CHAPTER XV
THE GROWTH OF CIVILIZATION: OLD WORLD HISTORY AND ETHNOLOGY
238. The early focal area.—239. Egypt and Sumer and their background.—240. Predynastic Egypt.—241. Culture growth in dynastic Egypt.—242. The Sumerian development.—243. The Sumerian hinterland.—244. Entry of Semites and Indo-Europeans.—245. Iranian peoples and cultures.—246. The composite culture of the Near East.—247. Phœnicians, Aramæans, Hebrews.—248. Other contributing nationalities.—249. Ægean civilization.—250. Europe.—251. China.—252. Growth and spread of Chinese civilization.—253. The Lolos.—254. Korea.—255. Japan.—256. Central and northern Asia.—257. India.—258. Indian caste and religion.—259. Relations between India and the outer world.—260. Indo-China.—261. Oceania.—262. The East Indies.—263. Melanesia and Polynesia.—264. Australia.—265. Tasmania.—266. Africa.—267. Egyptian radiations.—268. The influence of other cultures.—269. The Bushmen.—270. The West African culture-area and its meaning.—271. Civilization, race, and the future.
238. THE EARLY FOCAL AREA
The prehistoric archæology of Europe and the Near East, outlined in the last chapter, besides arriving at a tolerable chronology, reveals a set of processes of which the outstanding one is the principle of the origin of culture at focal centers and its diffusion to marginal tracts. Obviously this principle should apply in the field of history as well as prehistory, and should be even more easily traceable there.
In the Western Hemisphere it is plain that the great hearth of cultural nourishment and production has been Middle America—the tracts at the two ends of the intercontinental bridge, the Isthmus of Panama. That a similarly preëminent focal area existed in the Eastern Hemisphere has been implied over and over again in the pages that immediately precede this one, in the references to the priority of Egypt and Babylonia—the countries of the Nile and of the Two Rivers. These two lands lie at no great distance from each other: they are closer than Mexico and Peru. Like these two, they are also connected by a strip of mostly favorable territory—the “Fertile Crescent” of Palestine, Syria, and northern Mesopotamia. Curiously, the two countries also lie in two continents connected by a land bridge: the Isthmus of Suez is a parallel to that of Panama.
Both in Egypt and in Babylonia we find a little before 3000 B.C. a system of partly phonetic writing, which, though cumbersome by modern standards, was adequate to record whatever was spoken. Copper was abundant and bronze in use for weapons and tools. Pottery was being turned on wheels. Economic life was at bottom agricultural. The same food plants were grown: barley and wheat; similar beer brewed from them. The same animals were raised: cattle, swine, sheep, goats; with the ass for transport. Architecture was in sun-dried brick. Considerable walled cities had arisen. Their rulers struggled or attained supremacy over one another as avowed kings with millions of subjects. A regulated calendar existed by which events were dated. There were taxes, governors, courts of law, police protection, and social order. A series of great gods, with particular names and attributes, were worshiped in temples.
239. EGYPT AND SUMER AND THEIR BACKGROUND
It is scarcely conceivable that these two parallel growths of civilization, easily the most advanced that had until then appeared on earth, should have sprung up independently within a thousand miles of each other. Had Sumerian culture blossomed far away, say on the shores of the Pacific instead of the lower Euphrates, its essential separateness, like that of Middle American civilization, might be probable. But not only is the stretch of land between Babylonia and Egypt relatively short: it is, except in the Suez district, productive and pleasant, and was settled fairly densely by relatively advanced nations soon after the historic period opens or even before. The same is true of the adjoining regions. Canaan, Syria, Mesopotamia, Troy, Crete, Elam, southwestern Turkistan, had all passed beyond barbarism and into the period of city life during the fourth and third millenia B.C. This cannot be a series of coincidences. Evidently western Asia, together with the nearest European islands and the adjacent fertile corner of Africa, formed a complex but connected unit, a larger hearth in which culture was glowing at a number of points. It merely happened that a little upstream from the mouths of the Nile and of the Euphrates the development flamed up faster during the fifth and fourth millenia. The causes can only be conjectured. Perhaps when agriculture came to be systematically instead of casually conducted, these annually overflowed bottom lands proved unusually favorable; their population grew, necessitating fixed government and social order, which in turn enabled a still more rapid growth of numbers, the fuller exploitation of resources, and division of labor. This looks plausible enough. But too much weight should not be attached to explanations of this sort: they remain chiefly hypothetical. That culture had however by 3000 B.C. attained a greater richness and organization in Egypt and in the Babylonian region than elsewhere, are facts, and can hardly be anything but causally connected facts. These two civilizations had evidently arisen out of a common Near Eastern high level of Neolithic culture, much as the peaks of Mexico and Peru arose above the plateau of Middle American culture in which they were grounded.
Of course this means that Egypt and Sumer did not stand in parental-filial relation. They were rather collateral kin—brothers, or better, perhaps, the two most eminent of a group of cousins. Attempts to derive Egyptian hieroglyphic from Babylonian Cuneiform writing, and vice versa, have been rejected as unproved by the majority of unbiased scholars. But it is likely that at least the idea of making legible records, of using pictorial signs for sounds of speech, was carried from one people to the other, which thereupon worked out its own symbols and meanings. Just so, while the Phœnician alphabet has never yet been led back to either Egyptian, Cuneiform, Cretan, or Hittite writing with enough evidence to satisfy more than a minority fraction of the world of scholarship, it seems incredible that this new form of writing should have originated uninfluenced by any of the several systems which had been in current use in the near neighborhood, in part in Phœnicia itself, for from one to two or three thousand years. Such a view denies neither the essentially new element in Phœnician script nor its cultural importance. It does not consider the origin of the alphabet explained away by a reference to another and earlier system of writing. It does bring the alphabet into some sort of causal relation with the other systems, without merging it in them. It is along lines like this that the relation of early Egypt and Babylonia to each other and to the other cultures of the ancient Near East must be conceived.
240. PREDYNASTIC EGYPT
Egyptian civilization was already in full blown flower at the time of the consolidation of Lower and Upper Egypt under the first dynasty in the thirty-fourth century. Its developmental stages must have reached much farther back. Hieroglyphic writing, for instance, had taken on substantially the forms and degree of efficiency which it maintained for the next three thousand years. An elaborate, conventional system of this sort must have required centuries for its formative stages. A non-lunar 365-day calendar was in use. This was easily the most accurate and effective calendar developed in the ancient world, and furnished the basis of our own. It erred by the few hours’ difference between the solar and the assumed year. This difference the Egyptians did not correct but recorded, with the result that when the initial day had slowly swung around the cycle of the seasons, they reckoned a “Sothic year” of 1,461 years. One of these was completed in 2781; which gives 4241 B.C. as the date of the fixing of the calendar. This is considered the earliest exactly known date in human history. Of course, a calendar of such fineness cannot be established without long continued observations, whose duration will be the greater for lack of astronomical instruments. Centuries must have elapsed while this calendar was being worked out. Nor would oral tradition be a sufficient vehicle for carrying the observations. Permanent records must have been transmitted from generation to generation; and these presuppose stability of society, enduring buildings, towns, and a class with leisure to devote to astronomical computations. It is safe therefore to set 4500 B.C. as the time when Egypt had emerged from a tribal or rural peasant condition into one that can be called “civilized” in the original meaning of that word: a period of city states, or at least districts organized under recognized rulers. From 4500 on, then, is the time of the Predynastic Local Kingdoms.
Beyond this time there must lie another: the Predynastic Tribal period, before towns or calendars or writing or metal, when pottery was being made, stone ground, boats built, plants and animals being domesticated—the typical pure Neolithic Age, in short. Yet with all its prehistoric wealth, Egypt has not yet produced any true Neolithic remains. It is hardly likely that the country was uninhabited for thousands of years; much more probably have Neolithic remains been obliterated. This inference is strengthened by the paucity and dubiousness of Upper Palæolithic artifacts in Egypt. Lower Palæolithic flint implements are abundant, just as are remains from the whole of the period of metals. What has happened to the missing deposits and burials of the Upper Palæolithic and Neolithic that fell between?
Apparently they have been buried on the floor of the Nile valley under alluvial deposits. The Eolithic and Lower Palæolithic implements are found on the plateau through which the valley stretches; also cemented into conglomerate formed of gravel and stone washed down from this plateau and cut into terraces by the Nile when it still flowed from 30 to 100 feet higher than at present; and on the terraces. Just when these terraces were formed, it is difficult to say in terms of European Pleistocene periods; but not later than the third glacial epoch, it would seem, and perhaps as early as the second. As the Chellean of Europe is put after the third glaciation in the chronology followed in this book, the antiquity of the first flints used, and perhaps deliberately shaped, in Egypt, is carried back to an extremely high antiquity by the specimens imbedded in the terrace cliffs.
About the time of the last glaciation—the Mousterian or end of the Lower Palæolithic in Europe—the Nile ceased cutting down through the gravels that bordered it and began to build up its bed and its valley with a deposit of mud as it does to-day. From excavations to the base of dated monuments it is known that during the last 4,000 years this alluvium has been laid down at the rate of a foot in 300 years in northern Egypt. As it there attains a depth of over a hundred feet, the process of deposition is indicated as having begun 30,000 or more years ago. Of course no computation of this sort is entirely reliable because various factors can enter to change the rate; but the probability is that, other things equal, the deposition would have been slower at first than of late, and the time of the aggrading correspondingly longer. In any event geologists agree that their Recent—the last 10,000 years or so—is insufficient, and that the deposition of the floor of the Nile valley must have begun during what in Europe was part of the Würm glaciation.
This is the period of transition from Lower to Upper Palæolithic (§ 69, 70, 213) in Europe. The disappearance of Upper Palæolithic remains in Egypt is most plausibly explained by the fact that the Upper Palæolithic, just as later the Neolithic, was indeed represented in Egypt, very likely flourishingly, but that in the mild climate its artifacts were lost or interred on or near the surface of the valley itself and have therefore long since been covered over so deep that only future lucky accidents, like well-soundings, may now and then bring a specimen to light.
For the Neolithic, there actually are such discoveries: bits of pottery brought up from borings, 60 feet deep in the vicinity of one of the monuments referred to, 75 and 90 feet deep at other points in lower Egypt. The smallest of these figures computes to a lapse of 18,000 years—nearly twice as long as the estimated age of the earliest pottery in Europe. It is always necessary not to lay too much reliance on durations calculated solely from thickness of strata, whether these are geological or culture-bearing. But in this case general probability confirms, at least in the rough. In 4000 B.C., when Egypt was beginning to use copper, western Europe was still in its first phase of stone polishing; in 1500 B.C., when Egypt was becoming acquainted with iron, Europe was scarcely yet at the height of its bronze industry. If the fisher folk camped on their oyster shells on the Baltic shores were able to make pottery by 8000 B.C., there is nothing staggering in the suggestion that the Egyptians knew the art in 16,000 B.C. They have had writing more than twice as long as the North Europeans.
The dates themselves, then, need not be taken too literally. They are calculated from slender even though impressive evidence and subject to revision by perhaps thousands of years. But they do suggest strongly the distinct precedence of northern Africa, and by implication of western Asia, over Europe in the Neolithic, as precedence is clear in the Bronze and early Iron Ages and indicated for the Lower Palæolithic.
If, accordingly, the beginning of the Early Neolithic—the age of pottery, bow, dog—be set for Egypt somewhere around 16,000 B.C., about coeval with the beginning of the Magdalenian in middle western Europe (§ 215), the Full Neolithic, the time of first domestication of animals and plants and polishing of stone, could be estimated at around 10,000 B.C., when Europe was still lingering in its epi-Palæolithic phase (§ 216). One can cut away several thousand years and retain the essential situation unimpaired: 8000, or 7000 B.C., still leaves Egypt in the van; helps to explain the appearance of eastern grains and animals in Europe around 6000-5000 B.C.; and, what is most to the point, allows a sufficient interval for agriculture and the allied phases of civilization to have reached the degree of development which they display when the Predynastic Local Kingdoms drift into our vision around 4500 B.C. A long Full Neolithic, then, is both demanded by the situation in Egypt and indicated by such facts as there are; a long period in which millet, barley, split-wheat, wheat, flax, cattle, sheep, and asses were gradually modified and made more useful by breeding under domestication. This Full Neolithic, or its last portion, was the Predynastic Tribal Age of Egypt; which, when it passed into the Predynastic Local Kingdoms phase about 4500 B.C., had brought these plants and animals substantially to their modern forms, and had increased and coördinated the population of the land to a point that the devising of calendar, metallurgy, writing, and kingship soon followed.
241. CULTURE GROWTH IN DYNASTIC EGYPT
The story of the growth of Egyptian civilization during the Dynastic or historic period is a fascinating one. There were three phases of prosperity and splendor. The first was the Old Kingdom, 3000-2500, culminating in the fourth dynasty of the Great Pyramid builders, in the twenty-ninth century. The second was the Middle or Feudal Kingdom, with its climax in the twelfth dynasty, 2000-1788. After the invasion of the Asiatic Hyksos in the seventeenth century, the New Empire of the eighteenth and nineteenth dynasties arose, whose greatest extension fell in the reign of Thutmose III, 1501-1447, although the country retained some powers of offensive for a couple of centuries longer. There followed a slow nationalistic decline, a transient seventh century conquest by Assyria, a brief and fictitious renascence supported by foreign mercenaries, and the Persian conquest of 525 B.C., since which time Egypt has never been an independent power under native rulers. A waning of cultural energy, at least relatively to other peoples, had set in before the military decline. By 1000 B.C. certainly, by 1500 perhaps, Egypt was receiving more elements of civilization than she was imparting. She still loomed wealthy and refined in contrast with younger nations; but these were producing more that was new.
Copper smelted from the ores of the Sinai peninsula had apparently come into use by 4000, but remained scarce for a long time. The first dynasty had some low grade bronze; by 2500 bronze containing a tenth of tin was in use. Iron was introduced about 1500 or soon after, but for centuries remained a sparing Asiatic import. In fact, the conservatism that was settling over the old age of the civilization caused it to cling with unusual tenacity to bronze. As late as Ptolemaic and Roman times, when the graves of foreigners abounded in iron, those of Egyptians were still prevailingly bronze furnished.
Quite different must have been the social psychology three thousand years earlier. The first masonry was laid in place of adobe brick to line tomb walls in the thirty-first century; and within a century and a half the grandest stone architecture in human history had been attained in the Pyramid of Cheops. This was a burst of cultural energy such as has been equalled only in the rise of Greek art or modern science.
Glass making seems to have been discovered in Egypt in the early dynasties and to have spread from there to Syria and the Euphrates. The earliest glass was colored faïence, at most translucent, and devoted chiefly to jewelry, or to surfacing brick. Later it was blown into vessels, usually small bottles, and only gradually attained to clearness. From western Asia the art was carried to Europe, and, in Christian times, to China, which at first paid gem prices for glass beads, but later was perhaps stimulated by knowledge of the new art into devising porcelain—a pottery vitrified through.
The horse first reached Egypt with the Hyksos. With it came the war chariot. Wheeled vehicles seem to have been lacking previously. The alphabet, the arch, the zodiac, coinage, heavy metal armor, and many other important inventions gained no foot-hold in Egypt until after the country had definitely passed under foreign domination. The superior intensity of early Egyptian civilization had evidently fostered a spirit of cultural self-sufficiency, analogous to that of China or Byzantine Greece, which produced a resistance to innovation from without. At the same time, inward development continued, as attested by numerous advances in religion, literature, dress, the arts, and science when the Old Kingdom and New Empire are compared. In the eleventh and twelfth dynasties, for instance, the monarchy was feudal; in the eighteenth lived the famous monotheistic iconoclastic ruler Ikhnaton.
The civilization of ancient Egypt was wholly produced and carried by a Hamitic-speaking people. This people has sometimes been thought to have come from Asia, but its Hamitic relatives hold Africa from Somaliland to Morocco even to-day, and there is no cogent reason to look for its ancestors outside that continent.
242. THE SUMERIAN DEVELOPMENT
The story of Babylonia is less completely known than that of Egypt because as a rockless land it was forced to depend on sun-dried brick, because the climate is less arid, and also because of its position. Egypt was isolated by deserts, Babylonia open to many neighbors, and so was invaded, fought over, and never unified as long as Egypt. The civilization was therefore never so nationally specific, so concentrated; and its records, though abundant, are patchy. Babylonia, the region of the lower Euphrates and Tigris, was the leading culture center of Asia in the third and second millenia before Christ; and while mostly a Semitic land in this period, its civilization was the product of another people, the Sumerians, established near the mouth of the two rivers in the fourth millenium. It was the Sumerians who in this thousand years worked out the Cuneiform or wedge-shaped system of writing—mixedly phonetic and ideographic like the Egyptian, but of wholly different values, so far as can be told to-day, and executed in straight strokes instead of the pictorial forms of Hieroglyphic or the cursive ones of its derivative Hieratic. It was the Semites who, coming in from the Arabian region, took over this writing, together with the culture that accompanied it. Their dependence is shown by the fact that they used characters with Sumerian phonetic values as well as by their retention of Sumerian as a sacred language, for which, as time went on, they were compelled to compile dictionaries, to the easement of modern archæologists.
