal society persisted, there was little if any feeling of national unity in the country (see ch. 2, Historical Setting).

Organized military action also played an almost negligible part in attaining independence. Some revolutionary activity occurred during the rise of national feeling in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. There were clashes between insurgents and Turkish forces as early as 1884 but, at the same time that the Albanians were resisting Turkish practices they considered oppressive against themselves, they were defending the Turks in their hostilities with the Greeks or the Slavs. They continued to be recruited into, and to serve in, the Turkish army.

By 1900 about 8,000 armed Albanians were assembled in Shkoder, but they were unopposed, and a situation resembling anarchy more than revolution prevailed in the country during the early 1900s. There were arrests, incidents of banditry and pillage, and many futile Turkish efforts to restore order. Guerrilla activity increased after about 1906, and several incidents occurred, which produced martyrs but which were not marked by great numbers of casualties. Nevertheless, although it was unorganized and never assumed the proportions of a serious struggle, the resistance was instrumental in maintaining the pressure that attracted international attention and led the great powers, when they intervened after the Balkan wars of 1912 and 1913, to recognize the independent state of Albania.

World War I began before the country could establish a viable governmental body--much less form, train, and equip a military establishment. During the war years it was occupied by the warring parties, and the last of them remained into 1920.

Ahmet Zogu--as minister of the interior and minister of war until 1922 and prime minister from 1922, except for a brief exile in 1924, until he became King Zog in 1928--created the first national forces of any consequence. Before 1925, so that he would have some assurance of their loyalty, these consisted of about 5,000 men from his home tribal district. Starting in about 1925 with Italian assistance and a considerable degree of Italian control over the forces, men were drawn through universal conscription. The first drafts called about 5,000 to 6,000 annually from the approximately 10,000 young men who became eligible for the draft each year. Italian aid equipped the forces, and Italian officers provided most of the training and tactical guidance, to the point that they had effective control over their employment.

At about the same time the Gendarmerie was formed with British assistance. It had an Albanian director, a British general who served as its inspector general, and a staff of British inspectors. The Gendarmerie became an effective internal security and police organization. It had a commandant in each of the ten prefectures, a headquarters in each of the subprefectures (up to eight per prefecture), and a post in each of the nearly 150 local communities. Its communications network was for many years the most complete telephone system in the country.

Although the Italians objected strenuously, King Zog used the Gendarmerie as a safeguard against the possible consequences of Italian domination of his regular armed forces. He kept the force under his direct control and retained its British advisers until 1938. Zog also retained a sizable armed group from his old tribal region.

King Zog's efforts to reduce Italian control over his forces were insufficient to save them from quick humiliation before World War II. The Italians attacked on April 7, 1939, and, although annual conscription had created a trained reserve of at least 50,000 men, it was never called. Resistance was overcome in about a week. Later in 1939 the Italians incorporated Albanian units into their forces. Little benefit was derived from the Albanians, who could see little point in fighting for the Italians, even against their traditional enemies, the Greeks. They deserted in large numbers (see ch. 2, Historical Setting).

Resistance to the occupation grew rapidly as signs of Italian weakness became apparent. At the end of 1942 guerrilla forces had numbered no more than perhaps 8,000 to 10,000. By the summer of 1943, when the Italian effort collapsed, almost all of the mountainous interior was controlled by various resistance groups.

The Germans took over the occupation from the Italians and inflicted near-decisive defeat upon the guerrillas in January 1944. Resistance grew again, however, as final defeat for the Axis powers appeared certain, and by the end of 1944 guerrilla forces probably totaled about 70,000 men. In addition, by their count, they had suffered about 28,000 casualties. The Communist-controlled National Liberation Movement had then solidified its hold over the guerrilla groups and was able to take over the country after the war. Enver Hoxha had been the chief political commissar of the General Staff that was created in July 1943. From that post he rose rapidly to leadership of the group and through it became the head of the Communist government that took over at the end of World War II.

Albania's first Communist military forces were equipped, trained, and modeled after Yugoslavia's. When Yugoslavia embarked on its separate road to socialism in 1948 and was expelled from the Communist Information Bureau (Cominform--see Glossary), Albania aligned directly with the Soviet Union. This did not involve an immediate change in materiel, organization, or training because the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia had had much the same relationship before their break.

Soviet aid included advisory personnel, a considerable amount of modern conventional armament, a few small World War II naval vessels, and a number of aircraft. This aid was halted entirely in 1961. The Soviet submarine flotilla that had been based on Sazan Island, off Vlore, passed Gibraltar in June 1961 on its way back to northern Soviet ports.

Communist China succeeded the Soviet Union as Albania's ally. Albania can provide China with little of tactical importance, but its value as an ally from a political standpoint has been sufficient to warrant continuation of aid in quantities sufficient to maintain the armed forces at about the same levels of personnel strength and equipment that they had achieved when they were supported by the Soviet Union, although interruptions in training are believed to have caused a deterioration in technical skills and know-how.

THE MILITARY ESTABLISHMENT

Position in the Government

The People's Army, which encompasses the ground, naval, and air arms of the regular armed forces, is under the Ministry of People's Defense, which, in turn, is within the Council of Ministers. The ministers are selected from the People's Assembly which, with its Presidium, is at the top of the governmental structure (see ch. 6, Government Structure and Political System).

In mid-1970 the minister of defense, Beqir Balluku, was also a deputy prime minister and a member of the Political Bureau (Politburo) of the Albanian Workers' Party. Balluku had a military career background and held the rank of colonel general in the army before its ranks were abolished in 1966. As defense minister he exercised direct operational and administrative control over all elements of the military establishment.

The People's Army

The army claims no antecedents in the forces of the pre-Communist regimes and dates itself from July 10, 1943, when a General Staff was formed within the guerrilla forces resisting the Italian occupation. Petrit Dume, its chief of staff in 1970, had commanded the People's Army for about twenty years. He was second only to Balluku in the defense hierarchy and was also a candidate member of the Politburo of the Party organization. Enver Hoxha, first secretary of the Albanian Workers' Party, held the rank of general of the army until rank designations were abolished but, although he could exercise personal direction of the armed forces as their commander in chief, he was not considered a member of the defense establishment.

All of the regular military forces are within the People's Army. The air and naval arms are usually treated separately because of their distinctive functions and equipment, but their men are sometimes referred to as naval and air soldiers. Major subcommands, such as the army's directorates of Political Affairs and Rear Services (Logistics), serve all service components. The same is the case with such organizations as the medical service that have functions applicable to all of the armed forces.

At lower levels, where the functions of the forces are specialized in relation to their weapons, organizational patterns appear to be similar to those in most of the other armed forces throughout the Communist world. During the post-World War II formative years, force structures were adapted from those of the Soviet Union. Realignments after 1961 to cooperate with the Communist Chinese are not believed to have affected them to any appreciable degree. Some unit designations, such as army division, are not used in the peacetime organization and, in other situations, the sizes of units may be scaled down somewhat from normal international practice.

Rank designations were abolished in 1966. Since then, according to the governmental decree that effected the change, position in the military hierarchy is based on the responsibilities stipulated in the relevant tables of organization of the armed forces. Most of the personnel who would have fallen into the lower rank categories are acquired by conscription. Men without highly skilled specialties are retained for two years; noncommissioned officers and others who receive special training are required to serve for longer periods.

The stated mission of the armed forces in general and the ground forces in particular is to defend the country and to secure its governing system. The stated mission notwithstanding, support of the system is primarily the responsibility of the security police forces and, against an external opponent, the armed forces are believed to have only a defensive capability. Unless Albanian forces engaged an enemy that was also committed against a third party in a more general conflict, they would, of necessity, revert to guerrilla fighting. Most of the training and much of the propaganda directed at the local population indicate that the leadership anticipates the possibility of guerrilla warfare.

The Party slogan, "the pick in one hand and the rifle in the other," also illustrates the dual use of service personnel in peacetime. They assist in the construction of industrial enterprises and hydroelectric plants and in land reclamation projects, crop harvests, and the like. They were used during the early 1960s, for example, in the construction of the oil refinery at Cerrik; in building a sugar factory, a lumber combine, and a textile factory; and in the draining of Lake Maliq to acquire additional agricultural land in a marshy lake district area north of Korce (see ch. 8, Economic System).

Ground Forces

The ground forces contain about three-quarters of the regular personnel and are the backbone of the armed forces. Consequently, many of the People's Army functions that apply to all of the service components are administered within the ground force organization.

Because the active personnel strength of the ground forces is around 30,000--sufficient to man only about two divisions--the brigade has been chosen as the basic tactical unit. The brigades are manned with approximately 3,000 men each, and there are probably one tank and five infantry brigades. The infantry brigades are believed to contain three infantry battalions and a lightly equipped artillery regiment. The tank brigade has Soviet-built weapons. Most of them are World War II T-34 medium tanks, but there are a few of the later model T-54s.

Almost all artillery is light and small caliber, since movement of heavy equipment is nearly impossible over much of the terrain. In addition, heavy weapons, their transport, or even their ammunition could not be produced locally, and little resupply from external sources could be expected in any lengthy conflict. In so small an area the rapid movement of forces would serve little purpose. The minimal amount of transport equipment available includes small numbers of Soviet-designed armored personnel carriers, command cars, and a few types of trucks.

Before 1961 training was based on Soviet methods, and specialized schools were scaled-down copies of those in the Soviet army. Training manuals were translated from the Russian. Although external support of the forces has been transferred from the Soviet Union to Communist China, the Chinese have apparently not required basic changes in the training programs. Most conscripts have been exposed to a considerable amount of drill and elementary basic training in school and in Communist youth organizations, permitting the forces to concentrate on tactical exercises. These consist mostly of small unit activities and involve fighting techniques appropriate to the defense of the mountainous interior. Physical conditioning, tactics involving light weapons, and operations using a minimum of materiel support are emphasized on a continuing basis. Political indoctrination, conducted or supervised by the political commissars, is heavily administered in all training programs.

Naval Forces

Naval units are subordinate to the Coastal Defense Command which, although a part of the People's Army, is operationally responsible directly to the Ministry of People's Defense. None of the pre-World War II navy survived the occupation and, as with the other branches of the service, the navy forgets any earlier ancestry and celebrates August 15, 1945, as its founding date. The senior naval officer is commander of naval forces, a deputy commander of coastal defense, and deputy minister of defense for naval affairs. In late 1969 Ymer Zeqir held these positions. As deputy commander of coastal defense he coordinated naval operations with those of the air defense and ground forces that would participate in defense of the coastal area. As deputy minister of defense he represented the naval forces in national defense planning and coordinated personnel, logistic support, and matters that are common to other branches of the armed forces.

Naval forces are divided into three commands: the Submarine Brigade, the Vlore Sea Defense Brigade, and the Durres Sea Defense Brigade. All combat ships are assigned to one of the three. The Submarine Brigade is based at the Pasha Liman anchorages south of the city of Vlore, at the extreme southwestern point in the bay. Main facilities of the Vlore Sea Defense Brigade are located on the island of Sazan, in the mouth of the bay about ten miles west of Vlore. This was the site of the Soviet submarine base before 1961. The Durres Sea Defense Brigade controls the units stationed at Durres and those that are locked within Lake Scutari. The Buene River is navigable between Lake Scutari and the Adriatic, but only the smallest of the ships in the lake can pass beneath the Shkoder city bridges.

The officially stated mission of the naval forces is to provide for the military security of coastal waters; to prevent smuggling; to prevent submarines from approaching the coast or harbors; to lay and sweep mines; to intercept enemy forces; to escort convoys along the coastline; and, together with police patrol boats, to control entries to, or exits from, the country. Original Soviet support for the navy was provided in order to secure a submarine and minelaying base with access to the Mediterranean Sea.

Forces available are considerably weaker than those of any one of the potential enemies and, with the exception of Vlore, Albanian harbors provide little natural protection. It is therefore probable that the leadership thinks in terms of peacetime shore patrols and would hope, in wartime, to use what units they were able to preserve to prevent totally uninhibited use of the seas adjacent to the country.

In mid-1970 naval ships included three or four submarines, eight minesweepers, twelve motor torpedo boats, one or two oilers, and perhaps twenty-five or thirty more ships, about one-half of which were classed as coastal patrol and one-half as auxiliary types. The submarines are obsolescent medium-range boats. Two of the minesweepers are oceangoing vessels; the other six can sweep harbors or inshore seas only. Most of the miscellaneous vessels were formerly Italian, of World War II and earlier vintages. Albanian sources claim that a dozen newer torpedo boats have been supplied by the Chinese, six of them hydrofoil types.

Naval personnel number approximately 3,000. Since many of the ships put to sea infrequently, many of the navy men do part-time fishing or agricultural work. Familiarity with ships helps a new conscript get a naval assignment, and many of those drafted are from the vicinities of Vlore or Durres and may serve their three years being only rarely out of sight of home. Their morale is only fair.

Officers are required to have a general education that includes at least some university credits. They receive specialized courses before going to sea. Before 1961 most officers and some of the higher noncommissioned officer ratings received some training in the Soviet Union. Without this training or a Chinese substitute for it, there has probably been some degradation in the technical capabilities of the officer and noncommissioned officer personnel.

Air Force

The Albanian Air Force is the youngest of the service branches, founded on April 23, 1951. As is the case with the navy, the air force is also a part of the People's Army, having organizational and logistic individuality only insofar as its equipment is different and requires different techniques and skills in its use. Arif Hasko, chief of the air force in mid-1970, was also a deputy minister of defense and, as was the case with his naval counterpart, advised on problems peculiar to his force and coordinated on matters of general interest to all branches of the service.

Air defense artillery and missile units are usually included with the air force and account for about two-thirds of its 5,000 to 7,000 personnel. Air defense units received Soviet equipment between 1948 and 1961, including that required at a few surface-to-air missile sites. Their Guideline missiles were paraded in Tirana on Army Day of 1964 and have been shown on occasion since. The original missiles supplied by the Soviets would have outlived their storage lifetimes by 1970. If a surface-to-air missile capability did exist at that time, the Chinese would have supplied the necessary replacements.

Aircraft in 1970 included sixty to seventy fighters and fighter-bombers and about the same number of transports, trainers, and miscellaneous noncombat types. All were of Soviet design. Fighter-bombers or ground attack aircraft were the jet MiG-15s and MiG-17s provided by the Soviet Union before 1961. Spare parts necessary to keep them operating since then have been supplied by Communist China. MiG-19s for the air defense interceptor role have also been furnished by the Chinese.

It is believed that the 1970 force included four ground support squadrons and probably two interceptor squadrons, with about ten or twelve aircraft per squadron. Air-to-air missiles are an integral part of the MiG-19 armament and are presumably being furnished in small quantities by the Chinese. Transport squadrons contain a few Soviet-built piston-engined Il-14s and AN-2s, some Soviet-built helicopters, and possibly a few helicopters built by the Chinese.

The five principal airbases are located near Tirana, Shijak (about twenty miles west of Tirana), Vlore, Sazan Island (at the mouth of Vlore Bay), and at Stalin (about forty miles south of Tirana). The base on Sazan Island that was built and used by the Russians has been used intermittently, if at all, since the Russians evacuated it in 1961. Helicopter bases have been, or are being, constructed at several inland cities as well as at Tirana, Shkoder, and as a part of the major base at Vlore. The forces had no surface-to-surface missile capability in 1970.

The missions assigned to the combat elements of the air force are to repel an enemy at the borders and to prevent the violation of Albanian airspace. Because the force is small, could not easily be resupplied, has exposed bases, and possesses no appreciable area to retreat into, however, it could not be expected to contribute significantly to any sustained combat effort. It serves mainly to provide the regime with ostensive evidence of its power and technological progress.

Mobilization Potential

In the event of total mobilization there are just under 500,000 males between the ages of fifteen and fifty. Of the total group approximately 75 percent, or nearly 375,000, are physically fit. More than half of these have had some military service, and a sizable group participates in military reserve activities (see ch. 4, The People).

Information as to how the existing establishment would be expanded is not available. Units active in 1970 could be enlarged to about double their peacetime strengths because all units are usually maintained at considerably below combat readiness strengths. New units would probably be created in infantry or guerrilla forces. Additional tank, air, and naval units would require more of their special equipment before they could become operational. Some women probably would be mobilized. The national economy, however, could not provide logistic support for the number of male personnel available, and external support would be necessary.

Political Indoctrination

At the time of the Communist takeover in 1944 and in the years immediately thereafter, political commissars were an integral part of the military organization. They were considered essential in order to assure that ideological beliefs were constant and were adhered to without deviation. As the years passed they lost their early importance and were eventually done away with, but they were reinstated in 1966 when alignment with Communist China brought renewed revolutionary fervor.

How much their organization and operations in 1970 differed from what they were in 1944 is not clearly understood, but the fact that they were still called political commissars was a strong indication that they performed basically the same functions. There is no question but that the justification for their existence was the same--that is, to ensure that the ideological and political orientation of the troops and of their leaders did not deviate from the Party line. The decree that reinstated the commissars stated that they would be assigned in all units, subunits, and military establishments. This presumably means that there are commissars in all base organizations and in tactical units down at least to the company level.

It is also known that Political Directorates in both the Ministry of People's Defense and the Ministry of the Interior control the commissars in the armed forces and the security forces, respectively. Political commissars are carefully selected from the standpoint of ideological reliability. Those appointed since 1966 must have had five years of unblemished Party membership. Those in the armed forces who are attached to the lower levels of the organizational structure are responsible to the Political Directorate and the Party organization rather than to superior officers within the military command channels. Hito Cako was chief of the People's Army Political Directorate in 1970.

In addition to the military court system, discipline is enforced as part of the educational and ideological training program by the political workers who act in conjunction with the Party organizations in service units. They are invited to take measures necessary against individuals whose attitude or conduct is considered harmful to the effectiveness of, or discipline within, the army.

Military Schools

Other than those that are set up for specialized training, there are three military schools providing curricula aimed at producing officer personnel or offering advanced military theory. The Skanderbeg military school is a secondary or preparatory school. It is attended by children of top Party, government, and military leaders and prepares them for entrance into the Enver Hoxha United Army Officers School. The Hoxha school is the oldest military educational institution in the country. It started a formal curriculum in 1945 but, according to Party claims, was in operation before the World War II occupation forces left the country in 1944. It is the military academy that provides a university level curriculum and whose students become commissioned officers upon graduation.

The Mehmet Shehu Military Academy is named for the man who in 1970 was premier (chairman of the Council of Ministers) and also a member of the Party Politburo. Shehu was a lieutenant general before 1966 and was considered one of the country's most capable military leaders. The academy is the advanced military institution that offers career training equivalent to that of command and staff or war college institutions in Western military establishments.

Military Medicine

The medical services were organized during the 1950s along the lines of those in the Soviet and East European Communist forces in order to facilitate cooperation among them. Although there has been no such cooperation since 1961, the basic organization was unchanged in 1963 and probably remained basically the same in 1970.

The head of the medical establishment has the title of chief, Albanian Armed Forces Medical Service. He is responsible to the chief of the Rear Services, which is one of the unified directorates directly beneath the Ministry of People's Defense. Naval, air force, and ground force staffs are responsible to him, but the naval and air force groups appear to have a largely advisory capacity, except as they work to secure the services required by their branches of the service. The hospital, pharmaceutical, and personnel sections, however, are operated by the deputy chief of medical services, who is also head of the ground forces' medical department.

Albanian sources state that there is close cooperation between the military medical service and the Ministry of Health. The forces' medical personnel, facilities, equipment, and medicines have been used to improve sanitary and medical conditions in less developed areas and to provide assistance in flood, earthquake, and other emergency situations.

Decorations

Recognition for high standards of conduct, exceptional effort, or noteworthy accomplishment is bestowed lavishly. Highly prized decorations include the Partisan Star, Order of the Albanian Flag, Order of the National Hero, and Order of Skanderbeg. Other decorations that are worn by a few of the highest military and Party officials include the Memorial Medal, the Order of Liberty (or Order of Freedom), the Liberation Medal, Order of the People's Hero (or Hero of the People), and Order of Valor. Some of the decorations, including the Partisan Star and Order of Skanderbeg, are awarded in three classes. This group of decorations is usually awarded individually, but on rare occasions some can be presented to a group.