Of the local origins of this Sumerian city-state civilization with its irrigation and intensive agriculture, nothing is known. It kept substantially abreast of Egypt, or at most a few centuries in arrears. In certain features, as the use of metals, it seems to have been in advance. Egypt is a long-drawn oasis stretched through a great desert. Babylonia lies adjacent to desert and highland, steppe and mountains. Within a range of a few hundred miles, its environment is far more varied. Not only copper but tin is said to have been available among neighboring peoples. So, too, Babylonia is likely to have had the early domestic animals—except perhaps cattle—earlier than Egypt, because it lay nearer to what seem to have been their native habitats. The result is that whereas Egyptian culture makes the superficial impression of having been largely evolved on the spot by the Egyptians, Sumerian culture already promises to resolve, when we shall know it better, into a blend to which a series of peoples contributed measurably. The rôle of the Sumerians, like that of their Semitic successors, was perhaps primarily that of organizers.
243. THE SUMERIAN HINTERLAND
There are some evidences of these cultures previous to the Sumerian one or coeval with it. In Elam, the foot-hill country east of Sumer, a mound at Susa contains over 100 feet of culture-bearing deposits; in southern Turkistan, at Anau, 300 miles east of the Caspian sea, one is more than fifty feet deep. The date of the first occupancy of these sites has been set, largely on the basis of the rate of accumulation of the deposits—an unsafe criterion—at 18,000 and 8000 B.C. respectively. These dates, particularly the former, are surely too high. But a remote antiquity is indicated. Both sites show adobe brick houses and hand-made, painted pottery at the very bottom. Susa contains copper implements in the lowest stratum; Anau, three-fourths way to the base—in the same level as remains of sheep and camels. Still lower levels at Anau yielded remains of tamed cattle, pigs, and goats, while wheat and barley appear at the very bottom, before domesticated animals were kept. Whatever the date of the introduction of copper in these regions, it was very likely anterior to the thirty-first century, when bronze was already used by the Sumerians. These excavations therefore shed light on the Full Neolithic and Eneolithic or Transition phases of west Asiatic culture which must have preceded the Sumerian civilization known to us.
The languages of these early west Asiatic peoples have not been classified. Sumerian was non-Indo-European, non-Semitic, non-Hamitic. Some have thought to detect Turkish, that is Ural-Altaic, resemblances in it. But others find similarities to modern African languages. This divergence of opinion probably means that Sumerian cannot yet be safely linked with any other linguistic group. The same applies to Elamite, which is known from inscriptions of a later date than the early strata at Susa. What the Neolithic and Bronze Age people of Anau spoke there is no means of knowing. The region at present is Turkish, but this is of course no evidence that it was so thousands of years ago. The speech of the region might conceivably have been Indo-European, for it lies at the foot of the Persian plateau, which by the Iron Age was occupied by the Iranian branch of the Indo-Europeans, who are generally thought to have entered it from the north or northwest. But again there is not a shred of positive evidence for an Indo-European population at this wholly prehistoric period. The one thing that is clear is that the early civilization of the general west Asiatic area was not developed by the Semites who were its chief carriers later. This is a situation parallel to that obtaining in Europe and Asia Minor, whose civilization in the full historic period has been almost wholly in the hands of Indo-Europeans, whereas at the dawn of history the nations who were culturally in the lead, the Hittites, Trojans, Cretans, Lydians, Etruscans, and Iberians, were all non-Indo-European.
244. ENTRY OF SEMITES AND INDO-EUROPEANS
The Semitic invasions seem to have proceeded from the great motherland of that stock, Arabia, whose deserts and half-deserts have been at all times like a multiplying hive. Some of the movements were outright conquests, others half-forceful penetrations, still others infiltrations. Several great waves can be distinguished. About 3000 there was a drift which brought the Akkadians, Sargon’s people, into Babylonia, perhaps the Assyrians into their home up the Tigris, the Canaanites and Phœnicians into the Syrian region. About 2200 the Amorites flowed north: into Babylonia, where Babylon now sprang up and the famous lawgiver Hammurabi ruled; into Mesopotamia proper; and into Syria. Around 1400, the Aramæans gradually occupied the Syrian district, and the Hebrews began to dispossess the Canaanites. Around 700 still another wave brought the Chaldæans into Babylonia, to erect a great Semitic kingdom once more—that of Nebuchadnezzar. Then, for more than a thousand years, Arabia lay contained within herself, dammed perhaps by the Persian, Macedonian, Parthian, and Roman empires, until in the seventh century after Christ Mohammedanism led forth her peoples. A much earlier movement, at an unknown time, had brought the forefathers of the Abyssinians across the mouth of the Red Sea into Africa, and the Hyksos who overthrew the Middle Kingdom of ancient Egypt may have been Semites.
The Indo-Europeans entered southwest Asia later and permeated it more locally than the Semites. Soon after 2000 the Kassites or Kossæans intruded into Babylonia; they seem to have been Indo-Europeans, perhaps Iranians. Around 1500 the Mitanni were a power on the upper Euphrates between the Assyrians and the Hittites of Asia Minor. Their personal and god names as preserved in Assyrian Cuneiform inscriptions show them to have been an Iranian people. The latter are not recognizably referred to in their permanent home on the Iranian plateau until about 1000, but may well have settled there a thousand years earlier. Their close relatives, the Indic branch, are believed to have begun their entry of India about 2000-1500 B.C. or soon after.
245. IRANIAN PEOPLES AND CULTURES
By the seventh century B.C., the Iranians were civilized and strong enough to participate in the overthrow of Semitic Assyria, whose principal inheritors they became. From then on for over twelve hundred years, with only a century of interruption due to Alexander and his successors, a succession of Iranian powers dominated not only the plateau but Babylonia and Mesopotamia: Medes, Achæmenian Persians, Parthians, Sassanian Persians. A strong national consciousness was evolved and reinforced by a national religion—Zoroastrianism, Magism, Fire-worship, the Avestan faith, are some of its names. This Iranian religion endured nearly three thousand years, and still survives among a shrunken number of followers, notably the emigrant Parsis—that is, “Persians”—of India; and its basic ideas of the eternal conflict of good and evil, truth and lie, and of a single supreme deity of righteousness, have influenced many other cults, including Christianity. The long contact between Iran and the Tigris-Euphrates valley and their frequent political unity since 600 B.C. reacted favorably to the intensification of culture in the highlands; with the result that when the Arabs and later the Turks broke from their marginal homes into the old civilized parts of western Asia, they absorbed heavily from the long established cultures of Iran. Much of Arab and Turkish civilization is really Persian, and goes back ultimately to Semitic Babylonian and Sumerian origins.
Soon after the Iranians pushed southward out of the steppe on to the plateau east of the Caspian, other Indo-Europeans drove southward west of the Caspian and Black Sea; the Armenians into the seats which they have held ever since, the Kardouchoi into the Kurd country, tribes allied to the Balkan Thracians and the Phrygians into Asia Minor. The centuries before and after 1000 B.C. were the period of these movements, all of which failed to penetrate as deeply into the heart of the west Asiatic cultural center as had the Semitic inflows. Nor was the Indo-Europeanization of all the newly occupied territories as permanent as the corresponding Semitization. Asia Minor, which is now prevailingly Turkish, is the one area of consequence that in the historic period has been de-Indo-Europeanized in speech (§ 50).
246. THE COMPOSITE CULTURE OF THE NEAR EAST
In this western end of Asia, then, from the Hellespont to Persia and from the Caucasus to the Arabian desert, beginning five thousand years ago and probably more, a motley of nations was thrown together—autochthonous peoples of several sorts, Semites, Indo-Europeans, possibly Ural-Altaians. Their contacts enabled each to acquire many of the new devices developed by the others, to combine these with their own attainments, and thus to be a source of culture stimulation over again for the others. The largest tract of rich lowland in the area was the Fertile Crescent which bowed from Jerusalem northward and eastward into Mesopotamia and then down the course of the Tigris and Euphrates to their mouths, and here, for several millenia, civilization tended to advance most intensively. Within this Crescent, again, its southeastern end, the drainable and irrigable alluvial plain of Babylonia, averaged in the lead from the earliest known Sumerian times until shortly before the Christian era. Yet political dominance often shifted elsewhere: to Egypt, which conquered to the Euphrates in the fifteenth century B.C.; to the Hittites of Asia Minor in the fourteenth and thirteenth; to the Assyrians of the middle Tigris in the twelfth and eleventh and again in the eighth and seventh centuries. Culturally, too, almost every one of the many nations or tracts comprised within the west Asiatic area developed a degree of independence; each added features or modified those which it borrowed; each gave to its local civilization a cast of its own, without losing touch with the others.
247. PHŒNICIANS, ARAMÆANS, HEBREWS
Thus, the Phœnicians, or some Semitic people closely related and geographically near them, by 1000 B.C. developed, presumably out of one of the several part-phonetic or syllabic writings in use about or among them, the true alphabet (§ 134). In the two or three centuries following, they established a commercial and maritime supremacy over the Mediterranean that led to the founding of Carthage, direct trade as far as Spain and indirect to Britain, and transmission of the alphabet and other knowledge to the Greeks.
Another trading people, although an inland one, were the Aramæans, Semites of the same wave as the Hebrews but established north of Palestine in Syria, with Damascus as their greatest center. Never more than a secondary political power, they penetrated other countries peacefully, brought in their system of measures and weights, their writing, and even their language. Assyria had become half Aramaic speaking by the time of her fall, and the every-day language of Palestine in the days of Jesus and for some centuries before was Aramaic. Aramæan script, a cursive form of the Phœnician alphabet, gradually replaced Cuneiform writing, first for business and then for official purposes, throughout western Asia and beyond. In the fourteenth century, the Syrian and Palestinian city rulers had written their reports and dispatches to the Egyptian overlord in Cuneiform, which a corps of clerks in the Foreign Office or Dependencies Department at Tell-el-Amarna transcribed into Hieroglyphic or Hieratic. In the fourth century, Persian officials were employing Aramæan for official communications. As the Cuneiform more and more died out, derivatives of Aramæan became the alphabets of Persia; of at least part and possibly the whole of India; of the Jews; of the Arabs; of the Nestorian Christians; and of the ancient Turks, the Mongols, and the Manchus. Practically all Asia except perhaps India, so far as it writes alphabetically, thus derives its letters from an Aramæan source (§ 146).
Equally profound was the influence of the neighboring Hebrews in another phase of civilization. At the time they first entered history, about 1400 B.C., the Hebrews worshiped a tribal god Jahveh. They believed that there were many gods beside him, but that they were his people and he their god. A growing national consciousness led them more and more to emphasize the special relation between him and them, to the exclusion of worship of other deities which was constantly creeping in from their Canaanite, Phœnician, Aramæan, and Egyptian neighbors. Thus they grew into the stage of monolatry, or worship limited to one god. As however Assyria and Babylonia first threatened and then engulfed them, and their national impotence became more and more evident, they confided less in themselves, as they had done in the brief days of their little tenth century glory, and trusted increasingly in their god as their salvation. National hopes fell and divine ones rose; until the Hebrew people passed from thinking of the Lord as all powerful to thinking of him as one and sole: monotheism had evolved out of monolatry as this had grown out of a special tribal cult. Historically the monotheistic idea was not new. Ikhnaton of Egypt had proclaimed it more than half a thousand years before the Hebrew prophets. The concept may actually have been carried over; but it certainly drew sustenance of its own on Hebrew soil and first became established there as a cardinal, enduring element of a national civilization. The Hebrews adhered to monotheism with an ever-increasing insistence; until the concept was taken over by Christianity and Islam—two of the three great international religions; Buddhism, the third, being essentially atheistic. Here then is another tremendously spread cultural element of deep significance that originated as a local west Asiatic variant.
248. OTHER CONTRIBUTING NATIONALITIES
Almost every people in the area, in fact, made its special contribution. In Asia Minor evolved the concept of a great primal mother goddess, known to the Greeks as Cybele. Lydia, in western Asia Minor, coined the earliest money about 700 B.C. Some people near the Black Sea in eastern Asia Minor seem to have been the first to develop the working of iron and perhaps of steel. The Kassites from the north or east probably introduced the horse into Babylonia, soon after 2000 B.C. Thence it spread, as the animal of royalty, aristocracy, and the special arm of chariot warfare, until it reached Egypt some three hundred years later. The first domestication of the horse was apparently in central Asia; the transmission to Europe may have been direct rather than through Mediterranean Asia. The camel had been tamed earlier, also in central Asia. Its remains appear in Turkistan in the copper period; and in Israel the Arab Midianite raiders whom Gideon defeated rode camels, while some generations later, in David’s time, about 1000 B.C., horses were still scarce.
249. ÆGEAN CIVILIZATION
On the island of Crete, almost equidistant from Asia, Africa, and Europe, there began to grow up with the introduction of bronze, about 3000 B.C., a civilization most of whose elements were imported, but which added to them and molded the whole of its mass with unusual originality. Three great periods, named the Early, Middle, and Late “Minoan” after the legendary Cretan king Minos, are distinguishable in the abundant remains which excavation has brought to light; each of these is divisible into three sub-periods designated I, II, III. At some sites, such as Knossos, the remains of successive sub-periods are separated by layers of packed-down earth deposited when an old settlement was obliterated and serving as floor for the next occupation. Underneath the Bronze Age deposits were thick strata from the Neolithic, with unpainted pottery. With the Early Minoan, about 3000 B.C., painted pottery as well as bronze came in, to be followed by the potter’s wheel and a system of hieroglyphic writing unrelated to the Egyptian. In the Middle Minoan the pottery became polychrome, palaces were built, art took a remarkable naturalistic turn in pottery and fresco painting and carving, and the hieroglyphics evolved into a linear, probably syllabic, script. The beginning of the Late Minoan, from the sixteenth to the fourteenth century B.C., saw the culmination of Cretan civilization. Then something violent happened, the palaces were destroyed, and after a brief decadence Minoan culture passed out at the arrival of the first of the historic Greeks, at the opening of the Iron Age, about 1250 B.C.
The Minoans left no chronology of their own and their writing is unread. But datable Egyptian objects found in Cretan strata of identified period, and Cretan objects characteristic of particular periods found at datable Egyptian sites as the result of trade, have made possible an indirect but positive chronology for Minoan culture. The second sub-periods of Early, Middle, and Late Minoan respectively were contemporary with the Sixth, Twelfth, and Eighteenth Dynasties on the Nile. From 2000 B.C. on, Minoan dates are therefore reliable within a century and sometimes less. Industry, commerce, games, a light, practical style of architecture, above all a graceful realistic art, flourished particularly from Middle Minoan III to Late Minoan II. There was evidently considerable wealth, a leisure class, and life was prevailingly peaceful and surrounded with charm.
The Minoans were a Caucasian people of Mediterranean race. Their language is unknown, but seems to have been distinct from the later Greek, and therefore probably non-Indo-European. When their home power crumbled, a fragment appears to have taken refuge in Asia and founded the Philistine cities which for a time pressed the tribal Hebrews and which gave their name to Palestine.
A related culture appears in the ruins of the successive cities of Troy; on the islands of the Ægean Sea; and in mainland Greece, where it has been called Mycenæan, after the citadel and town attributed to Agamemnon. Ægean perhaps is the name least likely to confuse, for this larger culture of which the Cretan Minoan was long the most illustrious representative. The table outlines the principal correlations.
The thirteenth century brought the Greeks, then a rude, hardy, and at first non-maritime people, fighting their way south and wrecking or sapping the Ægean civilization. Culture lost its bloom, life became hard, the outlook contracted. Art shriveled into crude geometric ornamentation, the forms became childishly inept, intercourse with the Orient sank to a minimum, and when trade and foreign stimulation revived they were at first in Phœnician hands. It is not until the seventh century that true history begins in Greece, and in the main only to the sixth that the rudiments of that characteristic Hellenic philosophy, literature, and art can be traced, which were released after the Persian wars early in the fifth century. Yet the half thousand and more years of dark ages between Ægean and classic Greek civilization did not entail a complete interruption. The Greek often enough smote the Mycenæan or Minoan. More often, perhaps, he settled alongside him, possibly oppressed him, but learned from him. He choked out Ægean culture, but nourished his own upon it. The Homeric poems, composed in Greek during this period of retrogression, picture a civilization essentially Ægean; and along with them much other cultural tradition must have been passed on.
At any rate, when Greek culture reëmerged, it was charged with Oriental elements and influences, but perhaps even more charged with Ægean ones. Its games, its unponderous architecture, its open city life, the free quality of its art, its political particularity, its peculiar alert tenseness and feeling for grace, had all flourished before on Greek soil. Their flavor is un-Asiatic and un-Egyptian of whatever period. We have here another instance of the tenacity of the attachment of cultural qualities to the soil; of the faculty, at once absorptive and resistive, that for thousands of years, however inventions might diffuse and culture elements circulate, succeeded in keeping China something that can fairly be called Chinese, India Indian, Egypt Egyptian, the Northwest and Southwest of America Northwestern and Southwestern respectively; in a degree even kept Europe, so long culturally dependent on the Orient, always European.