The Order of Labor (or Hero of Socialist Labor) and the Red Flag Order (or Red Banner) may be presented to individuals, usually civilians, but are most frequently reported when awarded to a group or an enterprise. Typical recipients would be a factory for overfulfilling its quotas, a ship after completing an unusual voyage, or a military unit that had performed well in some civic project or in an emergency relief situation.

Paramilitary Training

In November 1944, when partisan resistance forces were at their peak strength of about 70,000, about 6,000 of them were women and 1,000 were boys under fifteen years of age. Formal paramilitary training was undertaken in 1945, shortly after the Hoxha regime gained control, and was made obligatory for all young people in 1953. Training has been developed to the point that fifteen- to nineteen-year-old youths can be organized into their own auxiliary units in emergencies.

Major revisions to the secondary school and university military training programs were announced in 1969 in preparation for implementation during the ensuing school year. The extent of training, what it would include, and aims of the new program were given wide publicity throughout 1969 in order to ease the transition. The purpose of the programs is to provide the armed forces with conscripts who are in good physical condition and who have sufficient basic military training to permit them to step directly into a military unit and perform usefully with a minimum of adjustment and little additional training.

Beginning in 1970 the secondary school year was to consist of 6-½ months of academic work, 2-½ months of physical work in agriculture or industry, 1 month of military training, and 2 months of relaxation. According to official guidance, however, the youths are encouraged to use their relaxation period for "ideological and physical steeling." The university year would consist of 7 months of academic work, 2 months of military training, 1 month of physical work, and 2 months of ideological and physical steeling.

Physical training of the type that contributes most to future military service is encouraged. Specific goals to be derived from it are basic physical improvement in speed, agility, strength, and resistance and the moral attributes of bravery, strong will, and personal discipline. Light sports, such as volleyball, are discouraged. Track, wrestling, and body contact sports are advised. Swimming and skiing are also considered to have military applications. It is recommended that calisthenics and physical culture activities be carried on in large groups.

Military instruction includes close order drill, crawling and obstacle penetration, storming techniques, and hand-to-hand combat. Academic courses in the military area train in the care and use of various types of weapons, the theories of military art, and the techniques of conventional and guerrilla warfare. Schools organize marches and excursions that are combined with tactical military exercises to give them a wholly military character. Most of these are designed to teach guerrilla warfare tactics. Overnight stalking exercises feature searches for intruder groups, a simulated target demolition, or some such objective. Girls as well as boys are required to participate. Tirana press photographs have shown some groups of girls engaged in mortar training, others in target shooting. In the 1969 Tirana May Day parade girls, in ranks of fifteen abreast, carried submachineguns.

When the programs have been completely implemented, students in the first and second years of secondary schooling will receive all of their physical and military training at their schools. It will be supervised by teachers and military officers assigned to the schools. Third- and fourth-year students will have part of the training at their schools, but with entire day or week periods devoted to the program. They will also spend a part of the allocated month in military units to which the school is attached for the purpose.

Facilities are not adequate in many schools, and in many areas military units are not immediately available to assist in training. It will be several years before the complete revised programs can be implemented. The first year's effort, however, involves about 10,000 university students and about 170,000 other people. The latter figure includes schoolteachers, military personnel who cooperate in the training, and others who provide miscellaneous voluntary or part-time assistance, in addition to those who receive the training. Students in the program have been compared with those in the Communist Chinese Red Guard, but the organization of the Albanian program is designed to keep it closely aligned with the school curriculum and with active military units to prevent large-scale independent action by youth groups.

Paramilitary programs of Party-sponsored youth organizations are similar in many ways to those in the school system. Pioneers take children, both boys and girls, between the ages of seven and fourteen. A group of these young Pioneers carried rifles and submachineguns in the 1968 Tirana May Day parade. From ages fifteen to twenty-five they may belong to the Union of Albanian Working Youth, frequently called the Communist Youth Movement. The Union of Albanian Working Youth had 210,000 members in 1967. Nearly all personnel drafted into the armed forces fall within the youth movement's age brackets, and its units within the services are active. Political and ideological indoctrination is intensive in these organizations and prepares the youth for possible membership in the Party in later years (see ch. 6, Government Structure and Political System).

Military Justice

There is no distinction between the civil judicial order in general and the military order in particular, but military crimes are treated in a separate chapter of the penal code. That chapter treats those acts, committed by persons under the jurisdiction of military courts, that are directed against military discipline, military orders, and the like. They include a broad variety of violations against persons, property, or the state.

A military crime, in the Albanian system, has two characteristics distinguishing it from nonmilitary crimes. The crime is committed against regulations established for the performance of military service, and the defendant is a member of the armed forces. For criminal justice the security forces under the Ministry of the Interior and all local police are considered armed forces and are subject to military law and to trial in military courts, as are reservists or persons called to military or police duty for short periods. Also, military violations are believed to include a variety of crimes against the state that might not be classed as military in Western countries, including some in the so-called socially dangerous category. As is the case in the Soviet Union, persons who fail to report on others committing crimes are themselves liable.

Military courts are selected by the People's Assembly or by its Presidium when it is not in session. Members are military personnel and ordinarily serve on a court for three years. Each court has a chairman, vice chairman, and a number of members called assistant judges. The chairman and at least one of the assistant judges must be military superiors of the defendant.

In exceptional circumstances the People's Assembly may appoint a special court for a particular case or a group of cases. A special court may be all or only partially military. Such a court was appointed, for example, when Vice Admiral Teme Seyko, commander of the naval forces, was accused in 1961 of "having been in league with the imperialist Americans, Greek monarcho-fascists and Yugoslav revisionists." The admiral was executed.

When crimes are committed during military operations, sentences are heavier than when the same offenses are committed under conditions where duress is not a factor. During combat or wartime circumstances, legislative acts call for the most severe penalties.

THE MILITARY ESTABLISHMENT AND THE NATIONAL ECONOMY

According to official government pronouncements relating to the state budget, 471 million leks (5 leks equal US$1) were appropriated for defense expenditures in 1970. That amount is 9.2 percent of the total planned expenditures of 5,110 million leks, or about 225 leks per inhabitant during the year. Whether or not all expenses that would fall within the defense category in Western countries are included in these figures is not known. It is the practice in some Communist governments to distribute peripheral defense costs among other agency appropriations (see ch. 8, Economic System).

The defense budget was increased drastically in 1969 and 1970 over the levels of earlier years, apparently in reaction to the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia. The midyear calculated expenditures for 1969 represented an increase of about 38 percent over those of 1968, and 1970 projections showed another 12.2 percent anticipated increase over 1969.

The burden represented by 225 leks per person can be illustrated by relating it to income and costs of living. In 1967, for example, a typical head of family worker earned about 7,200 leks per year. The average family group consisted of between five and six persons, and about 90 percent of its earnings was required for food and housing. In the preponderant majority of situations where there was only one wage earner per family, therefore, per capita defense costs exceeded everything that the family had available for all uses except food and shelter.

The 50,000 men in the regular and security forces represent about 2.4 percent of the population, but each annual draft takes a number that is equal to roughly one-half of the young men that become nineteen years old during the year. There is no reliable information as to how willingly the average citizen performs his military service or whether or not his contribution is appreciated by the remainder of the people. The controlled-communications media do everything possible to promote good morale among those in the service and to show that the public supports them.

FOREIGN MILITARY RELATIONS

Small, underdeveloped, and suffering continually from an unfavorable balance of trade, Albania has always needed assistance to maintain even a small military force. Accepting aid from Italy before World War II resulted in a severe curtailment of national initiative in the employment of the forces and probably contributed to their immobility at the time of the Italian invasion in 1939.

Between 1945 and 1948 Yugoslavia's control over Albania's forces was tighter than Italy's had been. In addition to technical advisers and instructors in regular service units, the Communist Party organization provided an effective vehicle for controlling the reliability of personnel, particularly the military leadership.

Because the Soviet Union, like Italy, was physically separated from the country it was a more desirable ally than neighboring Yugoslavia had been. It was nonetheless able to maintain tighter controls over Albanian forces than either Yugoslavia or Italy had achieved. General Petrit Dume, who was commander of the People's Army during its dependence on the Soviet Union and still was in 1970, had said in November of 1952 that his force was an integral part of the Soviet Army.

Albania became one of the original Warsaw Treaty Organization members in 1955. Separated from the other signatories, its forces were unable to participate in the pact's field exercises and after 1961, because of its rift with the Soviet Union, was not invited to attend the organization's meetings. In 1968, protesting the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia, Albania formally withdrew from the pact.

Communist China was Albania's only military ally in 1970. In 1970 the Chinese were believed to be enabling Albania to maintain its forces at approximately the same levels that had been reached by 1960 with Soviet assistance (see ch. 6, Government Structure and Political System).

SECURITY FORCES

Albanian sources publish little concerning the security police except for some articles expressing gratitude for their services and a smattering of information relative to their responsibilities. Few of the observers who have visited the country since 1945 have been in positions to see, or have been qualified to judge, their actual performance. It is undoubtedly true that the Albanian leadership emulated many of Joseph Stalin's techniques for controlling the population, that it modified its attitudes and practices less than did the other East European Communist countries after Stalin's death, and that it has maintained a high degree of Stalinism since its break with the Soviet Union and alignment with Communist China (see ch. 6, Government Structure and Political System).

There is probably credibility in reports stating that no other Communist country has as extensive a police and security organization relative to its size as that which operates in Albania. Hoxha has regarded the security police as an elite group, and they have been the mainstay of his power. By 1961, although arrests had tapered off from earlier levels, fourteen concentration or labor camps were still in use. Foreign visitors in Tirana have reported that it is impossible to move around the city without escorts and that conversations with ordinary citizens are discouraged. Local police, servicemen, and security police are in evidence everywhere.

All security and police forces were responsible in the governmental structure to the Ministry of the Interior. The minister in 1970 was Kadri Hasbiu. Each organization--the Directorate of State Security, the People's Police, and the Frontier Guards--constituted a separate directorate of the ministry. The total regular uniformed security personnel numbered approximately 12,500. This figure did not include the plainclothes security police, informers, or the citizens who were performing their two months of mandatory auxiliary duty attached to local police units.

A larger proportion of personnel in the security forces are Party members than is the case in the regular military forces. In the state security organization, nearly all of those who serve in important positions are believed to be Party members. In the Frontier Guards the officers and many of the men are Party members.

The Directorate of State Security

The Directorate of State Security (Drejtorija e Sigurimit te Shtetit--commonly abbreviated to Sigurimi) is organized into four battalions and has more plainclothes personnel than uniformed. It celebrates March 20, 1943, as its founding day and is credited by Hoxha and others of the Party leadership as having been instrumental in the victory of his faction of the partisan effort. Actually the People's Defense Division, from which the Sigurimi evolved, was formed in 1945. Composed at that time of some 5,000 of the most reliable of the resistance fighters, it was headed initially by Koci Xoxe, who was executed as a Titoist four years later. Mihalaq Zicishti was its chief in 1970.

The stated missions of the security police are to prevent counterrevolution and to eliminate opposition to the Party and government. Its interests are directed toward political and ideological opposition rather than crimes against persons or property unless such crimes appear to have national implications.

In the late 1950s the Sigurimi had seven sections: political, censorship, public records, prison camp, two sections for counterespionage, and a foreign service. The political section's primary function was the penetration of opposition political factions. One of the counterespionage sections was specialized and had only a responsibility for eliminating underground organizations. The censorship section operated not only with the press, radio, publications, and other communications media but with cultural societies, schools, and schoolteachers. The public records section was also charged with ideological supervision of economic agencies.

Sigurimi personnel at labor camps attended to the political reeducation of the inmates and evaluated the degree to which they remained socially dangerous; camp guards were local police. The foreign service section placed its personnel as widely as possible in order to maintain contact with aliens or foreigners in the country and in diplomatic and visiting groups.

Sigurimi personnel may be conscripts called during the annual draft or may be career volunteers. Personnel are screened, and the conditions of service are made sufficiently attractive to secure as reliable and dedicated men as possible.

Frontier Guards

The Frontier Guards are organized into five battalions. Individual units are manned with fewer personnel than Sigurimi battalions, however, and the total strength of the force is lower. Although the force is organized strictly along military lines, it is under the Ministry of the Interior and is more closely associated with the security police than with the regular armed forces.

The stated mission of the Frontier Guards is to protect the State's borders and to take action against spies, criminals, smugglers, and infiltrators along the boundaries. In the process they also prevent Albanians from leaving the country.

Frontier Guards personnel, like those of the Sigurimi, may be acquired during the annual conscription. Career personnel are often those who have served tours in the regular services. A guards' school was established in 1953 in Tirana. Its students, as well as others allowed in the force, are carefully screened for political reliability.

People's Police

The People's Police has five branches--the Police for Economic Objectives, Communications Police, Fire Police, Detention Police, and General Police. The Police for Economic Objectives serve as guards for state buildings, factories, construction projects, and similar enterprises. Communications Police guard bridges, railways, and wire lines. Firefighting is a police function, accomplished by the Fire Police. Detention Police are prison and camp guards. The fifth branch, the General Police, attend to traffic regulation, local crime, and other duties usually performed by local or municipal police.

General Police functions overlap those of the security police to some extent, but the force operates in the local, as opposed to the national, environment. Headquarters in the larger towns have security sections that maintain records on suspected anti-Communists, an alien section that maintains contact with Albanians outside their own districts as well as aliens, and a political commissar who is so placed as to assure the proper political orientation of all other personnel.

Citizens are required to carry identification cards. These contain family and employment data and, as they are needed even for intervillage travel, constitute an effective control over movement of the population.

Minimum service on the police force is for three years. Individuals with earlier service in the armed forces, security police, or Frontier Guards are preferred.

Auxiliary Police

A 1948 law requires that all able-bodied men serve two months assisting the local police. They perform with the regular People's Police of their localities, wear the police uniform made distinguishable only by a red armband, and serve without pay. The auxiliary police program serves a dual purpose. It provides additional help for the police forces. Of more overall value, it gives a sizable portion of the population some familiarity with, and presumably a more sympathetic understanding of, police activities and problems.

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"Abuses of Principle of Compensation According to Labor," by Dervish Gjiriti, in _Puna_ (Labor), Tirana, 1970. (JPRS: 50,847, _Translations on Eastern Europe, Economic and Industrial Affairs_, No. 310, 1970.)

"Advanced Technology: An Important Factor in Surmounting the Artisan Stage of Industrial Production," by Koco Theodhosi, in _Zeri i Popullit_ (Voice of the People), Tirana, 1969. (JPRS: 47,891, _Translations on Eastern Europe, Economic and Industrial Affairs_, No. 114, 1969.)

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"Control by the Working Class and Problems of Finance and Accounting," by Mensur Saraci, in _Zeri i Popullit_ (Voice of the People), Tirana, 1968. (JPRS: 46,647, _Translations on Eastern Europe, Economic and Industrial Affairs_, No. 41, 1968.)

"The Country's Power Resources and the Ways to Use Them More Economically," by Harilla Nishku, in _Ekonomia Popullore_ (People's Economy), Tirana, 1970. (JPRS: 50,784, _Translations on Eastern Europe, Economic and Industrial Affairs_, No. 305, 1970.)

"Development of the Machine Industry," by Thoma Afezolli, in _Zeri i Popullit_ (Voice of the People), Tirana, 1969 (JPRS: 48,685, _Translations on Eastern Europe, Economic and Industrial Affairs_, No. 171, August 26, 1969.)

"Disappearance and Reduction of Social and General Diseases, Great Victory of the Party in the Health Field," by Josif Adhami, et al., in _Shendetesia Popullore_ (People's Health), Tirana, 1969. (JPRS: 50,302, _Translations on Eastern Europe, Economic and Industrial Affairs_, 1969.)

"Elements of Internal Democracy in the Agricultural Cooperatives in Berat District," by Omer Mero, in _Bashkimi_ (Unity), Tirana, 1968. (JPRS: 46,439, _Translations on Eastern Europe, Economic and Industrial Affairs_, No. 34, 1968.)

"Expansion of Mechanization in Agriculture," by Xhelal Shkreta, in _Ekonomia Popullore_ (People's Economy), Tirana, 1968. (JPRS: 47,515, _Translations on Eastern Europe, Economic and Industrial Affairs_, No. 90, 1969.)

"The Extension and Protection of the Forests is the Responsibility of All the People," by Thoma Dine, in _Rruga e Partise_ (Party Path), Tirana, 1969. (JPRS: 48,096, _Translations on Eastern Europe, Economic and Industrial Affairs_, No. 129, 1969.)

"For the Implementation of the Tasks Concerning the Further Revolutionization of Our Schools," by Mehmet Shehu, in _Zeri i Popullit_ (Voice of the People), Tirana, 1968 (JPRS: 45,432, _Translations on Eastern Europe, Economic and Industrial Affairs_, No. 256, 1968.)

"The Great Revolutionary Transformations in the Development of Our Socialist Health on the Twenty-fifth Anniversary of the Victory of the People's Revolution and the Establishment of the Dictatorship of the Proletariat," by Ciril Pistoli, in _Shendetesia Popullore_ (People's Health), Tirana, 1969. (JPRS: 50,345, _Translations on Eastern Europe, Political, Sociological, and Military Affairs_, No. 207, 1970.)

"Immediate Interests Must be Correctly Combined With Long-Term Ones," by Perikli Samsuri, in _Bashkimi_ (Unity), Tirana, 1969. (JPRS: 49,222, _Translations on Eastern Europe, Economic and Industrial Affairs_, No. 221, 1969.)

"Improper Use of Investment Funds," by Andrea Nako, in _Bashkimi_ (Unity), Tirana, 1968. (JPRS: 46,570, _Translations on Eastern Europe, Economic and Industrial Affairs_, No. 38, 1968.)

"The Improvement of Fodder: A Fundamental Condition of the Development of Livestock," by Andrea Shundi and Petrit Disdardi, in _Zeri i Popullit_ (Voice of the People), Tirana, 1970. (JPRS: 49,941, _Translations on Eastern Europe, Economic and Industrial Affairs_, No. 256, 1970.)

"Increased Savings Deposits: An Index of Growing Prosperity," by Ramadan Citaku, in _Zeri i Popullit_ (Voice of the People), Tirana, 1969. (JPRS: 49,222, _Translations on Eastern Europe, Economic and Industrial Affairs_, No. 211, 1969.)

"Labor Productivity in Industry Must be Raised," by Jonuz Drishti, in _Ekonomia Popullore_ (People's Economy), Tirana, 1968. (JPRS: 46,163, _Translations on Eastern Europe, Economic and Industrial Affairs_, No. 21, 1968.)

"Let Us Expand and Perfect Our Labor Force Plans," by Besim Bardhoshi, in _Zeri i Popullit_ (Voice of the People), Tirana, 1968. (JPRS: 46,940, _Translations on Eastern Europe, Economic and Industrial Affairs_, No. 57, 1968.)

"Let Us Further Develop the Struggle for the Mechanization of Work Processes," by Pjeter Kosta, in _Zeri i Popullit_ (Voice of the People), Tirana, 1969, (JPRS: 48,647, _Translations on Eastern Europe, Economic and Industrial Affairs_, No. 166, 1969.)

"Let Us Further Intensify the Participation of the Working Masses in Reinforcing the Savings Regimen," by Aleks Verli, in _Rruga e Partise_ (Party Path), Tirana, 1969. (JPRS: 48,349, _Translations on Eastern Europe, Economic and Industrial Affairs_, No. 143. 1969.)

"Let Us Strengthen the Movement of the Working Class for the Overall Development of the Villages," by Sotir Kamberi, in _Rruga e Partise_ (Party Path), Tirana, 1968. (JPRS: 45,815, _Translations on Eastern Europe, Political, Sociological, and Military Affairs_, No. 9, 1968.)