250. EUROPE
With Greece we have entered the realm of what is conventionally regarded as history. For the rest of Europe, prehistoric archæology and its record of illiterate peoples abut so closely on history in the ordinary sense, that a tracing of the transition takes one promptly into documentary study. There is much in this early historical field that is of anthropological interest, and just back of it lies more that is specifically so: where the round headed peoples came from who began to appear in Europe during the Neolithic; whether peoples like Ligurians, Sicilians, Scythians, were Indo-Europeans or not, and of what branch; where the blond Nordic type took shape and whether it originally spoke dialects of the Germanic group; who built Stonehenge and the other megalithic monuments of western Europe; where the first home of the Indo-Europeans lay. But such problems are intricate, and usually answerable, if at all, from stray indications scattered among masses of literary and historical data controllable only by the specialist, whose primary interests tend in other directions. Where these documented indications fail, the problems become speculative. We have no clear record of any indubitable Indo-European people, in or out of Europe, before the second millenium B.C. When they appear in history, they are already differentiated into their familiar main divisions. The Bronze Age Scandinavians seem likely to have been Indo-Europeans and perhaps of the Germanic branch; for the Neolithic an identification would be mere guessing. The LaTène Iron culture is characteristically Keltic, that of the Hallstadt period and area less certainly Illyrian and Keltic. And after all, such considerations concern speech, or race, which can be associated with any culture. Our present concern being primarily with the latter, it will be more profitable to pass on from these questions and turn to regions remote from those in which Occidental civilization assumed its modern form.
251. CHINA
China, far from Europe and known to the outside world only recently, possesses a civilization so different from ours in a multitude of aspects, that thought of connection between the cultures seems at first unreasonable. One thinks of rice, pagodas, bound feet, queues, silk, tea, ancestor worship, a strange, chopped, singing speech, and writing in still stranger characters. Yet the Chinese have long had a civilization identical in many of its constituents with our own: civil government, rimed poetry, painting, trousers, wheat and barley, our common domestic animals, bronze and iron, for instance. Since most of these culture elements are wanting in Africa and Oceania, as well as in native America, there is no inherent reason why they should be expectable in China. Their repetition in China and in the West as the result of independent causes would be remarkable. Evidently many if not all of this group of common traits represent absorptions into the civilization of China, or diffusions out of it into the West, much as the larger part of early European civilization was imported out of the nearer Orient.
In the broader perspective of culture history, then, China no longer stands aloof. The roots of her civilization are largely the same as those of our own. In this light, understanding of Chinese civilization involves two steps. The first is the tracing of the elements derived from the west or imparted to it. The second is the recognition of how these were remodeled and combined with elements of local growth and thereby given their peculiarly Chinese cast and setting.
Authentic historical records of China go back only three thousand years, and her archæology is little known. Beyond the beginning of the Chou dynasty, about 1100 B.C., or more exactly, beyond a point when this dynasty was about three centuries old, in 827 B.C., the Chinese possess only legendary history, in which slight strands of fact are interwoven with fabricated or fabulous constituents. Then, too, the Chinese have long been genuinely more advanced than their neighbors, than all of their world, in fact; with the result that they could hardly escape the conviction of their own superiority and self-sufficiency, and the belief that they had devised almost everything in their own culture. This presumption led to the conscientious manufacture by native historians of dates for inventions which were really made outside of China.
Beginning, then, in the ninth century B.C., we find the Chinese a settled and populous people in the lower valley of the great Yellow river, in what is now the northeastern corner of the “Eighteen Provinces” or China proper, from about Si-an-fu to Peking. They may have come from middle Asia or still farther west by a national migration, as has sometimes been conjectured: there is nothing to show that they did, and a great deal to suggest that they had lived in or near their seats of that period long before. It is difficult to imagine that the Chinese could have moved out of central Asia without leaving a part of their number behind, or without leaving conspicuous traces of their culture among their former neighbors. Of this there is no evidence. For one of the most advanced peoples of its time to remove itself and its civilization complete and unimpaired would be without parallel in history, and indeed is inconceivable as soon as one turns from the vague idea to face specific details of the process.
Nevertheless the Chinese as we first know them had the principal grains and tamed animals, the metals and plow and wheel of contemporary Eastern Asia and Europe. While it is scarcely thinkable that this great complex of culture traits should not have been due to connections with the west, there is every probability that these connections were of the sort that have been traced so frequently in foregoing pages: diffusions unaccompanied by populational drifts, or at least in the main independent of them. When it is recalled that western Turkistan held cereal-growing and animal-raising inhabitants far back in the Neolithic, and that the Bronze period is definitely represented in Siberia,[36] such transmission will not seem far fetched. It is also well to remember that all through the historic period central Asia contained farming populations, cities, traders, and skilled artisans, some measure of which evidences of higher culture it is only necessary to project a few thousand years backward to complete the link in the cultural chain between China and the west. We tend to overlook this fact because it is the transient Hun and Mongol invasions that chiefly obtrude into both western and Chinese history. Whenever the nomads ceased boiling over, they receded from the historians’ view. Obviously they could not have migrated and fought and burnt and slain among each other continuously. The more settled life at home, which they led most of the time, and into which they were always inclined to take over the religion, writing, and arts of the Orient, India and China, is the phase of their existence most likely to be overlooked, but which, from the point of view of the history of civilization, is far more important than their evanescent conquests. In this underlying phase they were the connectors of Near and Far East.
It is interesting in this connection that so far as more recent transmissions between China and the west are datable or positively traceable, they took place chiefly by the long land route through central Asia. The first trade between the Roman empire and China of the Han dynasty was overland; so was the introduction of Buddhism and cotton from India. In each case sea communication came later. It was scarcely before Mohammedan times that ocean trade between China and the west became important.
On the other hand, the Chinese and other east Asiatics always lacked, and still lack, several aspects of the grain-cattle-horse-wheel-metals cluster that are very ancient and practically universal in Europe, the Near East, and even central Asia. They do not use milk or its products, wool, nor bread-leaven. It has been suggested that the cluster was transmitted to China before these traits had been added to it; and that when they finally might have reached China, they found its people satisfactorily established in a culture containing substitutes for these traits, and therefore resistive to them.
It is significant that even to-day northern China, within which the oldest known China lay, still cultivates wheat, barley, and millet, and breeds cattle, horses, sheep, goats, and swine, as did the Swiss lake-dwellers; whereas in southern China the typical grain and animal are rice and the buffalo, as in Indo-China and Malaysia. There are evidently two fundamentally distinct economic systems here, characteristic respectively of Europe and west and north Asia, and of southeastern Asia; and evolving in the main independently. The first civilized China, that of the Chou period, that which produced Confucius as its literary standardizer, and has chiefly shaped Chinese traditions and institutions ever since, belonged to the great northern and western cycle; was in fact its easternmost outpost.
This brings up the question whether Chinese writing could not also have sprung from a western source, notably the Sumerian Cuneiform, which it superficially resembles in its linear, non-pictorial strokes, and in its mixed ideographic-phonetic method. The connection has indeed been asserted, but no satisfactory evidence of specific correspondences has been adduced. The most that it seems valid to maintain is that a remote connection is thinkable; a connection not extending beyond a limited number of characters or the idea or method of writing. The earliest Chinese characters preserved on bronzes are nearly two thousand years younger than the most ancient inscriptions of the system which developed into the classic Cuneiform. Both systems are fairly crystallized when they first come to our knowledge. Their formative stages, in which such connection as they might have would be most apparent, are obscure. It is well to remember that Cuneiform and Egyptian hieroglyphic, which were virtually contemporaneous and much nearer to each other geographically, have not yet been brought into specific relation as regards their origins.
252. GROWTH AND SPREAD OF CHINESE CIVILIZATION
Chou China at first embraced most of Shensi and Honan, southern Shansi and Chihli, and western Shantung. It was feudal, and practically as separatist as mediæval Germany. The chief functions of the over-king were to perform sacrifices, to admonish the kings and princes, and to govern his small dynastic domain. Unity lay not so much in an effective organization as in an idea, the feeling of a common race and especially of a common civilization. This idea has persisted to the present. It is adhesion to the culture of China, to its deep roots, its permanence, its humanities, that has always made Chinamen feel themselves Chinamen; has in fact sooner or later turned into Chinamen all alien elements, whether they were intrusive conquerors or primitive folk, that came to be included within the limits of the realm. In this way common customs and ideals already united the dozen or more larger Chou states and hundreds of dependencies; and chronic internal warfare did not prevent this era from being the age of Confucius, Laotse, Mencius and the other great sages that from the sixth to the fourth centuries formulated the typical Chinese character and attitude.
During the latter part of the Chou period began a gradual reduction of the number of feudal states, due to the larger swallowing the smaller. By the middle of the third century, two of these had emerged as preponderant: Ts’in in the west, centering about the Wei valley, and Ch’u on the south, along the middle Yangtse. Both were frontier states, less cultivated and hardier than the others, and regarded as barbarian or only half Chinese. Ts’in may have included some Hunnish absorptions; Ch’u very likely represented the rule of a Chinese dynasty over a native population whose original affiliations may have been either with the non-Sinitic Anamese of to-day, with the Shan-Siamese division, or with some closer branch of the Sinitic family, but who were gradually assimilating the culture and speech of the northern old China. At last, in 223 B.C., Ch’u fell before Ts’in, and within two years the remaining states in the northeast collapsed. For the first time China, from nearly its present frontier to south of the Yangtse, was effectively under one active ruler, Shi Hwang-ti, the “first emperor.” His dynasty crumbled almost at his death, but only to be succeeded by the famous Han line, under which, in the two centuries before and the two after Christ, China extended, consolidated, and prospered. The boundaries of the empire were pushed, in name at least, to virtually their present limits; and though political control may often have been slight, cultural influence progressed rapidly south of the Yangtse, much as Gaul became Romanized at the same time. Even the survival of half-independent barbarian groups here and there in the south and west has its parallel in the persistence of Keltic speech in French Brittany. By the seventh to ninth centuries after Christ, when the empire flourished once more under the Tang dynasty, the mass of southern China may be considered to have been substantially assimilated. Even the southern coast, which was the last area to be integrated, and which retains to-day the greatest dialectic differentiations and autonomous tendencies, had become part of the Chinese polity and civilization. The consequence was that when in the thirteenth century the Mongols and in the seventeenth the Manchus conquered the empire, they accomplished little more than the overthrow of one dynasty by another. The course of Chinese culture went on undisturbed, as it had in several previous historic periods when half of the realm passed temporarily under the sway of nomads or barbarians from the north.
A considerable measure of the cultural predominance of China over her neighbors is to be ascribed to her more numerous population, which in turn was partly due to the cultural advance. The Chinese were the first nation to maintain a system of fairly reliable census records. In the first century and a half after Christ, under the Hans, ten censuses showed from 29 to 83 million inhabitants, the average being 63 millions, or about the same as the estimated population of the Roman empire at its height; somewhat more than that of Europe when America was discovered. A thousand years later, between 1021 and 1580, eight censuses yielded from 43 to 100 millions, with an average of 62 millions. Under the Manchus the population gradually rose from 125 millions in 1736 to 380 in 1881. To-day, the northern half of China is about twice as populous as the southern, and the eastern half exceeds the western in the same ratio. This superior density of population in the northeast reflects the fact that ancient China was the northeast. The same grounding in the past is evident in the fact that from the time of the Chous until the Mongol conquest in 1268, the imperial capitals lay mainly in Shensi or Honan, the core of the old kingdom.
Many ingredients of modern Chinese civilization, and most of its distinctive color, have been present in it since the opening of the historic period. Such are the use of hemp and silk as the typical textile materials; of jade as the precious stone of the nation; the tremendous, life-long moral authority accorded to parents, and the associated worship of ancestors; the unusual respect and rewards for learning; a professed contempt for war and emotional activity; aversion for mythological and metaphysical, scientific, or any other sort of speculation, and coupled therewith an unflagging interest in practical ethics, in the cultivation of character, in the finer shaping of the relations of individuals. These and other leanings endow Chinese civilization with something persistently idiomatic, with a quality of coherent originality. If this civilization were less great, China and the countries influenced by it would be spoken of as constituting what among barbarous and savage peoples we call a culture-area. In the widest perspective, they are such. China, India, the West—which in this view of course includes the Near East as well as Europe—are the three great focal centers of civilization in the eastern hemisphere. Their cultures have risen far above those of the intervening and peripheral nations. Until quite recent centuries, the three have run their courses with approximately equal achievement. And while exchanging elements since prehistoric times, they have each molded both what they borrowed and what they devised into a unified and distinctive design, have stamped it with original patterns. In short, culture development in China, India, and the Occident has been coördinate.
Of course, this distinctness of the three great regions of Old World civilization does not imply that diffusion of culture elements between them ever ceased. It is the form more than the content of civilization that is peculiar to the three areas. From India, for instance, China derived Buddhism, which was accorded a reception under the Hans and cultivated with fervor in the following centuries. Cotton came in the wake of the religion—first as a rare and valuable textile, then to be grown. The West, within the historic period, gave glass and perhaps the impulse toward a Chinese “invention”—porcelain, a glazed-through pottery. In recent centuries the West acted as transmitter for several elements of American origin, tobacco, for example, and maize, which quickly became an important food-plant in parts of China. There have even been reimportations. Gunpowder is said to have been used for fireworks in China in the fifth century, for war in the twelfth, but its employment for the propulsion of missiles from firearms is due to introduction by the Altaic nations in the fifteenth century. From the fourth century B.C. on, there are repeated references in Chinese sources to the magnetic needle and to “south-pointing chariots”—apparently a compass-like device used on land, though probably only as a mechanical toy. Then the needle was applied to geomantic purposes, until Arab or other foreign sailors took it up as a true mariner’s compass, and in the eleventh or twelfth century reintroduced it to the Chinese as an instrument of navigation.
Nor was civilization as stagnant in China as the outsider is likely to think, who becomes aware first of all of its persistent native flavor. The old war chariot, for instance, went out of use about contemporaneously in China and the West. Printing from engraved blocks was in vogue in the sixth century after Christ, from movable clay types in the dynasties between the Tangs and the Mongols, from metal types not much later, since the art was established among the imitating Koreans in the fifteenth century. A system of classifying the numerous characters was invented before the Tangs; the modern one of grouping them according to 214 radicals, under the Mings. True encyclopædias were first compiled in the fourteenth century—four hundred years earlier than in the West. The system of awarding office on the basis of literary examinations took root under the Hans and became organized under the Tangs. The earliest poetry, three thousand years ago, was rimed, and had four or five monosyllabic words in the line. In the Tang time, the line became extended to seven words; and still later was the origin of the peculiar rhythm of alternating tones—a system by which every other word was one bearing the “even” tone and those between any of the other tones. Paper making is said to date from the Hans, and paper money was first issued—disastrously as in some of the first Western attempts—under the Mongols. These and dozens of other instances that might be compiled exemplify, as does the history of ancient Egypt, that even those cultures constantly move to which one is tempted to apply the stigma “conservative” or “tradition-bound.”
253. THE LOLOS
Scattered in the mountains of southern and western China are a number of barbarous, semi-independent peoples of distinctive ways and speech who maintain their national or tribal status. They seem on first contact to promise a picture of the pre-Chinese culture of the area, but examination shows their customs to be a blend of primitive and advanced, ancient and recent elements. The Lolos of Szechuan may serve as an example. They eat meat from their herds, use no milk, but wear woolen clothing. They grow neither cotton nor rice. They raise oats, buckwheat, maize, and potatoes. Two of these plants are of north or west Asiatic origin; the others are American. Plows are used. Houses are of lashed bamboos, and rain-coats of palm-fiber. No pottery is made, but iron is worked into weapons and tools by native smiths. The Lolos are warlike. They fight like Malaysians with lance and sword. They are organized “feudally,” into nobility and commoners, with tribal heads or lords. They marry cousins. Religion resembles that of the more backward Indo-Chinese and Malaysian peoples. Sorcerer-priests cure disease; sacrifice animals for their blood, the flesh being eaten; offer also fermented liquor; divine the future by observing parts of the sacrificed animals—the cracks that develop in heated shoulder-blades (§ 97). There is a native system of writing, which seems to derive from Chinese stimulus, if not sources. It is obvious that this culture has fused together very old elements that are characteristic of southeastern Asia, with elements that have flowed in from remote sources or during the most recent centuries. It is also clear that certain ingredients of Chinese culture have been freely absorbed and others rejected by this mountain people.
Such cultures as that of the Lolos may be described as internally marginal or peripheral. They differ from externally marginal cultures, like those of the Bushmen, Australians, Fuegians, in that the latter, on account of their geographical remoteness, have retained their ancient level with relative purity. Included marginal cultures, on the contrary, being of necessity exposed to subsequent influences, are regularly a mixture of belated and recent ingredients, no matter how well integrated these may have become.
254. KOREA
Korea has repeatedly been under the political authority of China, more often autonomous, but for three thousand years has been dependent on China culturally. Non-Chinese influences have also reached it: such as an alphabet of Indian origin (§ 149); and probably the earliest iron industry came in from Altaic sources. In its turn, the peninsula transmitted to Japan: until about a thousand years ago, Chinese writing and culture reached Japan mainly via Korea. The spread of Chinese civilization was perhaps largely of the usual, slow, diffusing kind, but was several times accelerated by the settlement in Korea of groups of Chinese refugees, colonists, or adventurers; for instance in Chou and Han times. The center of power and civilization within Korea has gradually moved southwards, which suggests the waning of original central Asiatic affiliations as Chinese ones became stronger. The first realm to be defined was Fuyu on the Sungari river. Then followed Kokorai or Korai, whence our name Korea. In the centuries immediately before and after Christ, Shinra and then Hiaksai, farther south on the peninsula, came into the lead. By the beginning of this period not only the writing but the classic books of China had been introduced. Since the fourteenth century Confucianism has been the state religion—though the people had long before become Buddhists—and literary examinations for office of the Chinese type have been in vogue.
255. JAPAN
Japan is the one country of eastern Asia from which considerable prehistoric data are available. There are indeed no indubitable evidences of any Palæolithic culture or race, but shellheaps and burial mounds abound and have been explored. The shell deposits, of which 4,000 have been found, are probably the accumulation of refuse of occupation by the Ainu, the first known inhabitants of Japan, now surviving only in the extreme north of the island chain and in Sakhalien, and still a primitive people. This race is different from the Japanese, and has often been classified as Caucasian (§ 27). The shell deposits show the aborigines to have been fishers and hunters, without agriculture or edible domestic animals. They had the bow, dog, incised hand-made pottery, and ground stone axes, and were thus approximately in an early Neolithic stage.
A somewhat dubious bronze age is sparsely represented in southern Japan. It has been ascribed to an invasion about the seventh century B.C., but is perhaps only an early phase of the iron age. Iron was brought in at a time not precisely determined, but likely to have been about the fourth century B.C., by the so-called Yamato people—evidently the ancestors of the Japanese of to-day—who seem to have come from Korea and at any rate occupied the southern islands first. Thence they fought their way northward, gaining territory at the expense of the natives but slowly. Fifteen centuries ago the northern third of the main island was still in Ainu possession. These early Japanese erected megalithic chambers or corridors as tombs for their princes, covering them with mounds of earth. More than 3,000 of these structures are known. The early emperors were buried in double mounds, some of them of great area. From the fifth to the seventh century Korean influence was strong; the Chinese writing and classics were imported from that country. Later relations between the two nations were more intermittent, perhaps because of the growing consolidation and strength of Japan from the eighth century on.
The cultural debt of Japan to China is great, but less than that of Korea. The Japanese added 47 purely phonetic syllabic characters to the Chinese writing, in order to represent their own proper names, grammatical forms, and the like. These characters would have sufficed for a simple, efficient, and purely native script, but have remained a mere supplement to the ideographic Chinese system (§ 105). The mandarin and examination system of China were never taken over by the Japanese, who clung to their feudal customs more than two thousand years later than China. The ancestor worship of the Chinese and the official Confucian religion also did not become established in Japan, the state cult being Shinto, the crystallization of a primitive set of rites and of a mythology which has parallels in the Occident, in the East Indies and Oceania, and even in North America, rather than in China.
An early Malaysian strain in both Japanese race and culture has been alleged, but this is a subject on which more evidence is needed. Japanese speech does not elucidate the origins of the nation, the language—like that of Korea—not being determined as related to any other. The physical type, on the other hand, and this applies also to Korea, is allied to that of China.
256. CENTRAL AND NORTHERN ASIA
It has become a habit to regard central and northern Asia as a hive for humanity, as the area from which nations and races have chronically swarmed. Whenever the origin of a people remains obscure, be they Neandertals, Alpines, Sumerians, Chinese, Japanese, Aryans, or what not, some one propounds the convenient hypothesis of deriving them from this vast interior land, which in many cases amounts to an explanation of the half-known by the unknown. Of late there has been added the fashion of attributing the expansions to climatic drying-up of central Asia, which forced the population out. There appears to be considerable evidence of such progressive desiccation; but its degree, and still more the extent of its influence upon culture and emigration, remain to be ascertained.
A more balanced view would concede the recurrence and occasional destructiveness of the invasions out of central Asia, but would view them rather as transient and relatively superficial phenomena from the point of view of civilization; and on the other hand would recognize that under all the boiling of tribes and peoples, the growth and spread of culture went steadily on, even in the tracts which one is wont to associate only with the perpetual breeding of elusive and devastating nomads. In short, it is wise to guard against a natural overestimation of the sensational, cataclysmic aspects of the history of the interior Asiatic peoples. It is their spasmodic irruptions which the self-centered nations of the West, of India, and of China, have been chiefly concerned with. Their attempts at achieving stability, their increments to the world’s culture, their rôle as peaceful transmitters, have lain at home, largely out of vision of the peoples clustered about the foci of civilization.
It may be added that the temptation to the outsider to burst by force into the seats of wealth and splendor as soon as firmness of guard slackens, is not confined to Ural-Altaians, but is ever present in history. Amorites, Hebrews, Arabs, Æthiopians, Lybians, Greeks, Kelts, Germans, Hindus, and Malays have all played this part at one time or another. Semite, Hamite, and Aryan are no different in such regard from Ural-Altaian, except that in the short span conventionally known as history the former have happened more often to be the ins and haves, the central Asiatics the outs and have-nots. Further, the destructive effect of nomad migrations, even where accompanied by mass settlement of population, is everywhere transient so far as civilization is concerned. Hebrew and Hellenic, Arab and Germanic tribes did crash cities and empires before them, but they tore down only what was already moribund, and brought in new systems of thought, new methods of feeling and organization, which, however crude at first, soon added new qualities to culture. The chief distinction of the north Asiatics is that, excepting some terror-striking massacres, they were both less subversive and less constructive culturally than Semites and Indo-Europeans. They barely dented the civilization of the West as they barely dented that of India and China. If Russia is backward as compared with western Europe, it is not from having been Tatar-ruled a few centuries, but because Russia has long been peripheral to the Mediterranean focus of civilization and therefore chronically belated. It was the very thinness of her culture that made mediæval Russia succumb to the Mongol wave which pounded vainly against the more consolidated civilization of central Europe and quickly drew off.
To define the exact contribution of the North Asiatics to civilization is difficult: partly because of the comparative paucity of available archæological and historical records; partly because their habitat did not contain one of the greater hearths of civilization at which its most distinctive forms were sweated out. The area has always been relatively though not extremely peripheral. The horse, indeed, can be set down as one important gift of the Ural-Altaic peoples or their predecessors to general civilization. It is only in central Asia that a wild horse—not a tame breed that has run wild—is to be found; and it seems to have been from the north that soon after 2000 B.C. the animal was introduced into Mesopotamia and India. Biological considerations also point to interior Asia as the most likely area of first domestication of several of the earlier fundamental animals of culture, especially the sheep and goat. The comparatively advanced culture of Anau in Turkistan in the Neolithic and early Bronze periods is also significant, even though this site lies only just within the great steppe and plateau country. Some of the jade and jade-like stone used for tools and ornaments in the Swiss lake-dwellings appears to have come from inner Turkistan. The probability of the central Asiatic peoples having been the transmitters of metals, cattle, grains and other important groups of culture elements from the Near to the Far East has already been mentioned, as has the established trade between China and the Mediterranean world in Roman times (§ 251). Indeed the very character of the country and cultural conditions which favored a considerable degree, though not an absolute prevalence, of nomadism in interior Asia, seem also to have fostered, in many periods, a longer range of trade than flourished elsewhere. Finally, it appears that the Turks and Mongols had at least a hand in the early use of gunpowder for firearms; and, as already mentioned, the first state paper money, that of China, was issued by a Mongol dynasty. It is scarcely rash to predict that the intensive study of the interior Asiatic peoples from both prehistoric and historic sources, without speculative bias or plunging of opinion, will prove one of the most illuminating contributions to the history of general civilization.
The original unity of the Ural-Altaians—with the Turks, Mongols, and Tungus-Manchu as the Altaic or definitely Asiatic group, Finno-Ugrians as Uralic or Eurasian, and Samoyeds as specifically Arctic representatives—is accepted on linguistic grounds by almost all authorities in the field. Yet the career of the several divisions has been diverse. The Finno-Ugrians have mainly been peaceful: the Finns definitely so for two thousand years: the Hungarian Magyars were exceptional when they terrorized central Europe a thousand years ago. Both these nations have long since become integrally absorbed into European culture. They are the only Ural-Altaic peoples with this experience. The remainder of the Finno-Ugrians have for some centuries become increasingly submerged under Russian civilization; much as in the Far East the Manchu-Tungus have gradually fallen more and more under either Chinese or, of late, Russian cultural influence. As between the Turks and Mongols, the greatest single conquest, that of Djengis Khan and his successors, falls to the record of the latter; but the Turks have been the more numerous, stable, and advanced people. They have frequently settled as well as invaded; and are the only known stock, as previously mentioned (§ 245), that has ever seriously and permanently encroached on territory once held by Indo-Europeans—in Asia Minor and the Caspian region. The later so-called Mongol conquests, those of Tamerlane and the Indian Moguls, were made by armies mainly of Turks under dynasties tracing back to former Mongol leaders. The Turks in general have inclined to Mohammedanism on coming into contact with the world religions, the Mongols to Buddhism, although Christianity in its Nestorian form once made considerable numbers of converts among both.
Several important historic peoples cannot yet be assigned with certainty to one or the other of the Ural-Altaic divisions, or are variously classified: thus the Huns, most likely to have been Turks; the White Huns or Ephthalites; the Avars; and the ancient Bulgars.
In northern and eastern Siberia there live, besides the Samoyed, a series of non-Ural-Altaic peoples, truly peripheral and retarded in culture, who seem once to have occupied larger areas but to have shrunk or been partially absorbed before Ural-Altaic expansion. These include the tribes sometimes grouped as Yeniseian; the Yukaghir; the Kamchadal-Koryak-Chukchi group; a few Eskimo who have either failed to cross Behring strait or have come across it from America; and perhaps the Ainu of Japan and Sakhalien. These have been called the Palæo-Asiatic peoples, though their diverse languages render their community of origin dubious. How far they may be considered as following a positively similar culture, except in direct response to an extreme climate, is also doubtful. Their rigorously marginal position and depriving environment stamp their culture with a preponderance of negative traits. The possession of domesticated reindeer is common to several of these peoples as well as to the Tungus and the Finno-Ugric Lapps of northern Russia and Scandinavia. Reindeer-breeding among these groups appears to be due to a transmission, in the sense of being a reflex of contact, an imitation of the cattle or horse breeding of the more favorably situated nations to the south. It is also interesting and probably significant that the American Eskimos never domesticated the reindeer, although they depended largely upon its hunt.
Racially the array of north and central Asiatic peoples shades from pronounced Caucasian to extreme Mongoloid type. The Mongols have given name to their whole larger racial stock, and the Tungus-Manchu and northeast Siberian savages clearly form part thereof. The Turks in the main are rather Caucasian, although all intergradations occur according to region; as also among the Finno-Ugrians. The Hungarians to-day are not only Caucasians but Alpines; the Finns definite Nordics; the Lapps a strange partial graft of Nordic traits on broad faced and broad headed Mongolian physique.
257. INDIA
India is not a country, but a connected block of lands shut off from the remainder of the world by lofty mountains and harboring a population approximating those of Europe and of China. Its 300,000,000 inhabitants constitute nearly a fifth of humanity. Historically, India forms a continent as fully as does Africa. Culturally, it must be equated with the Occidental or Mediterranean area and with China as one of the three great and substantially coördinate focal points which civilization developed in the eastern hemisphere.
Racially the peoples of India are prevailingly Caucasian, but both the two other great stocks are represented. Nearly everywhere, but especially in the south, there is an evident admixture of a dark skinned, broad nosed, long headed type. This is more likely to have had Australoid than Negro affinities before its absorption; remnants of it, like the Veddas of Ceylon and Irulas and some other tribes of the Deccan, are often grouped with more easterly peoples as representatives of an original Indo-Australoid race (§ 24, 27, 260). So far as this race can be reconstructed, it seems to have been less Negroid than the Australian of to-day; that is, it possessed more Caucasian resemblances. In fact, it might almost be described as proto-Caucasian. In this light the modern Hindu[37] would be a varying mixture of two related strains—the undifferentiated proto-Caucasian, approximating the Australian and perhaps having ultimate Negroid relations without being Negroid; and the specialized Caucasian typical of the Occident; the former strongest in the south, the latter almost pure in the northwest of India. This hypothesis has this to commend it: it squares with the facts that the Hindu in spite of his dark complexion makes almost universally the impression of being essentially “white” in race; and that he differs outstandingly from what a mulatto-like blend of Negro and Caucasian would be.
In the north and east of India, Mongolian resemblances begin to appear, as the natural result of thousands of years of contact of two stocks.
It would seem that the proportions of racial blood in India, and in the rough their geographical distribution, parallel the proportions of the numbers of speakers of tongues belonging to the several families. More than three-fourths of the Hindus speak Indo-European dialects. Most of the remainder are Dravidas in the south and Kolarians in the east central parts—the same regions in which the Indo-Australoid or proto-Caucasian element is most conspicuous. Along the northeastern edge, Tibeto-Burman speech has spilled in with the Mongolian type. However, while the races have blended, the languages have remained distinct. As almost everywhere, the linguistic classification is therefore clearer cut in India than the racial one. Consequently it is misleading to infer from a Hindu’s speaking a Sanskrit-derived language that his Caucasian blood is pure, or conversely to conclude that all Dravidians have broad noses and black skins.
The Kolarians have been thought by some to possess ancient linguistic relatives to the east (§ 50), and certainly possess cultural ones in this direction (§ 262). Dravidian speech has not been thus connected, even tentatively, and one indication points to its former westward extension: the Brahui language in Beluchistan, which appears to be the remnant of an old Dravidian offshoot.
The ancient culture of India is inadequately known. Archæological exploration and analysis have been insufficient; yet they have gone far enough to suggest that the prehistoric development followed different lines from those in the West, so that the findings of European prehistory cannot be applied to interpret such knowledge as there is on India. Thus the Lower Palæolithic stage is well represented in India, but there is nothing to show whether or not it was contemporaneous with that of Europe. There is some possibility that it passed into the Neolithic without the intervening Upper Palæolithic which is so important in western Europe (§ 213). It seems dubious whether there was a true Bronze Age in India. More pre-iron implements of pure copper seem to have been found than of tin bronze.
The early Kolarian culture seems preserved in considerable degree among the modern Kolarians, who are backward hill or forest tribes, that is, internally peripheral to the prevalent higher civilization. At any rate, their culture resembles that of many less advanced populations to the east, well out into Oceania. This presumably ancient and partly surviving “Indo-Oceanic” culture is discussed below (§ 262). As regards its history within India, this is almost certain: the old culture is nowhere any longer pure, but has regularly absorbed elements of the advanced civilization that surrounds it; and conversely has contributed to the latter. For instance, one of the great recognized cults of India is Sivaism, which tends frequently to bloodiness and obscenity and is a strange mixture of philosophical rationalization and crass superstition. One of the most frequent attributes of Siva is a necklace of skulls; a feature that looks as if it might go back to the skull cult which is a typical ingredient of Indo-Oceanic culture.
The old Dravidian culture was probably more advanced than the Kolarian but is more difficult to reconstruct because of its extensive blending with the culture brought in or developed by Indo-Europeans. The Dravidians, perhaps because they were the more advanced and populous, were able to accept the intrusive culture and yet maintain themselves, whereas the Kolarians either preserved themselves by resisting civilization or had their speech and identity absorbed by it. When the Dravidians first begin to creep into history, shortly before the Christian era, they already possess cities, kingdoms, commerce, writing, and philosophy. They have on the whole contributed less to Indian civilization than the Indo-Europeans: its center always lay in the north; but they have long formed an integral part of it.
The Indo-Europeans are first known to us from their religious hymns, the Vedas, which have been preserved as sacrosanct by succeeding ages, and constitute the oldest continuously transmitted documents in history. They date from 2000 or 1500 to not after 1000 B.C., and are in Sanskrit, which is fairly close to Avestan or Old Persian, the two languages and their descendants constituting the Indo-Iranian or proper Aryan branch of Indo-European. When Indo-European as a whole is designated as Aryan, it is by an extension of the term. The region of India to which the Vedas almost wholly refer is the Indus drainage, that is the northwest, the parts adjoining the Iranian highland, whence the invaders came or through which they passed.
Vedic Aryan culture was of late Bronze Age type. Whether the bronze was really such, or copper, it is mentioned more frequently than iron, as in Homer and the older books of the Bible. Grains, cattle, horses, chariots and wagons, the plow, wool and weaving, gold, patriarchal chieftains and a tribal society, a nature mythology, non-communal rituals with constant but prevailingly bloodless sacrifices, are the characteristics of this culture. It smacks more of the Europe of its time than of the contemporary Orient. It is unbound, ready to pack up and move without being essentially nomadic; half peasant-like and half aristocratic; an uncitified semi-civilization, pioneer rather than backwoods. The temples and writing, walled towns and kingdoms, district gods and royal tombs of Egypt, Babylon, Canaan, Minoan Greece are wanting. The picture is that of the first historic Indo-Europeans elsewhere, in eastern and central Europe; with whom the Aryans undoubtedly were or had been in connection through the countries north of the Black and Caspian seas.