"Let Us Take All Necessary Measures to Organize Better the Export of Vegetables and Fruit," by Thechar Fundo, in _Zeri i Popullit_ (Voice of the People), Tirana, 1968. (JPRS: 45,432, _Translations on Eastern Europe_, No. 256, 1968.)

"Massive Scientific Experimentation is an Important Factor in the Socialist Transformation of Our Agriculture," by Pirro Dodbiba, in _Bashkimi_ (Unity), Tirana, 1969. (JPRS: 47,948, _Translations on Eastern Europe, Economic and Industrial Affairs_, No. 118, 1969.)

"The Maximum Utilization of Labor Time Demands Regular Material and Technical Supply," by Pjeter Kosta, in _Zeri i Popullit_ (Voice of the People), Tirana, 1970, (JPRS: 50,112, _Translations on Eastern Europe, Economic and Industrial Affairs_, No. 286. 1970.)

"On Fulfillment of the 1969 State Plan and Budget and on Tasks of the 1970 Draft State Plan and Budget," by Abdyl Kellezi, in _Zeri i Popullit_ (Voice of the People), Tirana, 1970, (JPRS: 50,060, _Translations on Eastern Europe, Economic and Industrial Affairs_, No. 264, 1970.)

"On Some of the Problems of Setting Work Norms in Agricultural Cooperatives," by Lefter Peco, in _Zeri i Popullit_ (Voice of the People), Tirana, 1969. (JPRS: 49,190, _Translations on Eastern Europe, Economic and Industrial Affairs_, No. 209, 1969.)

"On the Work of the Party and Mass Organizations and of Economic and State Organs for a Further Increase of Productivity and Strengthening of Proletarian Discipline at Work," by Xhafer Spahiu, in _Zeri i Popullit_ (Voice of the People), Tirana, 1969. (JPRS: 49,716, _Translations on Eastern Europe, Economic and Industrial Affairs_, No. 242, 1969.)

"Powerful Fraternal Aid in the Spirit of Proletarian Internationalism," by Pupo Shyti, in _Ekonomia Popullore_ (People's Economy), Tirana, 1968. (JPRS: 47,677, _Translations on Eastern Europe, Economic and Industrial Affairs_, No. 100, 1969.)

"Problems of Mechanization in Raising Livestock and of Farm Machinery Repair and Maintenance Bases," by Xhelal Shkreta, in _Ekonomia Popullore_ (People's Economy), Tirana, 1968. (JPRS: 47,677, _Translations on Eastern Europe, Economic and Industrial Affairs_, No. 100, 1969.)

"Progress of the Machine Industry" by Tago Adhami, in _Ekonomia Popullore_ (People's Economy), Tirana, 1968. (JPRS: 46,163, _Translations on Eastern Europe, Economic and Industrial Affairs_, No. 21. 1968.)

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"Protection of Mother and Child Health, the High Expression of Socialist Humanism, Realized by the Party During the 25 Years of People's Power," by Vera Ngjela et al., in _Shendetesia Popullore_ (People's Health), Tirana, 1969 (JPRS: 50,302, _Translations on Eastern Europe, Political, Sociological, and Military Affairs_, No. 204, 1970.)

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"Shortcomings of the Vegetable Supply," by Avni Oktrova, in _Zeri i Popullit_ (Voice of the People), Tirana, 1968 (JPRS: 46,205, _Translations on Eastern Europe, Economic and Industrial Affairs_, No. 22, 1968.)

"Some of the Problems of the Socialist Organization of Labor," by Koco Stefani, in _Bashkimi_ (Unity), Tirana, 1969. (JPRS: 49,305, _Translations on Eastern Europe, Economic and Industrial Affairs_, No. 214, 1969.)

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"The Struggle to Raise Healthy Children and Reduce the Mortality Rate: A Great Social and Medical Problem," by Sh. Josa, R. Cikuli, and Xh. Basha, in _Shendetesia Popullore_ (People's Health), Tirana, 1969. (JPRS: 50,345, _Translations on Eastern Europe, Political, Sociological and Military Affairs_, No. 207, 1970.)

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"The Problems Raised by Comrade Enver in His Speech 'The Rights and Freedoms of Women Must be Fully Understood and Protected by All' and What Should be Done to Solve Them," by Piro Kondi, in _Rruga e Partise_ (Party Path), Tirana, 1970. (JPRS: 50,462, _Translations on Eastern Europe, Political, Sociological and Military Affairs_, No. 214, 1970.)

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GLOSSARY

Albanian Workers' Party--The Communist Party of Albania. This name adopted by the First Party Congress in 1948.

basic party organization--The Albanian Workers' Party unit established in state enterprises and institutions, on collective or cooperative farms, and in military organizations. In some Communist states--for example, the Soviet Union--the equivalent is a primary party organization.

Bektashi--A dervish order, offshoot of the Shia branch of Islam, emphasizing abstinence from violence and charity to all people.

_besa_--A pledge to faithfully fulfill an obligation or promise. Formerly used to effect a truce during hostilities involving clans or conflicts between individuals.

_bey_--The head of a feudal estate or an administrative official under the Turks. Became the dominant class after Albanian independence in 1912. Also formerly used as a title of respect.

CEMA--Council for Economic Mutual Assistance; members: Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Mongolia, Poland, and the Soviet Union.

civil war--The hostilities from September 1943 to November 1944 in which partisans of the Communist-led National Liberation Front fought the two principal anti-Communist organizations, Balli Kombetar (National Front) and Levizja e Legalitetit (Legality Movement).

clan--An organization that included several families and provided controls as stipulated by unwritten codes. In 1945 the clans were broken up by the Communist regime.

collective or cooperative--An organization in which members retain only their personal effects; all other belongings become community property. Production from group efforts goes into a common fund. Members are paid on the basis of their contribution of work units.

Cominform--Communist Information Bureau. International organization of Communist parties, established in 1947 and dissolved in 1956.

Democratic Front--The largest and most important social organization utilized by the Albanian Workers' Party to gain the support of the masses for their objectives. Its work includes political, economic, social, and cultural tasks. It succeeded the National Liberation Front in 1945.

district--The major subdivisions of the country. There were twenty-six in 1970.

Gegs--The larger of the two subgroups of Albanians. They inhabit the area north of the Shkumbin River. Differentiated until World War II by their tribal organization and primitive life style; also have distinctive physical features.

Kosovo--An autonomous region within the Serbian Republic of Yugoslavia. This area previously called Kosovo-Metohija and frequently referred to as Kosmet.

lek--The standard monetary unit. Does not have an international official exchange rate. Nominally valued in Tirana at 5 leks to 1 United States dollar; the tourist rate in early 1970 was 12.5 leks to US$1. Devalued in August 1965 by exchanging 1 new lek for 10 old leks.

Marxism-Leninism--From the Albanian Communist viewpoint, the ideology of Karl Marx and Vladimir Lenin as reflected in the experience of the Soviet Union until the death of Joseph Stalin.

mass organization--Generally of a social or professional nature with broad membership designed to link the Party with the masses and to gain support for Party objectives.

National Liberation Front--Created in 1942; Communist-led; fought Italian and German occupying forces and immobilized other Albanian factions to seize power in 1944.

Ottoman--Relating to the Turks or to Turkey. Derived from name of fourteenth-century founder of the Ottoman Empire.

party cadre--A thoroughly indoctrinated and reliable Party group. Utilized wherever deemed necessary to maintain efficiency and performance. Frequently specially trained in management.

_pasha_--A person of high rank; formerly used as a title of respect; title given to appointed provincial heads during the Ottoman period.

People's Army--The armed forces of Albania. Composed of ground, air, and navy elements.

People's Council--The highest government organ at district and lower echelons. Members are elected for three-year terms.

Politburo--The highest and most powerful executive body of the Albanian Workers' Party. In early 1970 it consisted of eleven full members and five candidate members.

Presidium of the People's Assembly--Administers and conducts governmental functions between Assembly meetings. Issues decrees and judges constitutionality of laws. In early 1970, composed of a president, two vice presidents, and ten members.

revisionism--As interpreted by Albanian Communists, the actions and ideologies of Communist states that are inconsistent with Albanian interpretations of Marxism-Leninism.

Sigurimi--Name applied to state security police under the Communist regime; derived from the Directorate of State Security (Drejtorija e Sigurimit te Shtetit).

Sunni--One of the two major branches of Islam.

Tosks--The smaller of the two subgroups of Albanians. They live south of the Shkumbin River. Differences in social organization between the two groups lessened under Communist rule. They abandoned their tribal pattern of life earlier and were more influenced by foreign cultures before 1945 than were the Gegs.

Zogu, Ahmet--Served as prime minister and president during the early 1920s; then ruled as King Zog from 1928 until 1939. Was leader of conservative forces composed of landowners, former Ottoman bureaucrats, and tribal chiefs.