A few centuries after the Vedas, the culture depicted by the literary remains is profoundly altered. The scene has shifted to the Ganges valley. There are cities and palaces, wealth and pomp. There are kings, priests, townsmen, peasants, hermits and ascetics. Caste is in vogue. Cotton and rice are in use. There is a deal of philosophizing; life appears complex and difficult; pessimism is abroad, soul rebirth taken for granted, spirituality emphasized. Concepts to which western science later returned, the atom and ether, are familiar. In all essentials, post-Christian Hinduism had been blocked out in this pre-Christian period. Only a few elements like money and writing are lacking.
This change from the Vedic age is not fully accounted for, and the time usually allowed for its occurrence is insufficient. Buddha was born B.C. 563 or 557. His religion assumes ideas which are part of the Sankhya philosophy—in many ways the subtlest philosophy of all India and one of the great thought systematizations of the world. Its founder Kapila is placed about 600 B.C., and must have had predecessors. Caste seems a thing of development. It is absent in the Vedas, but Buddhism is already in a measure a protest against it. It seems difficult to squeeze such growths into a few hundred years. It is true that the florescence of Greece came with a rush; but Greek civilization rose from the debris of the older Minoan one and was in contact with the cultures of Asia. In India there is no sign of an antecedent high civilization, and a greater dearth of known foreign influences between 1000 and 600 B.C. than at any other period. The transposition of the cultural center eastward must enter into the problem. Perhaps a larger and wealthier pre-Aryan population was encountered by the Aryans along the Ganges, contact and mixture with whom proved provocative of innovation. Or possibly the movement and development in the east began while the Vedas were still being composed along the Indus, and were ignored by them. Or, conceivably, the Aryans on the Ganges may have been the first comers, who quickly altered in the direction of their future civilization but remained obscure to our vision during the period in which the Vedas were being made or retained by the later comers of the Punjab, in whose memories and sub-arid environment their former steppe culture remained more unmodified. These are only speculations: they emphasize the gap in our understanding of this important chapter of world culture history.
258. INDIAN CASTE AND RELIGION
Caste is peculiarly Indian. Nowhere else is it so complex, so systematically worked out and endlessly reinforced by ritual and taboo, so pervasive of conduct and thought. It has been ascribed to the conflict of races, to the drawing of a color line by conquerors in order to keep their lineage and culture pure. If so, it has failed egregiously, as the physical anthropology of modern India shows. The explanation is obviously inadequate. Castes do represent race to a certain extent, but they also represent nationalities, tribes, common residence, religious distinctness, occupations, cultural status. Whatever sets off a group in any way may be sufficient to make it a caste in India. If groups diverge within an established caste, they become recognized as sub-castes, perhaps finally to develop into wholly separate castes. Priests, nobles, clerks, fishermen, street-sweepers are castes; so are the Parsis; so are hill tribes that maintain their primitive customs—the Dravidian Todas for instance are reckoned a high caste. Clearly we have here a generic system, a pattern of organizing society, into which every sort of group as it actually forms is fitted. Caste is a way of thought which the Hindu has tried to universalize.
All Indian castes are in theory strictly endogamous: intermarriage is intolerable. All possess an intrinsic, unchangeable worth. Thus they automatically rank themselves. Each possesses an occupation, a mode of life and customs, a set of prescribed rituals, inherently peculiar to it. The greater the restrictions and prohibitions incumbent upon it, the less it relaxes to comfort and indifference, and the more spiritual it is, the higher its grade. In consequence it is also the more pollutable, and so its restrictions are drawn the closer. The wider the gap of non-intercourse, of non-contact with lower castes, the greater becomes its purity. Caste observance is thus a virtue, an aid to religion and morality; breaking caste an ultimate indecency; the offspring of inter-caste unions necessarily lower than either parent, and their descendants, unless from matings with their own miserable kind, lower still, in an infinitely descending series. There is no elevating a caste. The very attempt to rise is a vice that brings degradation as a result, since castes are eternal, founded in nature, absolute, so that alteration is of necessity a sullying.
Such is the Hindu scheme—which in actuality is lived up to in no single point. Perverse as the system seems to men reared in other cultures, it must be admitted to possess completeness, self-consistency, and the desire to preserve inward worth. It differs from the basic assumptions of our civilization in that it sees value as something already existing and therefore to be maintained, not to be created; it tries to fit life into a theoretical pattern; it is futureless. Yet all the facts show that as historical realities castes have changed enormously and are changing now. Obviously therefore each generation ignores the changes last made and repeats its insistence on caste perpetuity and unalterability. Such is the hold of patterns on men’s minds.
The theorizing which the Hindu does about caste is characteristic of him in all cultural manifestations. The relation which can be thought out between one fact or act and others, the compartment to which it can be assigned in a system, are of more interest to him, as compared with the fact itself, than to peoples of other civilizations. Hence philosophy has flourished in India, but native history has been inadequate and disorderly. Hence too the abstract sciences of logic, mathematics, grammar enjoyed an early original development, equal for a long time and in part antecedent to that which they attained in the West. On the other hand the astronomical and still more the physical and biological sciences remained backward: they were concerned with concrete objects. The Hindus seem never to have made a move of their own toward devising a system of writing; but once the Semitic alphabet had been introduced, they modified, expanded, and rearranged it into a more logical scheme, a more consistent one phonetically, than any other people has given it (§ 146). It is probably no accident that chess and our “Arabic” position numerals with a symbol for zero (§ 109) are Hindu inventions, and that it is only in India that priests have for age after age been ranked higher than rulers.
It is natural that a culture of such inclinations should exalt the mind and soul above the body. Hence the extraordinary development of asceticism in Indian religion; its deep pessimism as regards life on this earth; its insistence on the superior reality of soul, with which is connected the universal assumption of rebirths; the working out of a system of unescapable moral causality called _karma_ in place of a scheme of mechanical causation; the tendencies toward pantheistic identification of soul and God, or atheistic denial of divinity as distinct from soul; and the thoroughly anti-materialistic bent of almost all Hindu philosophy. It is also intelligible that these qualities should have imparted to Indian religion a superior degree of spiritual intensity which was appreciated by the nations to the north and east when Buddhism was presented to them, and caused them to embrace it.
Like Christianity, however, Buddhism found no permanent favor among the people and in the land of its origin. It flourished in India for a time, but was rarely looked upon as more than a sect; after something over a thousand years it died out completely, except in Ceylon, at the very period that its hold on non-Indian nations to the north and east was strengthening. Its place was taken in India by the miscellaneous assemblage of cults, all theoretically recognizing Brahman ascendancy, that in the aggregate constitute what is known as Hinduism. Hinduism is not a religion in the sense that Christianity, Mohammedanism, Buddhism are “religions.” It recognizes no personal founder, no head or establishment; it tends to exclude foreigners rather than to convert them; it is national instead of universal. It accepts and reinforces the existing institutions of its particular culture: caste, for instance, which Buddhism tried to transcend. Hinduism is therefore comparable to the ancient Greek and early west Asiatic religions in consisting of a series of locally or tribally different cults never integrated or fully harmonized, conscious and tolerant of one another, resting on common assumptions and similar in content, everywhere in accord with tradition and usage, resistive to organization into a larger whole but tied into a certain unity through reflecting a more or less common civilization.
Hinduism is also comparable to Confucianism and Shintoism with this difference. These grew up analogously, but early became associated with the central government or imperial authority, to which India never attained. They gradually became official religions, as which they survive; such religious piety as the population of China and Japan experiences finding its outlet chiefly through Buddhism. Buddhism may be said to have failed in India because it aimed at being a world religion; because it tried to be international instead of national, to overlie all cultures instead of identifying itself with one. The Hindu like the Jew preferred remaining within the limits of his nationality and particular civilization.
259. RELATIONS BETWEEN INDIA AND THE OUTER WORLD
The first culture influence whose entry into India can be traced in any detail was that carried by the Vedic Aryans from the northwest. In fact, as already mentioned, more is known about this importation than of what it encountered in India. In the post-Vedic period, the introduction of the Semitic alphabet suggests that other cultural ingredients also flowed into India from the west without direct record being preserved of their transmission. The Persian and Macedonian conquests extended only over the westernmost margin of India and were of little direct influence. But the latter was followed by a semi-Hellenization of southwestern Asia, including for instance the establishment of a Græco-Bactrian kingdom in southern Turkistan and Afghanistan, adjacent to India; and for several centuries a stream of Greek culture elements trickled into the heart of India. Sculpture, architecture, astronomy, drama, coinage, derived new impetus, in some cases even their origin, from this source. In some instances the Hindus were no more than copiers of Hellenistic models: Greek hangs and folds were given to sculptured garments, Greek astronomical measurements taken over without change. Yet as the centuries wore on and new imports along these lines lessened and then died out, the introduced elements became more deeply incorporated into Indian civilization, modified and encrusted more and more heavily by distinctive Hindu styles, until now their superficial appearance makes an impression of independent native growth. The working over of the Semitic alphabet into its Hindu forms may be taken as typical of the nature and degree of this remodeling of the Hellenistic culture imports.
Soon after 700 A.D. commenced a series of Mohammedan invasions and conquests—Arab, Afghan, and Mongol-Turkish—also from the northwest, and of course accompanied by a new series of culture influences—firearms, for instance, and the true arch—which in their turn underwent absorption and partial transformation.
The flow of culture between India and the Mediterranean world has not been wholly eastward. Cotton; the common domestic fowl; probably the buffalo and rice; perhaps asceticism, monastic life, and certain mystic points of view; position numerals with zero; chess; and some of the concepts of modern philology, were transmitted westward. Eastern Africa was influenced, largely through the medium of Arab sea trade. Towards the north and northeast as far as Mongolia and Japan, India has been a dispenser of culture content and has taken little in return. Toward the southeast, Indian influence has been the largest component in the civilization of Indo-China and the East Indian archipelago, which as regards their higher attainments may be regarded as cultural dependencies or extensions of India.
260. INDO-CHINA
Farther India or Indo-China, the great southeastern peninsula of Asia, falls somewhat short of India and China in area, is less densely inhabited, and contains a population which is of definitely Mongolian type except for some scattered fragments of hill tribes. On the basis of speech, four groups are to be distinguished. In the southwestern and southeastern corners of the peninsula, in the former kingdoms of Pegu and Cambodia, are the Mon and the Khmer, certainly related to each other and perhaps distantly connected with the Malayo-Polynesian family. On the east are the Anamese, with a monosyllabic, tonal language whose affiliations are doubtful. It contains a Chinese element, but perhaps by absorption rather than by original connection. The center and west of Indo-China are occupied respectively by the peoples of the T’ai or Siamese-Shan and Tibeto-Burman groups, both probably collateral offshoots with Chinese from what may be called the original Sinitic stock (§ 50). The movement of population has clearly been out of inner Asia into the peninsula. The Mon-Khmer are situated like half submerged remnants. Burma on the map hangs from Tibet like the outgrowth that it probably is. Seven centuries ago, the T’ai empire was centered in Yünnan, in southwestern China. Siam represents a southward shift of the seat of T’ai power after Mongol conquest (Fig. 12).
The Malay peninsula is Siamese in its narrow or neck portion. The head is inhabited by three racial groups. The Semang in the interior are pure Negritos. The Sakai or Senoi, also in the interior, are short in stature, dark, and broad nosed, but wavy-haired. They resemble a series of hill tribes scattered from India to the East Indies: the Vedda of Ceylon, the Irula and other tribes of southern India, the Toala of Celebes (§ 27, 257). Perhaps the Kolarians or Munda-Kol of central India, the Moi and other groups of Indo-China, the Nicobar islanders, and certain nationalities of Sumatra are also to be reckoned as partial representatives of the same type. This race, if it is such, is generalized, with certain Caucasian and other Negroid but few Mongoloid resemblances. It is perhaps to be classed as Australoid, and has been named Indo-Australoid. The third racial group of the peninsula are the Malays, who, at least in large part, are emigrants in comparatively recent centuries from Sumatra. Culturally the Malay peninsula belongs with the East Indies rather than with Indo-China.
Three main layers of civilization are evident in Indo-China. The old native culture was allied to that of the East Indies and the islands beyond—whatever the speech may have been. Even to-day backward tribes of both regions, especially inland, often show strikingly similar customs: the use of bark cloth, for instance, separate houses for unmarried men and girls. This culture remains fairly well defined in spots as far west as Assam and the Kolarian region of India.
The two other civilizations have flowed in from India and China. Practically everything of higher culture in Indo-China traces back directly to these two countries. The Indian influence has been both wider and deeper than the Chinese. It brought in Buddhism and writing, and colored art and architecture. This Indian influence began more than two thousand years ago, and while it may have weakened somewhat after India’s return from Buddhism to Brahmanism, it has never ceased. As there were no notable Indian conquests, this influence is an excellent example of the normal, gradual type of cultural pervading. Chinese contacts are equally old as the Indian, but have mostly remained confined to the area adjacent to the Middle Kingdom. The Anamese have adopted the Chinese system of family names, Confucianism, literary examinations, and the like, sometimes more largely as a conscious endeavor than in fact.
261. OCEANIA
From the Malay peninsula the vast island region of Oceania stretches eastward to within two thousand miles of America. Australia deserves to be set apart on account of its continental size, isolation, and ancient biological independence. Oceania proper falls into five natural divisions. These are Indonesia or Malaysia[38] or the East Indies, where large islands are scattered among many small ones; Papua or New Guinea; and three tracts of relatively small, widely separated islands rising out of the depths of the Pacific: Melanesia, a broken chain southeastward from New Guinea; Micronesia, to the northeast; and Polynesia, far eastward. Two primary facts stand out in regard to the inhabitants. Papua and Melanesia are peopled with blacks, the Oceanic Negroids; the other regions have brown inhabitants of prevailingly Mongoloid affiliations. Linguistically a single fundamental speech, the Malayo-Polynesian, prevails over all of Oceania except Papua, whose tongues so far as known fail to connect with any others or with one another. Large unanswered problems inhere in these distributions: how the Oceanic Negroids are related to those of Africa, from whom they are so remote geographically but whom they resemble so strikingly in type; how the black Melanesians came to talk dialects of Malayo-Polynesian,[39] which otherwise is a speech of brown peoples. More in detail, there are questions such as where and how the Polynesians developed their somewhat aberrant racial characteristics; what may be the relations of a more and a less specifically Mongoloid, a broader and a longer headed strain, among the East Indians; and whether the latter of these connects racially with the “Indo-Australians.”
262. THE EAST INDIES
Culturally, the East Indies are the most diverse of the Oceanic regions, in that the various islands, and within the larger islands adjacent districts, sometimes contain populations heavily tinctured with Asiatic civilization, sometimes tribes whose customs are far more aboriginal. However, there is no people in the East Indies that has wholly escaped the influence of Asiatic culture: the difference is always one of degree, although ranging from what is currently called semi-civilization to savagery. The profoundest influence has been exerted by India. This began nearly two thousand years ago and remained active for over a thousand; it introduced architecture, sculpture, writing, monarchy, religion, iron, cotton, and a host of other elements of higher culture. The earlier Indian influence was Buddhist and its seat of power centered in southern Sumatra; the later was Brahman and reached its zenith in Java. The number of immigrants was probably small, their effect enormous. A group of refugees, a younger son of a royal house with his retinue, a band of adventurers, would found a colony, sometimes conquering the natives, sometimes attaching them peacefully to their leadership, and soon a little kingdom was flourishing, which in time sent out other offshoots or absorbed its rivals until its name commanded respect and tribute for long distances across the sea. It was a procedure which the Mohammedanized Malays later repeated over the East Indies, and which on the Asiatic continent some centuries earlier had carried Chinese civilization far to the north and south of its original limits, and Aryan speech and culture throughout India. The kingdoms struggled, throve, decayed, and succeeded one another; the permanent aspect of the process was the ever deeper though irregular permeation of life with new arts and ideas.
The influence of China came later and was less than that of India. In the thirteenth century the Sumatran Malays were converted to Mohammedanism and began a career of expansion which culminated in the complete conquest of Java by 1478, carried their faith over much of the area, and was checked only by the advent of the Spaniards, Portuguese, and Dutch. Mohammedanism, besides its cult and law, introduced some new elements of culture, such as firearms; but perhaps its most important effect was that it put an end to the growth of the specifically Indian type of influence in Malaysia.
Underlying these strains from the historic civilizations of Asia was a semi-primitive culture, many of whose elements were shared by the East Indians with the Indo-Chinese and Melanesians, and which in part can be traced from India to Polynesia. This Indo-Oceanic culture included agriculture—with rice and sugar cane in Malaysia and on the mainland; domestic animals of its own—the buffalo, pig, and fowl—different from those of north and west Asia; pottery, bark clothing, possibly bronze, though if so this was intrusive; men’s clubs or sleeping houses; a non-political organization of society on the basis of kinship and tribal community; and such practices as head hunting and skull cult. The employment of bamboo and rattan was a prime characteristic, and seems to have prevented a vigorous stone age from having flourished in the East Indies and adjacent regions. Bamboo is perhaps capable of serving more different cultural uses than any one other plant. It makes satisfactory houses, rafts, knives, spears, bows, arrows, blowguns, textiles, cooking vessels, receptacles, and musical instruments, with a minimum of labor. It is best worked with metal tools, and has therefore perhaps experienced its most thorough utilization at the hands of peoples too backward to secure a large supply of metals for themselves but able to obtain a limited stock of iron from their neighbors. Nevertheless even the prehistoric culture of the region is likely to have made large use of bamboo.
This primitive culture of course varied locally. It was also not of unitary origin. It certainly contained elements that were older than others, or that originated in different parts of the area. Rice and fowls for instance are likely to be more recent than skull cult and use of bamboo. The culture may even resolve, when it shall have been analyzed more intensively, into two or more fairly separable strata. But, taken in block, it must once have prevailed with fundamental similarity from eastern India well out into the Pacific, since everywhere within this tract there are to-day hill and jungle peoples whose culture conforms at least roughly to the type. It is necessary to remember, however, that nowhere does this culture survive in purity. To some degree the influence of the greater Asiatic civilizations has made itself felt among the most aloof tribes. They mix a few Hindu religious concepts with their head hunting rituals, for instance, or know how to forge imported iron, or even grow American maize. They have everywhere been exposed in some degree to contact with cultures of subsequent level. Thus it is characteristic that the Negritos, whose scattered distribution indicates that they may have been the first inhabitants of the East Indies, possess a debased or parasitic Malaysian culture instead of a specific Negrito one.
263. MELANESIA AND POLYNESIA
As one passes out from the East Indies into New Guinea and Melanesia, the mass effect of Hindu and Mohammedan civilization comes to an end, and the primitive culture that has been outlined is altered. Metals, rice, the buffalo, disappear. The growing of taro and other tropical plants, the pig and fowl, the use of bamboo where nature permits, skull cult or cannibalism, remain. Other features, such as the totemic and matrilinear moiety organization of society and adolescence rites for girls, obtrude, and are sometimes elaborately developed. How far such traits represent secondary local developments or on the other hand survivals from a Negroid culture phase anterior to that of primitive Malaysian-Southeast Asiatic culture, is not clear. Local diversity of custom is unusually great in both New Guinea and Melanesia.
Micronesia and Polynesia present a different although allied set of problems. The Polynesians in particular manifest a remarkable uniformity of speech and, on the whole, of culture, especially in view of the thousands of miles of ocean through which their island groups are dispersed. This uniformity suggests that the language and culture became characterized in a limited area from which they spread over Polynesia after or while contact with the remainder of the world was lost. But it is difficult to settle even tentatively on such an area of original characterization because certain sides of Polynesian culture are relatively high and carry suggestions of Asia, whereas other elements are lacking which would be expectable if higher Asiatic influences had ever carried to the ancestral Polynesians. Royal lineage, for example, bears to the Polynesians a powerful implication of sanctity, of descent from the gods, such as is unparalleled among any truly primitive people. Religion and mythology also contain an abstract, spiritual strain that is almost reminiscent of Buddhism. Yet there seems no single specific idea or name that can be traced to an Asiatic source; and the essentially ancient ideas of magic and taboo are strong—the word taboo itself is Polynesian. There are structures and sculpture in stone, sometimes monumental, but never more than barbaric in quality. The absence of metals may mean little, since they might have been possessed but the art have been lost in the island habitat, often coralline. Yet pottery, the bow and arrow, the men’s club house, the clan or moiety type of society, are also wanting or weakly developed. On the other hand, the dog, pig, and fowl, cultivated plants like taro, bark cloth, cannibalism, and human sacrifice are shared with the island regions to the west.
The various Polynesians possess genealogies and often migration traditions which on comparison, and after computation of the number of generations, seem to point to two waves of migration, both within the Christian era, perhaps about the fifth and tenth centuries respectively. The traditions fail, however, to throw clear light on the area of origin, since they attribute this either to Hawaiki, which may be either Java or a mythical land, or crisscross back and forth among the island groups within Polynesia. Something of the mysteriousness which the discoverers felt continues to attach to the origin and history of this people, and is deepened by the fact that the affiliations of their racial type remain ambiguous.
264. AUSTRALIA
The human history of Australia is as detached from that of the remainder of the world as its biological history. The race is distinctive: sub-Negroid, it might be called. The languages relate to no other. The culture is primitive and well characterized. The isolation of Australia was aided by the fact that the one approach to it other than by a sea-voyage of some length, the approach across Torres Straits, was blocked by New Guinea, the area of most backward culture in Oceania. The Papuans did not possess enough civilization to hand on much to the Australians; but they prevented higher elements from Asia from flowing to them.
The Australians lacked not only all agriculture and domestic animals, but pottery, the bow, and apparently the harpoon. These deficiencies would at once stamp their culture as pre-Neolithic in type, were it not that they grind some stone implements.
All in all, Australian culture is unusually meager on the industrial and economic side. Houses, clothing, weapons, boats, tools, are most scantily developed: often lacking and always rude. This poverty of Australian material culture cannot be explained wholly from the prevailing desert character of a large part of the continent, since the natives of the most favored regions were not appreciably better off as regards variety of arts conducive to comfort.
Social organization is much more complicated than the arts. Most of the Australians are divided into moieties, which frequently are subdivided into four classes or eight-sub-classes, all exogamous. A frequent peculiarity is that the child belongs to a different class from both its parents. So far as the moiety is concerned, custom varies locally as to whether the child is born into the mother’s or father’s side of the community. Frequently there are also hereditary totemic groups. These may be subdivisions of the moieties or descend independently of them. A few tribes, chiefly in southeastern Australia, are without moieties or classes; some are totemless (Fig. 29). The moiety scheme of course prescribes equally that one must marry into the opposite moiety and out of one’s own. The extension of this principle to classes and sub-classes still farther limits the group among whom marriage is permissible, thereby emphasizing its prescriptive character. Where the individual belongs to a third or different class from his parents, his wife must come from the fourth or remaining one, and his children will belong again to the first or second, according as moiety descent is patrilinear or matrilinear. Consequently he has blood relatives in every class; and conversely all the members of each class stand in a certain defined kinship to every individual in the community, according to their respective sex and age. This means not only that certain relatives are within the absolutely prohibited degrees, but that others are prescriptive spouses. These are only a few of the innumerable ramifications and variations of Australian social organization.
The origin of these social schemes is in dispute. Some ethnologists interpret them as original inventions of the Australians, manifestations of their peculiar primitiveness. Others look upon then as evolved somewhere in the region between India and Melanesia where analogous institutions are frequently encountered, and as carried into Australia by diffusion or migrations. The contiguity of Australia to the Indo-Melanesian area of totems, moieties, unilateral descent, etc., is not likely to be wholly a matter of coincidence (§ 110). Moreover, the strongest development of this type of organization within Australia is on the whole in the northern part, the tribes that show least or none of it being in the south, farthest from the presumptive entrance via New Guinea. On the other hand, certain features of the systems are confined to Australia: the classes and sub-classes, the occasional coexistence but non-relation of totems and moieties, for instance. These variations must have originated among the Australians; and this raises the question whether many other traits may also be indigenous. The most probable course of events would appear to have been the importation of the basic pattern of exogamy, followed by its diffusion with numerous new growths in Australia.
Religious status fits the same interpretation. Ceremonial practices are often, both abundant and elaborate, but ring the changes on fundamentally primitive concepts like imitative magic, bewitching, taboo, adolescence and other crisis rites. These concepts, as implicit in a series of customary acts, might all have been imported at a very early time; in fact in the main very likely go back to Palæolithic culture. On this foundation the Australians developed their locally varying superstructures of religion, which often differ conspicuously in specific content, and into which they poured a notable quantity of imagination or social creativeness. They evolved nothing of a fundamentally “higher” type of cult because of their unusual degree of insulation from all the more important later streams of culture. There occurred no significant import of either new religious elements as such, nor of material factors like agriculture which might have raised the economic status, increased the population,[40] forced a political organization, and ultimately led to the growth of basically new religious patterns among the Australians themselves.
To return to material culture, it may be noted that the boomerang groups with Australian rites and social organization in being a highly specialized form of a fundamentally simple and presumably early type, namely the throwing stick or flat club. Crescentic throwing sticks are in use in Asia and America: they fly faster and straighter than rod shaped or knobbed ones. The Australians alone added the twist which gives the boomerang its peculiar flight. They may have been led to evolve this feature through not having higher types of weapons such as bows and arrows to engage their interest and energies. At any rate, the discovery of the quality imparted by the twist may have been made by accident, such as the warping of an implement, and random experimenting may have brought the improvements.
Whether the relatively unimportant implements of ground stone in Australia represent an invention made there or should be considered one of the small group of culture elements which like the moiety system may have been imported subsequently to the main stock of Australian culture, remains to be ascertained. This main stock is certainly ancient, and in its content may be regarded as approximately equivalent to the Palæolithic culture of Europe and probably connected with it by an early diffusion; although in the specific forms taken by their corresponding types the two cultures obviously differ greatly, as indeed the lapse of time and stretch of distance between them would render inevitable.
265. TASMANIA
Tasmania is situated toward Australia as Australia is toward Asia-Oceania. It constitutes an ultimate periphery. Of what little culture Australia had received from the remainder of the hemisphere, Tasmania again received only a part. The prevailing opinion that the Tasmanians were the most primitive of recent peoples is therefore probably justified. They lacked everything that the Australians lacked; and in addition lacked spear-throwers, boomerangs, shields, and ground stone tools. They are the one population among whom it seems reasonably certain that a culture of Palæolithic type was preserved unmixed until modern times. They had chipped knives, axes, scrapers, and similar tools; wooden spears and clubs; bark rafts; windbreak huts; cordage and baskets; paint; ornaments of bone and other animal parts. Unfortunately the Tasmanians numbered only a few thousands, died rapidly on contact with civilization, and became extinct in the nineteenth century before scientific study of their culture or speech had been made. Their religion and society therefore perished almost unrecorded. Their racial type is preserved in skeletal material and photographs. It is clear that it differed from that of the Australians. Their hair was woolly. They have consequently sometimes been reckoned as Oceanic Negroes rather than as an Australian sub-type. It is likely that they represent the first human strain to enter Australia, which was later absorbed or exterminated on that continent by the Australians, surviving only in the protected island of Tasmania.
266. AFRICA
Africa is the second largest of the continents, the most compact and least indented, and, except for Australia, the most deficient in great mountain systems and the most arid. The only considerable forested area lies in its west central portion; the remainder ranges from parkland through steppe to desert. The population is the densest of any continent reckoned as prevailingly uncivilized: a hundred and twenty-five millions or more, some ten to a dozen souls to the square mile.
As regards its races, it is important to remember that the northern third or half of Africa is inhabited by native “whites.” There is much confusion on this point. We tend to say African when we mean Negro. Until recently the word Moor in north European countries often meant Negro, although it denotes Mauretanians, Moroccans, who are Caucasians. It is true that almost across the breadth of Africa there is a transition zone in which it is arbitrary to classify the population as definitely Negro or Caucasian. But over the vaster bulk of the continent, there is never doubt as to the substantial distinctness of the racial stocks.
The oldest stone age is well represented. Implements of Chellean type in particular have been discovered in a number of areas. Whether these are contemporary with the Chellean remains of Europe is not wholly certain, since they are generally surface finds. An Upper Palæolithic phase, the Capsian, with three sub-periods, is well established for North Africa (§ 215). It was approximately coeval with the Aurignacian, Solutrean, Magdalenian, and probably Azilian of western Europe, and influenced them. Syria and Spain were largely Capsian in culture. The Neolithic is less well marked as a distinctive phase in Africa; and evidences of a separate Bronze Age, other than in Egypt, have nowhere been discerned. There is a bronze art with casting in lost molds in Benin. This is of undetermined origin. It may be ancient; but so far as can be told to-day, iron came into use in much of Africa as early as bronze, and is worked by modern tribes who do not know bronze. Dolmens and other megalithic monuments are abundant in north Africa, absent south of the Sahara. Some of them are later than the similar European megaliths, since iron horse-bits have been found associated with them. It is evident from this summary that Europe and Africa have been closely associated in their prehistoric culture, especially in its remote stages. Two sets of fossil human remains corroborate the connection: Grimaldi man of Italy was pre-Negroid in type, Rhodesian man more or less Neandertaloid.
Iron is smelted, worked, and used throughout Africa except among the dwarf tribes. Apparatus and technique are usually simple, but efficient. Smiths often constitute a caste, sometimes a wandering one. Some tribes rank them highly, others repute them wizards, nearly all accord them a special social position. There is no other area so large and culturally so backward as Africa south of the Mohammedan belt, in which an iron industry flourishes. The existence of the art therefore raises a problem. Some have thought that its origin was indigenous, that perhaps even Egypt derived its knowledge of iron from Negro peoples. On the whole, however, it is much more probable that the reverse holds. In the more than three thousand years since iron was worked in Egypt, the process could readily have been transmitted through the continent. The long lapse of time, the distances traversed, the comparative cultural backwardness of central and south Africa, would allow for, in fact would almost dictate, both the simplicity and the specializations of the technique.
267. EGYPTIAN RADIATIONS
Ancient Egyptian influences have penetrated Africa more significantly than has generally been thought. It is only recently that a beginning has been made in tracing them out in detail in the Nile Sudan. For so intensive a civilization as that of Egypt to exist in juxtaposition to the southeastern Hamitic tribes and the Negroes for five or six thousand years without radiating innumerable elements of culture into their life would be unparalleled. In fact the dynastic Egyptians used materials like ostrich feathers that were imported from far south, and depicted Negroid physical types. The trade and association involved must have flowed both ways. The elements most typical of Egyptian civilization, and its fabric and organization, need by no means have been imparted along with the elements that were transmitted. The fact that they were not seems to be what has delayed wide recognition of Egyptian influence in Negro Africa. The general character of the culture of a modern central African tribe and of the ancient Egyptians being so profoundly different, diffused culture ingredients would therefore often appear among the Negroes in a different form, and always in a different setting, thus tending to disguise their historic connection. The failure of certain Egyptian traits to seep through Africa is also readily accounted for. A backward population broken up into small communities without much stability would have difficulty fitting such an art as writing into their scheme of life, in fact would find it useless. It is therefore not surprising that none of the un-Mohammedanized tribes of the continent write. Similarly, masonry would be needless, perhaps economically unfeasible, under the prevailing social conditions of central Africa. On the other hand, so obviously utilitarian an art as iron working might be quickly taken up, once it had been brought into a simple technique. In the same way, an adaptable domestic animal or plant would tend to be accepted and diffused, while a concomitant scheme of political organization or elaborated religious system might fail to make even a beginning of penetration. It is in this way that several animals of Asiatic origin came to be kept through considerable parts or almost the whole of Africa; the horse, camel, sheep, fowl, for instance, of which at least the first two entered through the gateway of Egypt.
This does not mean that all constituents of African culture have their origin in Egypt; still less that the colors or patterns of African cultures can be derived from that country. However great a bulk of culture may be absorbed by one people from another, the organization which is given this, the stamp put upon it, is necessarily more or less distinctive, because the introduced constituents meet others already established; and especially because the recipient culture, even if low, already possesses a form of its own into which it unconsciously attempts to fit the new content, and into which, unless the influx is sudden and great, it usually succeeds in fitting the imports for a time. However, any specific culture trait common to ancient Egypt and the modern Negroes is suspect of a common origin, which ordinarily—though not universally—would mean an Egyptian or more remote origin. Yet the resolution of such a suspicion is not always easy. Much depends on the extent and continuity of the geographical distribution of the trait, and on the actuality and specificity of the resemblance. On these points the necessary information is often still incomplete.
The general relation of Africa as a whole to Egypt is paralleled by the relation of western Europe of four thousand years ago to the Orient. The bronze, cereals, tamed animals, and many other culture elements of Europe, including religious traits like the ax cult, can be derived from the Near East. But the cities, monarchies, temples, inscriptions, astronomy, and art of the Orient had not penetrated to farther Europe. Moreover, European Bronze Age culture was not merely Oriental civilization with half or three-fourths its content omitted. It enjoyed an organization of its own, followed local and at least partly original trends, possessed what might metaphorically be called an organic unity as great as that of any Oriental culture.
268. THE INFLUENCE OF OTHER CULTURES
Two other great cultural influences have long affected Africa. As far back as the strictly historic period extends, its Mediterranean shore has been generally under the control of peoples belonging to Western civilization—Carthaginians, Romans, or Arabs. As in the case of Egypt, it is unthinkable that the cultures thus planted in the north could have been wholly without effect on the remoter parts of the continent. In fact, for the Arabs, who both penetrated the farthest and are the most recent comers, influence far into the Sudan is manifest. The other exposure was toward the east, and here, as might be expected, Indian influences, chiefly sea-borne through Arab restlessness, have been potent. Eastern Africa has hump-backed cattle, cotton, the pit-loom, perhaps the fowl, from this source. Madagascar, though mainly Negro in race, is Malaysian in speech and prevailingly Malaysian in culture as the result of similar maritime influences from the east.