INDEX

Abazi, Dede (religious leader): 98

administrative divisions: vii, 33, 34 (fig. 3), 35

adult education: 87, 88, 90-91

agas: 95

agrarian reform: 15, 16, 75; law, 21, 96

agreements. _See_ treaties and agreements

agriculture (_see also_ collective farms, crops, state farms): deterrents to goal attainment, 145; exports, 151, 174; five-year plans, 145, 152, 155-59 _passim_; imports, 173; investment, 167; land use, acreage, 152; mechanization, 146, 152; new methods, 145, 152; pattern of organization, 146, 151, 153; production, 145, 151-52, 155-56 (tables 10, 11), 157-59; productivity, 149; share of labor force, 147; summary, viii

aid, foreign (_see also under specific country and under_ Communist countries): 3, 4; economic, 146, 169-71; military, 175-79 _passim_, 190; summary, ix

air force: 180, 184-85; chief, 184

air transport: ix, 46-47

airbases: 184-85

Albanian (language): 55-56, 137

Albanian Party Political Bureau. _See_ Politburo

Albanian Telegraphic Agency (news agency): 131-32

Albanian Workers' Party (_see also_ Central Committee, Central Commission on Education, Directorate of, Politburo, Secretariat): v, 1; activists and agitators, 107, 125, 128, 129; book publishing, 134; communication channels, 125; Conference, 114; Congress, 113; control over people and institutions, 2, 93-94, 111, 135, 137, 140, 142, 146, 147, 176, 185-86, 192-93, 194; and the courts, 107; discipline, 114; economic goal, 145; founded, 17; institutes, 117; mass organizations as levers of, 117-18; members in security forces, 193; membership, 115; national and regional organization, 111-15; operations, 115-16; organization within armed forces, 175; political power, 103-04, 106; religious policy, 100; schools, 116-17; slogan, 181; Stalinist methods, 121; statutes, 113-14, 115, 116, 118, 128

Albanian Writers' Union: 56

Ali, Hafez Musa Haxhi (religious leader): 98

Alia, Ramiz (Politburo secretary): 111, 112

alphabet, Albanian: 49, 56, 83

American Agricultural School (Kavaje): 84

American Junior Red Cross: 84

American Technical School (Tirana): 84

anti-Communists: organizations, 18; records on, 195

Antoniu, Kristaq (singer): 142

Apponyi, Geraldine (wife of Zog I): 16

area: vii, 1, 25

armed forces (_see also_ People's Army): chief of staff, 180; civilian activities, 152, 181; decorations, 187-88; defense budget, 191; equipment, 175, 179, 181-82, 183, 184; foreign aid, 175-79 _passim_, 190; historical background, 177-79; medical services, 187; military courts, 108; military schools, 186-87; mission, 181; mobilization potential, 185; Party control of, 111, 185-86; Party organization within, 115, 175; political indoctrination of, 185-86, 190; rank designations, 175, 180; resistance to Italian occupation, 178-79; strength, 175, 181, 183, 184; summary, ix

Army of National Liberation: 18, 64, 111

arts, fine: 142-43

Asdreni, ---- (poet): 139

Austria-Hungary: 14

authority: under communism, 68; traditional attitude toward, 67, 71

automobiles: 65

Bajraktari, Muharem (chieftain): 72

_bajraktars_ (tribal chieftains): 67, 71, 74

balance of trade, 171

Balli Kombetar (National Front): 18, 74, 139; supporters, 72

Balluku, Beqir (min. of defense): 111, 180

banking: 168-69

_Bashkimi_ (newspaper): 129, 130 (table 7)

Bektashi (religious group): 97, 98

Belishova, Liri (former Politburo member): 23

_besa_ (pledge): 53

_beys_: 2, 5, 10, 13, 17, 72, 73, 74; creation of the class, 95; during civil war, 74; seizure of their land, 21; social position, 67, 70, 73

bibliography: 197-207

bicycles: 65

birth rate: 51

books: publishing and distribution, 133-34

boundaries: 25, 26, 31-33; border security (_see_ Frontier Guards); potential for dispute, 4, 9, 31; settlement (1913), 14, 25

Broz, Josip (Tito): 19, 21, 22, 122

budget (_see also_ expenditures, revenue, taxes): 164-67; defense, 191; responsibility for preparing, 106; social and cultural sectors, 58

Buene River: 39, 47, 183

Bulgaria: aid and trade, 170, 172

Byron, Lord: 96

Cako, Hito (chief, Army Political Directorate): 186

capital goods: output, 160-61

Carcani, Adil (Politburo member): 112, 120

Central Commission on Education: 92, 94, 112

Central Committee: 92, 94, 105, 113, 116, 117, 127; composition, 77, 112; functions, 114; and labor situation, 147, 148, 149; members in Council of Ministers, 106; publications, 129, 131

Charles I of Anjou: 11

children: welfare provisions, 64

China, Communist: aid, economic, 122-23, 160, 170, 171, 172; aid, military, 175, 176-77, 179, 184, 190; debt to, 171; economic effect of alignment with, 146; education and training in, 92; influence, 23; jointly owned shipping line, 47; relations with, v, 3, 104, 121-23; trade, 172, 174

Christianity: introduction, 11, 95

chrome: 44

Churchill, Winston: 19

Ciano, Count (Italian Foreign Min.): 16

Cikuli, Ziza (poet): 140

cities: growth, 75; population, 49, 50, 51, 56

civil war (1943-44): 18-19; fate of anti-Communists, 74

clans. _See_ tribes and clans

clergymen: 73; Communist actions against, 96, 97-98, 99-101

climate: vii, 4, 26, 35, 36 (table 1), 37

collective farms: 145, 146, 151; basic features, 153-54; labor force, size, 147, 148; number and size, 154-55; patriarchalism, 80; personal income, 153-54; private plots, 154, 157, 159, 166; work performance, 151-52

Cominform. _See_ Communist Information Bureau

communications (_see also_ press, radio, television): 125-35; ownership, 110; summary, ix

Communist Information Bureau (Cominform): 21, 179

Communist countries: aid, 21, 169, 170; education and training in, 91; trade, 172

Communist Party. _See_ Albanian Workers' Party

Communist regime: attitudes toward population growth, ethnic differences, and blood feuds, 51, 53; consolidation of power, 20-23; efforts to alter social structure, 67-69, 73-83; gains claimed, 6, 45, 50, 53, 58, 59, 75, 91, 94, 145, 149, 151, 155, 159, 165-66; goals, 2; installation date, 9; policy toward religious groups, 96, 97, 100

Communists: seizure of power, 17-20 concentration camps. _See_ labor camps

cooperatives: agricultural, 136

copper ore: export, 44

Conference of Peze (1942): 17

Constituent Assembly: People's Republic proclaimed by, 20

constitution: first Communist, 20, 74, 86, 96, 113; independence, 14; provisions, 101, 104-08 _passim_

consumer goods: output, 161

cotton: 151, 155, 156 (table 10)

Council for Economic Mutual Assistance (CEMA): 21; member, 121

Council of Ministers: 132, 134, 150, 164, 179; description, 106; and religious control, 97

courts: 107-08; military, 108, 190; summary, viii

crime: 79, 128, 176; military, 190

crops (_see also specific crop_): industrial, 151; production, 155, 156 (table 10); yields, 41

culture: achievements, 137-38; development, 135-43; dominant themes under communism, 136; indoctrination through institutions, 135; Party control of activities, 135, 137, 140, 142

currency: viii, 167-68

Czechoslovakia: 123; aid, 170; trade, 172

Dako, Kristo (school founder): 84

death rate: 51

defense: budgetary expenditures, 166

Deljana, Thoma (Min., Education and Culture): 88

Democratic Front: 1, 103, 109, 117; described, 118-19; newspaper, 129; NLF renamed, 19

Dhrami, M. (artist): 143

diet: 62

Directorate of: Agitation and Propaganda (Agitprop), 112, 127; Cadres and Organizations, 112; Education and Culture, 92, 94, 112; Mass Organizations, 112; Radiobroadcasting, 132; State Administrative Organs, 112; State Security, 111, 176, 193-94

disease: 59-60

divorce: 79-80

doctors: 61

drainage. _See_ lakes, rivers

Drin River: 37, 39, 47, 160, 164

Dume, Gen. Petrit (army chief of staff): 180, 192

Durres (port): 11, 183; facilities, 47; population, 51, 57; transportation, 46

East-West conflict: position in, 2, 121

economic planning: Communists view of, 110

economic plans (_see also_ Five-Year Plans): responsibility for preparation, 106

economy: major objective, 7; status of, 146; summary, viii

education (_see also_ schools): 83-94; discrimination, 77; eight-year, obligatory, 88-89; first objective, 69; function of information media, 126-27; indoctrination of youth, 69; medical training, 61; military, 88, 90; Party control, 93-94; pre-Communist period, 83-85; reform, 88; and social mobility, 69; status of, 6; summary, viii; system, 87-89 (fig. 5), 90-94; technical, 86-87

Educational Reform Law (1946): 86

Elbasan (city): 46, 49, 57

elections: 1, 19, 20; Assembly representatives, 105; candidate selection, 103, 104, 107, 109, 116-17; character and procedure, 108-09; mobilization of voters, 128

electricity. _See_ power, electric

elite: Party, 64, 69, 77, 78, 106; ruling, 2, 10, 68, 73, 96, 121

employment: 147

ethnic groups: 5, 6, 9, 49, 52-55; minor, 54-55

European nations: relations with, 123; trade, 174

expenditures: 165, 166-67; defense, 191

exports: 172, 173-74; agricultural, 151, 174; industrial, 161, 162, 174; principal, 44; summary, viii

Faja, Baba. _See_ Martaneshi, Baba Mustafa Faja

family: under communism, 74; efforts to revolutionize, 68, 81-83; rate of increase in number of, 75; role in politics, 77; as social force, 6; traditional organization, 67, 70-71

farm credits: 169

farms. _See_ collective farms, state farms

Fejzo, Baba (clergyman): 98

fertilizer: 160

feuds, blood: 6, 53-54, 71

Fier (city): oil refinery and power plant, 160; population, 49, 57

Filce, Gjorgjija (singer): 142

films: 141

finance (_see also_ currency, banking, budget): 164-69; summary, viii

Five-Year Plans: First (1951-55) and Second (1956-60), 159; Third (1961-65), 145, 149, 165, 170; Fourth (1966-70), 145, 152, 155-59 _passim_, 165, 171, 172; Fifth (1971-75), 164, 171

Floqi, Kristo (playwright): 140

food: prices, 64; processing, 162

foreign aid. _See_ aid, foreign

foreign relations: 121-23

forests: 26, 41-42

France: relations with, 23; trade, 173

Franciscans: 97, 100, 139

Frasheri, Midhat (political leader): 18, 139

Frasheri, Naim (writer): 139

Frasheri, Sami (playwright): 140

Frontier Guards: 111, 176, 194

fruit: citrus, 30; exports, 174; production, 151, 155, 156 (table 10)

Fuga, Myqerem (Institute head): 117

gas: reserves, 44

Geg (language): 56, 137

Gega, Lira (former Politburo member): 22

Gegs (ethnic group): 6; ethnic characteristics, 53; population, 52; social structure, 70-72