In these lights, much of African culture which cannot yet be definitely traced to an extra-African source and which until recently was generally assumed to be of purely native origin, may prove to be due to transmission from Asia or Europe. The powerful kingdoms repeatedly established by successful leaders among both Sudan and Bantu Negroes, kingdoms embracing diverse tribes and sometimes continuing under the same dynasty for several centuries, may be due to Egyptian or Mohammedan example. The same can be said for the prevalence of slavery, which is both more widespread and more important economically in Africa than in any other large region of similarly retarded cultural level. Possibly the frequency of polygyny belongs in the same category. It is true that Negro economic life is generally so organized that wives represent investment and create wealth. This fact might be the result of the influence of old economic tendencies upon introduced polygyny. Or the form of marriage might be the outcome of the economic scheme of life characteristic of Africa. Yet even in the latter case an indirect foreign causation can be suspected, since primitive peoples, at any rate those unquestionably beyond the influences of the Eur-Asian civilizations, like the Australians and Americans, generally do not place heavy social stress on wealth. The African point of view as regards economic success, with the African attitude toward marriage as a consequence, may therefore be partly due to extra-African stimulus and example.
Such stimulus seems more easily demonstrable for the proverbs and riddles which abound in Africa, since proverbs were completely and riddles almost wholly wanting in the western hemisphere, and are therefore not the native and spontaneous outflow of the human mind which our own familiarity with them might tempt us to take for granted (§ 90).
The totemic and exogamic institutions of Negro Africa (§ 110) are difficult to understand. Their distribution, both in totality and as regards their several forms, is patchy. Clans sometimes coexist with castes or occupational classes, sometimes tend to coincide with them. Matrilineal institutions crop up irregularly among prevailingly patrilineal ones. In several separate areas the totemic and exogamic groups are divorced, even following opposite lines of descent. The large blocks of peoples sharing substantially the same form of organization in Australia, the regularity of regional and typological graduation of forms of organization characteristic of North America, find no counterpart in Africa. The reason would seem to be that the Australian and American cultures developed in isolation and from within, undisturbed; whereas Africa has long been subjected to a cultural bombardment which constantly mingled new traits with old, foreign with acclimated, and acclimated with indigenous. The native cultures were therefore unable to follow the relatively smooth sequence of development by area or stage which occurred in Australia and America; the injected ferments caused a cultural bubbling in which elements dissociated, combined, intensified, or disappeared according to intricate circumstances. It is possible that other phases of African culture owe their appearance of randomness under classification to the same set of causes.[41]
269. THE BUSHMEN
Two local culture-areas, as they would be called on American soil, emerge with fair distinctness: The Bushman and the West African.
The Bushmen of the far south about the Kalahari desert are distinctive in both race (§ 26) and speech. Culturally they also stand apart as an exceptionally primitive people, lacking the agriculture, cattle and fowls, and iron working of the Negroes. They are expert hunters, stalking or wearing down game until it is within range of their poisoned bone or stone pointed arrows, while the women pry up roots with stone weighted digging sticks. They live under rock shelters or on the leeward side of rude windbreaks. Subterranean water is sucked up through reeds and kept in ostrich egg shells. All this suggests an early Neolithic or even largely Palæolithic culture type, which accords well with the remote and environmentally unfavorable habitat. It is as if the peripherally situated Bushmen had retained up to the present, and with few additions, the culture that prevailed in Europe ten thousand years ago. It is certainly striking that they carve and paint animal figures on rock faces and in caves with a fidelity and unconstrained naturalism that remind of Magdalenian art.
The Hottentots, who are neighbors of the Bushmen and approach them in physical type, appearing to be a mixture of Bushman and other blood, are culturally less retarded, having cattle and iron. In central Africa another dwarf black race, the Pygmies or Negrillos, probably represent a people of once primitive status. But their actual cultural condition is parasitic rather than natively primitive, thus resembling that of their relatives the East Indian Negritos. They live among Negro tribes, acknowledge their kings, trade forest and hunting products for the agricultural yield and manufactures of the Negroes, and speak dialects of the latter’s languages. They thus constitute a racially accentuated caste or economic class within Bantu culture; and although shy and backward, cannot be said to preserve a relatively pure early culture as do the Bushmen.
270. THE WEST AFRICAN CULTURE-AREA AND ITS MEANING
Over the larger northern portion of the Congo drainage and along the Guinea coast from the Niger mouth to the Senegal, there prevails a well defined West African culture. This is marked by a number of traits which within Africa are approximately confined to it. These traits include the cultivation of the banana but general absence of millet and cattle; gabled houses of thatch, other Africans building domed or conical structures or mud dwellings; clothing of palm fiber or bark; straight self-bows with pointed ends and encircling ridges for the attachment of the looped cord of rattan; shields of wood or cane, in place of which other Africans employ leather bucklers, shields of hide, or parrying sticks; face masks for religious purposes; carvings of the human form; slit wooden drums; xylophones; and a number of other traits.
Two interpretations can be suggested for this consistent and geographically limited association of traits. One makes use of the recurrence of many of the elements in the Indo-Oceanic and especially the Melanesian area. As the latter is also Negroid territory, an ancient connection is conceivable. This would obviously have to be old enough to precede the Egyptian, west Asiatic, and Indian-East African culture developments. These later growths would be interpreted as having spread less far, although obliterating the antecedent Negroid culture so far as they did diffuse. This explanation fits well with the principle that, other things equal, superposed culture strata appear centrally, underlying ones survive marginally. Proof, however, must depend on whether the parallel traits are really specifically similar, whether they constitute a reasonably large proportion of the culture of the two areas, and whether they are lacking in the intervening region. This evidence is naturally difficult to assemble.
The other interpretation is less incisive. It looks upon the resemblances as at least partly conditioned by environment; and would tend to explain the remainder as due to a diffusion, early indeed, but gradual and applying to single elements or small clusters of traits rather than to an association of traits large enough to form a culture and moving as a single block. In this connection it is significant that the Oceanic area is one of tropical forest, and the West African area the only large forested tract in its continent. Hence the absence of cattle and open-country grains, the use made of the banana. Hence too the possibility of bark cloth; and the extremely serviceable rattan cord, which in turn may have demanded a certain type of bow; whereas other types, like the sinew-backed bow, would be unsatisfactory in the humid climate. And the carving of wood, while not due to the forest, was at least made possible by it. In short, diffusion may have been the motive power involved, but like environmental conditions in the two areas caught and helped to preserve such elements as were diffused—stabilized the culture once it was adapted to the soil and rendered it more resistive to importations of traits worked out in different climates. This interpretation at any rate makes smaller assumptions than its competitor, and serves as an illustration of the need of environmental conditions being kept in mind in the explanation of culture, even though the essential explanation be in social or cultural terms.
271. CIVILIZATION, RACE, AND THE FUTURE
Culture may be independent of race; possibly is wholly so. But culture must be carried by races of some sort; and it may be of interest to consider whether the sweep of culture history reveals certain races as the most favorable carriers or as inherently constituted to be producers and dispensers of civilization (§ 44-46).
On the whole, the greatest share of culture production has fallen to Caucasians. The art of Upper Palæolithic Europe, the laying of the foundations of modern civilization along the Nile and Euphrates six or seven thousand years ago, the more special ancient efflorescences like that of Crete, not to mention most of the advances of the last twenty-five hundred years, all fall to the account of the white race.
The part of the Mongoloids must not be underestimated. Even if the foundation of Chinese civilization prove to be largely western, its main structure is native, and the alien elements that flowed in during the last three thousand years have been thoroughly adapted to this structure. The fact that derivative civilizations like the Japanese have succeeded in reaching a high degree of organization and refinement argues still further for the vigor of Chinese culture. Then, the East Indians, another Mongoloid branch, have shown a fair power of assimilation. In the past two thousand years they may be said to have accepted and digested at least as much of Hindu and Mohammedan civilization as the North Europeans took over from Mediterranean sources between 1500 B.C. and 500 A.D. Finally, the achievements of the American Mongoloids in Mexico and Peru must be given heavy weight because they appear to have been made in utter isolation, without the stimulus of contact or import, and on the basis of nothing more than a late Palæolithic or earliest Neolithic culture.
The share of the Negroids in the higher advances has been small. Africa, to be sure, lies off to one side from the great Eur-Asian axis, and like southern India and Arabia has suffered from constituting almost a blind alley. Yet central Africa is no farther from the Mediterranean than is northern Europe. East Africa lies open to Egypt which six and five and four thousand years ago represented the apex of civilization. Yet Negro Africa to-day possesses scarcely more culture elements of Egypto-Babylonian origin than remote Scandinavia had absorbed by 500 B.C., and far fewer than Scandinavia had in 1000 A.D. It is hard to believe that this difference is due wholly to desert and jungle and tropical heat.
There is a parallel in the Oceanic Negroes. The Australians may be disregarded in this connection, both on account of the isolation of their continent and the doubt whether they are to be reckoned as a branch of the Negroid stem. But the Papuans and Melanesians are undisputedly Negroid and far less touched by influences of higher culture than the adjacent East Indians. It may be only geographic accident that writing and iron and kingship and Hindu and Arab religion traversed the Oceanian islands as far as the brown Mongoloids inhabited them, but stopped dead at the threshold of the blacks. Even the brown Polynesians, much more remote in the central Pacific than the Melanesians, possess more elements that are presumably traceable to Asia—such as their cosmogony, genealogies, kingship.
It is of course not fair to argue from cultural accomplishment to racial faculty unless all times and parts of the world are considered equally, and not safe to interpret the evidence too rigorously then. But the consistent failure of the Negro race to accept the whole or even the main substance of the fairly near-by Mediterranean civilization, or to work out any notable sub-centers of cultural productivity, would appear to be one of the strongest of the arguments that can be advanced for an inferiority of cultural potentiality on their part.
Yet the weakness of correlation of race faculty and civilization, except in the most general way, can be driven home to North Europeans and North Americans as soon as the relative parts played in culture history by the several Caucasian divisions are examined. On the ground of long continued lead in productivity, of having reared the largest portion of the structure of existing civilization, the Mediterranean branch of the Caucasian race would have to be awarded the palm over all others. To it belonged the Egyptians; the Cretans and other Ægeans; the Semitic strain in the Babylonians; the Phœnicians and Hebrews; and a large element in the populations of classic Greece and Italy, as well as the originators of Mohammedanism. With the Hindus added as probably nearly related, the dark whites have a clear lead.
The next largest share civilization would owe to the Alpine-Armenoid broad-headed Caucasian branch. This may have included the Sumerians, if they were not Mediterranean; comprised the Hittites; and contributed important strains to the other peoples of Western Asia and Greece and Italy.
By comparison, the Nordic branch looms insignificant. Up to a thousand years ago the Nordic peoples had indeed contributed ferment and unsettling, but scarcely a single new culture element, certainly not a new element of importance and permanence. For centuries after that, the center of European civilization remained in Mediterranean Italy or Alpine France. It is only after 1500 A.D. that any claim for a shift of this center to the Nordic populations could be alleged. In fact, most of the national and cultural supremacy of the Nordic peoples, so far as it is real, falls within the last two hundred years. Against this, the Mediterraneans and Alpines have a record of leading in civilizational creativeness for at least six thousand years.
It is clear therefore that any fears of the arrest and decay of human progress if a particular race should lose in fertility or become absorbed in others, are unfounded. Such alarms may be attributed to egocentric imagination. They resemble the regrets of an individual at the loss which the world will suffer when he dies; what he really fears is his own death. When we loosen the hold of such narrow and essentially personal emotions, and allow our minds to range over the whole of the labors and gradual achievements of humanity, irrespective of millenium or continent, the result is an imperturbed equanimity as to the slight and temporary predominance of this or that racial strain and as to the stability or future of culture. To contribute to this larger tolerance and balance of mind is one of the functions of anthropology.
FOOTNOTES
[1] Ethnography is sometimes separated, as more descriptive, from Ethnology as more theoretically inclined.
[2] The place or “station” Grimaldi must not be confused with the Grimaldi race mentioned below. The grottos at Grimaldi contained two skeletons of Grimaldi racial type and a larger number of Cro-Magnon type. The Grimaldi race is therefore really not the most representative one of the locality Grimaldi; but as it has not yet been discovered elsewhere, there seems no choice but to call it by that name.
[3] It has been maintained that individuals of Cro-Magnon type can still be found in southern France and reckoned as a distinct element in the population of certain districts; but the Cro-Magnon race as such has disappeared.
[4] The usual nomenclature for cephalic index is on the basis of round numbers: broad or round headed or brachycephalic above 80; medium headed or mesocephalic between 75 and 80; narrow or long headed or dolichocephalic below 75. Yet, as the average for mankind is in the neighborhood of 79, this terminology makes far more brachycephalic than dolichocephalic peoples. Groups frequently spoken of as long headed are often really mesocephalic by the accepted definition: a large proportion of Europeans, for instance. It would result in both more accuracy and a better balancing of the limits if the three types of head form were set, as has been suggested, at 81 and 77 in place of 80 and 75.—The index of the skull (strictly, the cranial index) is two units less than that taken on the living head.
[5] On the living, platyrhine noses have an index of breadth compared with length above 85, mesorhine between 70 and 85, leptorhine below 70; skeletally, the same three terms denote proportions above 53, between 48 and 53, and below 48.
[6] The distribution of the races is described as it existed before the era of exploration and colonization that began toward the end of the fifteenth century. Although for practical purposes they have been submerged by Caucasians in the greater part of the Americas, Australia, and South Africa, it is the native races whose distribution is referred to.
[7] Noun incorporation is really an etymological process rather than a grammatical one. In most cases it is the result of a language permitting compounds of nouns with verbs, or verbs with verbs, to form verbs: “to rabbit-kill,” “to run-kill,” and so on. This construction, which is perfectly natural and logical, happens to be so alien to the genius of the Indo-European languages that it has been singled out as far more notable and significant than it deserves. Pronominal incorporation is discussed below (§ 60).
[8] Recently, certain “rostro-carinate” pre-Palæolithic implements have been much discussed by British archæologists, and in the past year or two there have been some adherents of other nationalities. The implements are referred in part to the Pliocene, that is, late Tertiary, and are said to be accompanied by hearths. The evidence to be adjudicated is technical, and some years will probably elapse before expert opinion settles into tolerable agreement on the authenticity of the objects as artifacts and their age.
[9] The Krapina bones (§ 14) are by some assigned to the Chellean or Acheulean.
[10] It will be noted that the second of these tables is an amplification of the upper part of the first.
[11] A Pre-Chellean period, without large picks, and associated with the Second Interglacial fauna (§ 69, 214), is recognized by some specialists.
[12] A period known as the Azilian, dated about 10,000-8,000 B.C., usually included in the Palæolithic, is discussed in chapter XIV in connection with a review of the Palæolithic outside Europe and of the relations between the Palæolithic and Neolithic.
[13] Of course this does not mean that the tribes beyond the edge are without culture. They would normally be under influences from other centers. And in a certain degree every people possesses initiative and is constantly tending to invent or produce culture, though perhaps only of a simple order. It is only from the point of view of the Southwest and its Pueblo focus that the extra-marginal tribes possess a zero culture.—For examples of other cultural step pyramids, see § 164, 175, Fig. 35.
[14] It has not been. The Maya series runs: 1 not made out, 2 rattlesnake, 3 tortoise, 4 scorpion, 5 king vulture, 6 marine monster, 7 bird, 8 frog (?), 9 deer (?), 10 and 11 not made out, 12 death, 13 peccary. Comparison with the Old World list shows 8-scorpion and 4-scorpion, and 1-ram and 9-deer (?), as the only resemblances.
[15] Grammarians generally recognize a greater number because they follow the example of ancient grammarians and are interested in the history or theory of language. But any one giving a purely empirical picture of French or English would put the situation as it is put here.
[16] 12 × 10 = 120 ÷ 2 (highest common factor of 10 and 12) = 60.
[17] Or 360 and 7,200 respectively in calendrical notations.
[18] This section will not be found confusing if it is read with the following points clearly in mind. A tribe is a political unit, a sib or clan or moiety a social unit forming one of several divisions of such a political unit. A tribe corresponds in savage or barbarous life to the state or nation among ourselves. The sib is a sort of enlarged family. The blood relationship is often mainly fictitious, but it is considered actual or treated as such, and is the basis of the prohibition of marriage within the sib. The origin of the sib seems to have been the family. The terms sib, clan, and gens are here used synonymously. Some writers restrict “clan” to sibs with descent in the female line, “gens” to sibs with male descent. Sib is perhaps the best general term, clan the one most used.
[19] Three out of four, to be exact; but two eastern areas, which are almost in contact and perhaps rather closely connected in history, are for convenience treated here as if they were one.
[20] It is perhaps hardly necessary to remark that the association here found between the various elements of the exogamic complex would not conflict with patrilinear descent being on the whole the earlier and matrilinear the later phase to appear in each of the independent developments of the complex. Nor would it prevent each separate continental development from undergoing its own history of diffusion, as represented in § 185.
[21] It seems quite doubtful whether any American people held seven as a mystic number in pre-Columbian times. The case most frequently cited is that of the Zuñi. But these people had a Christian mission in their town for two centuries; they still employ four and six far more frequently than seven in their rituals; and their unmissionized neighbors the Hopi and Navaho esteem four or six but not seven. The other Indians stressing seven lived either on the Atlantic slope, such as the Delaware and Cherokee, and have therefore long been in contact with the colonists; or in the Plains—notably the Siouan tribes—and there came into direct and indirect relations with the French for two hundred years before ethnologists visited them. Moreover, the number which the Plains tribes most frequently used in regard to sacred matters was four. The mystic value of seven may therefore be traceable to European influence wherever it appears in America.