Germany: resistance to occupation by, 179

Germany, East: aid and trade, 170, 172

Gjata, Fatmir (writer): 140

glossary: 209

government: appointment of officials, 116; character of, 1, 103, 104, 108; local, 106-07; Party control of, 103, 104, 106; structure, 104-07; summary, vii

grain: bread grain production, 151, 155, 156 (table 10)

Great Britain: 178

Greece: Albanians living in, 55; boundary claim, 14, 26; relations with, 9, 123; shared border, 25, 31, 32; trade, 173

Greeks (ethnic group): 54

gross industrial product (GIP): minerals share, 44

gross national product (GNP): per capita, 50

Gypsies: 54, 55

harbors: 183

Hasbiu, Gen. Kadri: 77, 111, 193

Hasko, Arif (air force chief): 184

health and medicine: facilities, 61; military medicine, 187; mobile medical teams and equipment, 61; personnel and training, 61; services, 58; status of, 6, 50, 59-62; summary, viii

history: 9-23

Hitler, Adolf: 17

holidays: 10, 78

hospitals: 61

houses: description, 63

housing: investment, 167; loans, 169; status, 51, 62-63

Hoxha, Enver (Party first secretary): 1, 3, 11, 17-23 _passim_, 53, 62, 77, 80, 84, 88, 100-05 _passim_, 111, 115-27 _passim_, 136, 142; relation to defense establishment, 180; relation to security police, 193; rise to leadership, 179

Hoxha (Enver) United Army Officers School: 186

Hoxha, Nexhmije (Party official): 77, 93, 112, 117

Hoxha-Shehu duumvirate: overthrow attempt, 22

Hungary: 172

Hunyadi (Hungarian king): 12

hydroelectric power: potential, 40, 162, 163; station, 159, 160, 164

identification cards: 195

illiteracy: 7, 86, 94, 126

imports: viii, 172, 173

income: collective farm workers, 153-54; national, major source, 7; taxes, 165

independence: 2, 3, 9, 10, 13-16, 139, 176, 177; proclaimed, 14

indoctrination: political and social, 69, 126, 135, 140, 147, 185-86, 190

industry: 146, 159-64; budgetary expenditures, 166, 167; construction projects, 159, 160; deterrents to development, 161; exports, 161, 162, 174; five-year plans, 159, 164,170; imports, 173; nationalization, 21, 110; production, 160-63 (table 12); productivity, 149-50, 161; progress toward goal, 145; structure, 160; summary, viii

infant mortality: 50, 60

information media (_see also_ press, radio, television): functions, ownership, and control, 2, 125-29

Institute for Economic Studies: 117

Institute of Marxist-Leninist Studies: 117

Institute of Party History: 117

intellectuals: 73, 76-77

interest rate: 169

investment: budgetary expenditures, 167

iron: 44

irrigation: 40, 152, 153

Islam. See Muslim religion

Italy: aid, military, 178, 192; and Albanian independence, 13-14; invasion and annexation by, 3, 9, 16-17; relations with, 9, 16, 23, 121; resistance to occupation by, 178-79; trade, 173

Jakova, Tonin (trade union officer): 120

Jakova, Tuk (former Politburo member): 100

Jesuits: 83, 97

judges: election of, 108

justice (_see also_ courts): summary, viii

Kapo, Hysni (Party official): 77, 82, 112, 117, 118

Kapo, Vito (women's organization head): 77, 119

Kastrioti, Gjergj. _See_ Skanderbeg

Kastrioti, John of Kruje (tribal chieftain): 12

Kellezi, Abdyl (chmn., People's Assembly): 105

Khrushchev, Nikita: 22, 23, 122

Kisi, Archbishop Kristofor: 98

Koliqi, Ernest (playwright): 140

Kominino, Gjergi (poet): 140

Kono, Kristro (composer): 142

Korce (city): 51, 57

Kosmet: disposition of, 18

Kosovo area (Yugoslavia): 31, 33

Kryeziu, Gani bey (chieftain): 73

Kupi, Abas (founder, political organization): 18

labor (_see also_ labor force): summary, vii; voluntary, 150-51, 162

labor brigades (youth): 118

labor camps: 20, 74, 77, 98, 193, 194

Labor Code: 110

labor force: adequacy, 146-47; attitude toward employment, 148; attitude toward industrial modernization, 161; education and indoctrination, 147, 161-62; effect of socialization of the land, 151; labor norms, 150; nonagricultural workers, 73; Party control over, 146, 147; productivity and discipline, 147-50 _passim_, 161; size and distribution, 147-48; working conditions, 78

lakes: 31, 32, 38 (fig. 4), 39, 47

land: in agricultural use, 152; arable, 26, 41; private plots, 154, 157, 159, 166; reclamation and melioration, 152; seizure and redistribution, 21; socialization, 151

language: 49, 55-56; foreign broadcasts, 132-33; official, 56; summary, viii

League for Defense of Rights of the Albanian Nation: 13

Legality Movement: 18, 74; supporters, 72

lek (currency): exchange rates, 167

Lenin (V. I.) Institute: 117

Leshi, Haxhi (head of state): 72, 105

libraries: 134-35

life expectancy: 51

limestone: 30, 31, 44

literature: 138-40

livestock and livestock products: 154; production, 152, 155, 156 (table 11), 157-58

living conditions: 49-50, 58-65

loans and credits: 169, 170-71

machine tractor stations: 146, 153, 165

machinery: 161

malaria: 59

malnutrition: 60

Mana, A. (sculptor): 143

management: attitude toward industrial modernization, 161; and productivity lag, 149-50

marriage: under communism, 74; customs, 68, 71; laws and rate, 79

Martaneshi, Baba Mustafa Faja (clergyman): 98

Marxism-Leninism: 67, 68, 104, 121, 122; teaching of, 86, 87, 88, 94, 117, 119, 126, 128-29, 135

medical services. _See_ health and medicine

midwives: 61

migration: 51, 75, 148

Mijo, Sokrat (theater entrepreneur): 140

Mijo, Vangjush (artist): 142

military training (_see also_ schools, military): in school system, 88, 90

minerals: 30, 31, 44, 160, 173

Ministry of: Education and Culture, 87, 93, 134, 137, 141, 142; Foreign Affairs, 134; Health, 59, 60, 61; Interior, 115, 176, 190, 193, 194; National Defense, 134; People's Defense, 115, 175, 176, 179, 186

Mjeda, Dom Ndre (poet): 139

Mugosha, Dusan (Party founder): 17

Mukaj agreement (political parties): 18

museums: 135

music: 141-42

Muslim religion: 7; conversion to under Ottomans, 12, 67, 94-95; number of members, 95

Mussolini, Benito: 16

name of country: vii, 11

National Liberation Front: 1, 175; seizure of government, 19

National Liberation Movement: 103, 139, 179; created, 17; supporters, 72, 73

nationalism: 5, 9, 126, 136, 139, 175, 177

nationalization: effect on social structure, 75; of industry, 21, 141; information media, 126; of schools, 84

naval forces: 180, 182-84; commander, 182

Ndoja, Mark (poet): 140

Ndreu, Dalli (former Gen.): 22

Near East Foundation: 84

_Nendori_ (literary monthly): 100, 101

news agency: 131-32

newspapers: 129, 130 (table 7)

Nigris, Monsignor (apostolic nuncio): 99

Nikon, Bishop: 99

Noli, Bishop Fan S.: 15, 16, 73, 139

North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO): 176

nurseries (day care): 68, 148

nurses: 61

Nushi, Gogo (president, trade unions): 120

nutrition: 62

oil: production, 163 (table 12); refinery, 160; reserves, 44

organizations: anti-communist, 18; mass, 117-21

Orthodox Church of Albania: 7, 67, 98; members, 95

Ottoman rule: 3, 12-13

Paco, J. (sculptor): 143

Paisi, Archbishop: 99

Paluca, Maria (singer): 142

paramilitary training: 188-90

Pasha, Mehmet Ali (governor of Egypt): 12

Pasha, Pasko Vasa (playwright): 140

_pashas_: 2, 5, 13; creation of the class, 95; social leadership, 70

Paskal, Odhise (sculptor): 142

pastures: 41, 152

patriarchalism: 67; efforts to eradicate, 68, 80-83

peasants: attitude toward collectivism and modern methods, 145, 151, 157, 158, 159; conditions under communism, 78-79; religion, 95

People's army (_see also_ air force, naval forces): ground forces, 181-82; organizational patterns, 180; position in government, 179-80; rank designations, 180-81; strength, ix, 181, 183, 184; training and paramilitary training, 182-90 _passim_

People's Assembly: 106, 108, 116, 164, 179-80, 190; aim and sphere of action, 109; description, 104-05; power and influence, 110

People's councils: description, 106-07; as Party levers, 117-18

People's Police: 111, 176, 195

periodicals: 130, 131 (table 8)

Pioneer organizations: 118

pipeline: xiv (fig. 1), 44, 46

Plasari, Ndreci (institute head): 117

poetry: 139

Poland: 172

police. _See_ Directorate of State Security, Frontier Guards, People's Police

Politburo: 21, 105, 112, 113; communication media policy, 127; composition, 77; and the educational system, 92; and the labor situation, 148, 150; members in Council of Ministers, 106; Secretariat, 111; top executive branches, 111

politics: and creation of the modern state, 15-17; historical background, 5-6; locus of power, 2, 103, 108-11 _passim_; role of family connections, 77; the system, 108-21

Popovic, Miladin (Party founder): 17

population: control by Party and police, 2, 93-94, 137, 146, 176, 192-93, 194; ethnic composition, 1, 5, 6, 9, 49, 52-55; growth rate, 49, 51; rural character, 50, 56; social composition, 76 (table 4); statistics, 1, 49, 50-52 (table 3); summary, vii; working age, 147

Poradeci, Lasgush (poet): 139

ports: ix; facilities, 47

potatoes: 155, 156 (table 10)

power, electric (_see also_ hydroelectric power): extent of use, 50, 58, 162, 163 (table 12); insufficiency, 44; production, 163 (table 12), 164; thermal plant, 160, 162

Prennushi, P. Vincenc (poet): 139

Presidium: 108; description, 105-06, 111; president, 72, 105

press: 125-28 _passim_, 129-32; use for Party purposes, 126-27

prices: consumer commodities, 64-65

proletariat: dictatorship of, 108-11

_Puna_ (newspaper): 129, 130 (table 7)

radio: foreign broadcasting, 132-33; receivers and stations, 132, 133 (table 9); use for Party purposes, 126-27

Radio Tirana: v, 132

railroads: ix, xiv (fig. 1), 45-46

rainfall: 4, 26, 27, 29, 35, 36 (table 1), 37

Rama, K. (artist): 143

Red Cross: 61

regions, natural: 26-31

religion (_see also_ clergymen, Orthodox Church, Muslim religion, Roman Catholic Church): 5; under Communists, 96-102; eradication efforts, 7, 69, 96-102; law to control, 96-97; summary, viii; traditional attitudes toward differences, 67, 96; wealth confiscation, of religious bodies, 96

resources, natural: 41-44; ownership, 110

revenue: 164, 165-66

rice: 155, 156 (table 10)

rivers: 37, 38 (fig. 4), 39-40 (table 2)

roads: ix, xiv, (fig. 1), 25, 27, 45

Rockefeller Foundation: 59

Roman Catholic Church: 7, 67; actions against, 99-100; membership, 95

Romania: aid and trade, 170, 172

_Rruga e Partise_ (Party monthly): 117, 127, 131

Russia: 13, 14

Sako, Zihni (writer): 140

salt: 44

sanitation: 58, 62

Sazan Island: air base, 185; Sea Defense Brigade, 183

schools: Catholic, 99; enrollment, 91, 92 (table 5), 93 (table 6); higher institutes, 86, 90, 93 (table 6); military, 186-87; nationalization, 84; number of, 92 (table 5); paramilitary training, 188-90; Party, 116-17; pre-Communist period, 83-85; secondary, 90

security forces (_see also_ Directorate of State Security, Frontier Guards, People's Army, People's Police): 175-95; control of population by, 176, 192-93; Party control of, 111; summary, ix

Sejko, Teme (former naval commander): 22, 190

Semen River: 39

settlement: patterns, 4, 49, 56-58

Shehu, Fiqrete (Party school head): 77, 117

Shehu, Mehmet (Prime Minister): 1, 22, 77, 84, 88, 90, 92, 103, 104, 105, 111, 116, 122

Shehu (Mehmet) Military Academy: 187

Shijak: airbase, 184

Shijaku, S. (artist): 143

shipping: 47

Shkoder (city): population, 51, 57; theater, 140

Siliqi, Llazar (poet): 140

Skanderbeg (national hero): 5, 10, 12, 138, 175, 177

Skanderbeg military school: 186

Skenderi, Vehbi (poet): 140

social insurance, 63-64 society (_see also_ authority, divorce, elite, family, marriage, peasants, tribes and clans, women, youth): character of, 1-7; under communism, 68, 73-83; structure, 67-102; traditional patterns and values, 67, 69-73; by type of employment, 76 (table 4)

soils: 26, 41

Soviet Union: aid, economic, 7, 122, 141, 154, 169, 170; aid, military, 175, 176, 179, 183, 184, 192; break with, 122; debt to, 170; de-Stalinization campaign repercussions, 21; education and training in, 61, 87, 91; farm model, 153; relations with, v, 2, 3, 21, 23, 104, 112, 121, 122, 123; trade, 172

Spahiu, Xhafer (Politburo secretary): 111

Stalin, Joseph V.: 19, 22, 121, 122, 140, 142, 192, 193

Stalin (formerly Kucove): pipeline from, 44, 46

Stalin-Tito rupture: 21

standard of living: 7, 49-50, 58

state farms: 146, 151, 153; labor force size, 147; number and size, 154; private plots, 154, 157, 159, 166

State Planning Commission: 58, 146, 150

State University of Tirana: enrollment, 91; established, 137-38; Faculty of Jurisprudence, 74; Faculty of Medicine, 61; Library, 135; Linguistics and History Institute, 56; paramilitary training, 188

status: social mobility, 69

steel-rolling mill: 160

Stratoberdha, Llazi (Directorate head): 112

sugar beets: 151, 155, 156 (table 10)

sugar mill: 159

summary: vii-ix

Sunni (religious group): 97, 98

Tashko, Koco (former Party Leader): 23

Tashko, Tefta (singer): 142

taxes: 164, 165-66; and property confiscation, 20; turnover tax, 165, 166

teachers: number of, 91, 92 (table 5); Party membership, 94; training, 83, 87

television: 125, 133

temperature: 36 (table 1)

Tepelena, Ali Pasha (Lion of Yannina): 13

textbooks: 86, 87

textiles: mills, 159, 160; production, 163, (table 12)

theater: 140-41

Tirana (capital city): airbase, xiv (fig. 1), 184; description, 57; population, 51, 56, 57; transportation, 46

Tito. _See_ Broz, Josip

Tittoni-Venizelos Agreement: 15

tobacco: 151, 155, 156 (table 10)

topography: vii, 4, 26-27, 28 (fig. 2), 29

Tosk: official language, 49, 56, 137

Tosks (ethnic group): 6, 52; characteristics, 53, 54; social structure, 70-72

tractors (_see also_ machine tractor stations): spare parts, 160

trade, foreign: 146, 171-74; agreements, 173

Trade Union Workers: Agriculture and Procurements, 120; Education and Trade, 120; Industry and Construction, 120

trade unions (_see also_ United Trade Unions): 120; administration of social insurance activities, 63; and control of labor, 147

Trako, Konstantine (composer): 142

transportation: problems, 4-5; status, 44-47; systems, xiv (fig. 1)

treaties and agreements, international: boundary, 14, 15, 32; defense, 16; summary, ix; trade, 173

Treaty of San Stefano: 13

trials: accessibility, 107

tribes and clans: description, 70; social patterns and values, 69-73

tuberculosis: 60

Turkey: Ottoman rule period, 12-13

Union of Albanian Women: 117, 119

Union of Albanian Working Youth: 1, 93, 115, 117, 175; described, 118; newspaper, 129; paramilitary training, 190

Union of Artists and Writers: 137, 142

unions. _See_ trade unions, United Trade Unions

United Nations: Communist China mouthpiece in, v; Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (UNRRA): 59

United States: Albanians living in, 55; relations with, 23, 122

United Trade Unions: 1, 117, 129; description, 120

university. _See_ State University of Tirana

urbanization: 56, 75; government policy, 50-51, 147-48

values: traditional, 69-73 _passim_

vegetables: exports, 174; production, 151, 156 (table 10)

vegetation: 26, 41

Vijose River: 37, 39

villages: description, 57-58; electric power, 58; health services, 61-62; population, 49, 56

Vlachs (ethnic group): 54-55

Vlora, Ismail Qemal bey (independence leader): 3, 14

Vlore (port): airbase, 185; facilities, 47; pipeline to, 44, 46; population, 51, 57; Sea Defense Brigade, 183; transportation, 46

vocational and technical training: 86-87

Vodica, Pashko (clergyman): 98

voting: constitutional provision, 108

wages: 64

Warsaw Pact: 121, 123, 176, 192

West, the: East-West conflict, position, 2, 121; relations with, 23; trade, 172, 173

Wied, Prince Wilhelm zu: 15

wildlife: 43

Wilson, Woodrow: 15

women and girls: attitudes toward, 81, 82, 148; and blood feuds, 6, 71; mobilization potential, 185; paramilitary training, 189; part in production and government, 119; position in society, 54, 119; rights, 119-20; social changes under communism, 68; union of women, 117, 119; welfare benefits, 64

workers' compensation: 64

World War I: 3, 15, 32, 121, 177

World War II: 45, 50, 62-63, 175, 178-79

Xoxe, Jakov (writer): 140

Xoxe, Koci (government official): 21, 22, 193

_Ylli_ (periodical): 131

youth (_see also_ Pioneer organizations, Union of Albanian Working Youth): antireligious mission, 100, 118; attitudes toward, 82; organizations, 118; paramilitary training, 188-90

Yugoslav Communist Party: 17, 18, 19

Yugoslavia: aid, economic, 169; aid, military, 176, 179, 192; Albanians living in, 55; influence, 21; relations with, v, 2, 3, 9, 22, 23, 104, 121, 122, 123; shared border, 25, 32; trade, 173

Zengo, Androniqi (artist): 142

Zeqir, Ymer (commander, naval forces): 182

_Zeri I Popullit_ (Party's official daily): 80, 81, 91, 121, 129

_Zeri i Rinise_ (newspaper): 129, 130 (table 7)

Zicishti, Mihalaq (chief, State Security): 193

Zogu, Ahmet (King Zog I): 15, 16, 70, 72, 73, 178

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+-----------------------------------------------------+ | Transcriber's Note: | | | | Inconsistent hyphenation and spelling in the | | original document have been preserved. | | | | Page 109 In the paragraph starting "All meetings | | for the selection of candidates" the second | | line from the end is a misprint. No correction | | is available. | | | | Typographical errors corrected in the text: | | | | Page 4 county changed to country | | Page 11 thorfare changed to thoroughfare | | Page 12 Christiandom changed to Christendom | | Page 14 Adriatric changed to Adriatic | | Page 29 stablized changed to stabilized | | Page 39 Semen changed to Seman | | Page 46 Skhoder changed to Shkoder | | Page 55 be changed to by | | Page 70 ancester changed to ancestor | | Page 84 scare changed to scarce | | Page 96 At changed to As | | Page 102 plenun changed to plenum | | Page 134 Shtypshkonjave changed to Shtypshkronjave | | Page 162 hydrolectric changed to hydroelectric | | Page 178 Ahmed changed to Ahmet | | Page 184 betweeen changed to betweeen | | Page 186 dicipline changed to discipline | | Page 197 Drejte changed to Drejta | | Page 198 Rezhep changed to Rexhep | | Page 199 Metejshme changed to Metejshem | | Page 201 Furthur changed to Further | | Page 202 Bardhosi changed to Bardhoshi | | Page 202 Pjetar changed to Pjeter | | Page 214 Bektash changed to Bektashi | +-----------------------------------------------------+