[22] Except perhaps for the fragments of the Baal Lebanon bowl.
[23] These areas are discussed further in the next chapter, especially in § 174.
[24] Mexico, Central America, and the coast and mountain parts of Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia.
[25] Maize is the name of the plant in England, continental Europe, and Latin America. In the United States “corn,” short for Indian corn, is in current usage; but this word means grain or cereal in general.
[26] The contrary has been alleged. To dispose of the allegations seriatim would involve the minute examination of much evidence. Clan organization is here used in reference to arbitrary, named, intratribal exogamic groups to which the individual belongs inalienably by virtue of his birth, his descent being necessarily reckoned on one side only; and totemic phenomena being usually though not always associated with the group. A segregation of society into groups based primarily on blood kinship, co-residence, town quarters, occupation, social rank, or subordination to a chieftain is not a clan organization. Nor is the unilateral reckoning of descent a sufficient criterion. Our modern family names descend patrilineally without any historical connection between them and a clan organization. In general, statements as to the existence of clan systems in Middle America, at least among the advanced nations of Mexico and Peru, rest either on a loose use of terms; on the assumption that they must have existed at the time of discovery; or on a forward projection into the historic period of the belief that they had once existed. This belief is accepted here without such projection.
[27] Why the Southwest with its solid towns of a thousand and more inhabitants, its generally greater advancement, and proximity to Mexico, should never have progressed to larger political units, is not wholly clear. The reason may be that the Pueblo was a heavily ritualized culture, whose emphasis was on the priest, not the governor or councilor. Such government as the Pueblos had was distinctly theocratic. They were also disinclined to fight. Southeastern religion was quite simple in comparison, an important priesthood lacking, and the warlike spirit rather strong.
[28] The kiva or estufa of the Southwest, a ceremonial chamber, is a partial exception. Yet even it differs from the living room of the same region chiefly in use. Structurally it may be somewhat larger, or circular instead of rectangular, but does not depart widely from the dwellings. Functionally it is a development of the primitive “men’s house,” not a temple.
[29] Some of the Eskimo followed a solstitial reckoning also, but probably as a result of the unusual astronomical phenomena of their high latitudes rather than as the consequence of cultural influence.
[30] The tonalamatl was not divided into 13 discrete month periods of 20 days each, but was a permutation system of 20 names with 13 numbers, yielding a recurrent cycle of 260 days each designated by its particular combination of name and number. See § 106.
[31] The years in this reckoning were somewhat short: 360 days.
[32] So primary is the distinction within the Palæolithic of its Lower and Upper halves, that some authors, for purposes of elementary presentation, have felt justified in calling these halves the Old and the Middle Stone Ages. This is unfortunate because this “Middle” Stone Age is in scientific writings always included in the Palæolithic, whereas the Mesolithic or Middle Stone Age of many archæologists embraces the more or less transitional periods such as the Azilian and Maglemose (below, § 216) between the end of the Palæolithic and the definitive or Full Neolithic. Nevertheless, the unorthodox terminology has the merit of condensing detail with a broad sweep.
[33] These are the proportions of implements of flint to those of bone or horn in several stations of different age:
Hundsteig, Austria, early Aurignacian 20,000 2 Sirgenstein, Würtemberg, Aurignacian 1,000 rare Sirgenstein, Würtemberg, early Solutrean 700 10 Predmost, Czecho-Slovakia, Solutrean 25,000 many Schweizersbild, Switzerland, late Magdalenian 14,000 1,300 Maglemose, Denmark, Azilian 881 294 Oban, Scotland, Azilian 20 150
[34] The horse seems to have survived wild in parts of Europe until the Neolithic, but the first domesticated forms, in the Bronze Age, appear to have been brought in from Asia.
[35] In France, four or five periods are distinguished: 2500-1900; 1900-1600; 1600-1300; 1300-900 B.C. The first of these is a time of copper rather than bronze, with northern France still Neolithic. If five periods are admitted, an era around 1300 B.C. is recognized as a separate division.
[36] A Uralic Bronze Age culture-area is recognizable as stretching with considerable uniformity from the Dniepr in southwestern Russia to Lake Baikal in the latitude of eastern Mongolia, and centering about Minusinsk on the upper Yenisei. It possessed horse trappings, an abundance of sickles that argue a population primarily agricultural, and socketed axes related to the type that occurred in western Europe between about 1400 and 1000 B.C. This bronze culture shows definite resemblances on the one hand to that of the Danubian area—and, it may be added, of the Caucasus; on the other, to the ancient bronzes of China.
[37] In India, “Hindu” means any native who adheres to the higher cults of native origin which collectively constitute the “religion” known as Hinduism; in effect, the non-savage and non-Mohammedan inhabitants. Hindus and Mohammedans are contrasted in local usage. In this book, Hindu is synonymous with Indian, irrespective of religion.
[38] The Malays proper, whose home until the twelfth or thirteenth century lay in Sumatra, are to be distinguished as a particular people from the Malaysian or East Indian group which we name after them, in the same way that the Mongols are a nation which is but one of many that constitute the Mongolian race and Mongoloid stock.
[39] Several languages in the interior of the larger Melanesian islands have been described as non-Malayo-Polynesian. If they confirm as such, they may be regarded as survivals of a group of languages which were the original tongues of the Melanesians and are probably to be classed with the Papuan languages. The Malayo-Polynesian speech of the majority of the modern Melanesians may in that case be considered as having been taken over through contacts with brown peoples of a higher culture. A similar situation exists in Madagascar, which in race is predominantly Negroid, but whose speech is purely and whose culture largely Malaysian.
[40] The population attained only to a minority fraction of a million, perhaps not over 150,000 all told.
[41] It may be corroborative of this interpretation that totemism and exogamy are more irregularly distributed, and therefore more difficult to reconstruct as to their history, in South than in North America. The Tropical Forest area, in which these institutions occur in South America, has long been exposed to the influence of the higher civilization of the Andean region, much as Africa has been exposed to Europe and Asia.
INDEX
Abbeville, 398
Abyssinian, 96, 135, 451
Academies, 132
Acceleration, 395
Achæmenian, 452
Achenschwankung, 406
Acheulean, 153, 395-410
Adolescence Rite, _see_ Girls’ Rite
Adriatic, 53, 424
Ægean, 418, 423, 425, 432, 456, 457, 459, 505; sea, 457
Æthiopian, _see_ Ethiopian
Afghan, Afghanistan, 211, 284, 484
Agamemnon, 457
Agglutinating languages, 100, 102
Agra, 251
Agriculture, 184, 211, 218, 238, 294, 329, 354, 370, 379, 381, 383, 389, 414, 442, 446, 449, 492, 501
Ainu, 35, 40, 41, 42, 51, 53, 73, 470, 475
Akkad, 434, 451, 458
Alabama, 78
Alaska, 213, 218, 295, 303, 345, 347, 350, 351, 421
Alarcón, 318
Albanian, 95, 105
Alcalar, 420
Aleph, 270, 271
Aleutian Islands, 350
Alexander, 255, 451
Alexandria, 255
Algiers, 400
Algonkin, 100, 135, 352, 389
Alignments, 416
Allées couvertes, 430
Alloy, 426
Alpha, 270
Alphabet, 223, 224, 241, 264, 269-292, 326, 329, 330, 333, 426, 438, 442, 448, 454, 469, 482, 484
Alpine (race), 41, 42, 43, 55, 63, 77, 472, 476, 506
Alps, 149, 150, 400, 406
Altaic, 95, 469, 474
Altamira, 408
Altars, 187, 188, 294, 310, 368
Amazon, 338, 340, 382
Amber, 166
Amenhotep IV, 458
American Indians, 38, 39, 41, 44, 47, 64, 67, 73, 145, 197, 199, 252, 324, 343, 348, 421
Amorites, 451, 472
Analytical languages, 220
Anam, Anamese, 96, 465, 485, 487
Anau, 449, 450, 473
Ancestor worship, 466, 471
_Ancylus fluviatilis_, lake, period, 428
Andaman Islands, 45
Andes, Andean area, 228, 338, 342, 354, 381, 382, 384, 501
Anglo-Saxon, 56, 83, 104, 113, 117, 118, 221, 346, 347
Animal speech, 106
Animism, 218
Anthropoid, 13, 21, 32, 63, 109, 152
Anthropometry, 30
Anthropomorphize, 106, 219
Antilles, Antillean area, 339, 356, 361, 369, 382, 385
Anvils, 165
Apache, 181, 187, 188
Aphrodite, 256
Apostles, 195
Arab, Arabs, Arabia, Arabic, 53, 96, 104, 111, 113, 136, 205, 208, 210, 211, 213, 230, 258, 269, 282, 285, 286, 287, 290, 449, 451-456, 467, 472, 473, 484, 485, 499, 504, 505
Aram, Aramæan, Aramaic, 270, 285, 287, 422, 451, 454, 455
Arapaho, 135, 294
Araucanian, 100
Arawak, 100, 352
Arch, 209, 241-252, 326, 418, 448; corbelled, 245, 420; true, 246, 438, 485
Archimedes, 425
Architecture, 229, 241, 371, 418, 424, 426, 433, 484, 488
Arctic, Arctic area, 236, 295, 336, 388, 389, 391
Argentina, 218, 338, 370
Arizona, 187, 294, 296, 303, 304, 310, 348
Armenia, Armenian, 43, 53, 95, 207, 260, 262, 452
Armenoid, 505
Armor, 129, 391
Arsenic, 374
Art, 390, 502
Art, Palæolithic, 171
Artifacts, 138, 142, 437
Arunta, 236
Aryan, 95, 111, 472, 479, 480, 484, 488
Ascetics, 479, 482, 485
Asia Minor, 43, 95, 202, 203, 207, 217, 422, 432, 450-453, 455, 474
Ass, 441, 446
Assam, 486
Assiniboine, 294
Assyria, Assyrian, 96, 104, 202, 247, 423, 447, 451, 453-455, 458; Assyroid, 53
Astrology, 254, 379
Astronomy, 208, 253, 256, 324, 333, 341, 374-378, 418, 443, 482, 484, 499
Asturian, 429
Athabascan, 135, 352, 389
Atheism, 455, 483
Athens, Athenian, 84, 124, 438
Atlatl, 167, 349
Atom, 479
Atreus, 246
Aurignac, 32
Aurignacian, 27, 29, 153-179, 343, 395, 396, 400, 402, 404-406, 412, 496
Australia, Australian, Australoid, 32, 39, 40, 41, 42, 44, 46, 51-55, 64, 95, 98, 145, 146, 182, 222, 232-236, 253, 329, 364, 469, 476, 486, 487, 492-495, 500, 501, 505; Australioid, 55
Austria, 69, 157, 173, 412, 424, 431
Austro-Hungary, 203
Authorized Version, 422
Avars, 475
Avestan, 220, 452, 479
Awl, 165, 349, 396, 406, 412, 429
Ax, 143, 144, 145, 168, 413, 417, 427-430, 432, 470, 495; cult, 499
Aymara, 100, 105
Azilian, 166, 177, 395, 396, 406-410, 412, 413, 428, 496
Aztec, 100, 134, 166, 225, 260, 266, 268, 310, 338, 353, 359, 369, 371, 374, 376-378, 380. _See also_ Nahua
Baal Lebanon Bowl, 269
Babylon, Babylonia, Babylonians, 96, 113, 142, 203, 204, 207, 209, 211, 217, 232, 247, 251, 253-255, 257, 258, 266, 268, 305, 333, 353, 417, 418, 422, 423, 433-435, 440-443, 448, 449, 451-453, 455, 458, 479, 505
Bahamas, 385
Baikal, 462
Balearics, 432
Balkan, Balkans, 43, 53, 401, 424, 431, 432, 452
Baltic sea, coasts, languages, 43, 95, 418, 427, 428, 430, 432, 434, 445
Bamboo, 469, 489, 490
Banana, 502, 503
Bantu, 32, 39, 96, 100, 119, 500
Baptist, 3
Bark cloth, 486, 489, 491, 502, 503
Barley, 344, 414, 429, 440, 446, 450, 460, 463
Barong, 419
Baskets, 349, 360, 495; coiled, 222, 384; twilled, 221
Basque, 104, 105, 121, 194, 197
Bast, 349, 360, 362
Batik, 223, 289
Bavaria, 157
Beans, 353, 414
Beer, 441
Behaviorism, 327
Behring Sea, 218; Strait, 213, 350, 390, 475
Belgium, Belgian, 23, 24, 111, 147, 398, 407, 432
Beluchistan, 477
Bengal, 289; Bengali, 221, 346, 347
Benin, 496
Berber, 53
Beta, 270
Beth, 270
Bible, 115, 271, 417, 423, 479
Binet-Simon, 75
Birch bark, 360
Bisaya, 290
Bison, 152
Blackfeet, 135, 294
Black Sea, 452, 455, 479
Blond, 111
Blood relationship, 232
Blowgun, 382, 489
Blumenbach, 49
Boar, _see_ swine
Boas, 55
Bohemia, 29, 432
Bolas, 384
Bolivia, 105, 228, 380, 383
Bombay, 302
Bone implements, 164, 176, 396, 411
Bonn, 27
Books, 379
Boomerang, 494, 495
Borneo, 209, 253, 290
Borrowing, _see_ diffusion; linguistic, 91
_Bos brachyceros_, 415; primigenius, 152, 415
Bosnia, 424
Bow, 143, 167, 182, 218, 348, 349, 408, 411, 426, 429, 446, 470, 489, 491, 492, 494, 502, 503; composite, 218. _See also_ Sinew-backed
Bowditch, 230
Brachycephalic, 37, 63
Brahman, Brahmanism, 483, 488
Brahmi, 287
Brahui, 135, 477
Brass, 417, 422
Brazil, 105, 194, 197, 222, 224, 226, 227, 339, 365, 383
Bread, 463
Bregma, 31, 32; angle, 31; position index, 31
Brick, 418, 441, 447, 448, 450
Brihaspati, 258
Britain, British, Briton, 43, 82, 305, 424, 454
British Columbia, 202, 295, 296, 305
Brittany, Breton, 104, 465
Broken Hill Bone Cave, 25
Bronze, 227, 228, 373, 374, 417, 419, 422, 425, 430, 440, 445, 447, 450, 458, 489, 496, 499
Bronze Age, 142, 146, 228, 246, 394, 408, 414-421, 426, 430, 431, 435, 436, 446, 450, 456, 460, 462, 470, 473, 478, 479, 496, 499
Brooks island, 321
Brunet, 77
Brünn, 28, 32, 34, 155, 395, 402, 403, 404
Brüx, 29, 32, 403
Buddhism, Buddhist, 123, 204, 214, 289, 291, 333, 334, 455, 463, 467, 470, 475, 480, 483, 486, 488, 491; Buddha, 480
Buckwheat, 468
Buffalo, 294, 334, 386, 463, 485, 489, 490
Bühl, 406
Bulgars, 475
Burial, 141, 171
Burma, 485
Bushmen, 39, 45, 51, 52, 54, 55, 96, 173, 469, 501, 502
Buttress, 247
Byzantine, 210, 250, 448
Cabrillo, 318
Caddoan, 369
Cæsar, 81, 105, 276, 425
Cahuilla, 236
Calchaqui, 370, 371, 372
Calcutta, 68
Calendar, 285, 374-378, 388, 418, 441, 443, 446
California, 125, 211, 222, 224, 236, 251, 294, 296, 327, 333, 342, 350, 365, 373, 388, 389, 391; Central, 296-317; Northwestern, 296-317; Southern, 296-317
California-Great Basin area, 295, 336
Calpulli, 359
Calvarial height index, 31
Calvarium, 30
Cambodia, 485
Camel, 450, 456, 498
Camp circle, 386
Campignian, 429
Canaan, Canaanites, 441, 451, 455, 479
Canada, 236
Cancer, 67, 70
Cannibal, 141, 194, 369, 490, 491
Cape Horn, 329, 351, 364
Capital letters, 282
Carib, 100
Carnivores, 11, 295
Caspian Sea, 95, 400-409, 451, 452, 479
Cassava, 382
Caste, 479, 480, 497, 500, 502
Cat, 414
Catalina Island, 310, 311
Cathedral, 250, 251
Catholic, Roman, 257
Cattle, 344, 348, 414, 416, 426, 429, 430, 441, 446, 449, 450, 463, 473, 479, 499, 501, 502, 503
Carthage, Carthaginians, 96, 270, 454, 499
Castillo cave, 157
Caucasian race, 3, 30, 34, 35, 36, 38, 39, 41, 42, 44, 46, 49, 52, 53, 55, 58, 62, 67, 79, 120, 124, 155, 230, 334, 339, 343, 351, 382, 387, 395, 457, 470, 475, 476, 477, 486, 496, 504, 505, 506; languages, 105
Caucasus, 43, 421, 453, 462
Cave period, 151
Cebidæ, 13
Celebes, 46, 486
Census, 466
Cephalic index, 30, 37, 38, 56
Cetaceans, 11
Ceylon, 67, 476, 483, 486; _see also_ Singhalese
Chaco, 339, 383, 384
Chalcis, 274
Chaldæan, 204, 451
Chalybes, 422
Chancelade, 27, 32
Chapelle-aux-Saints, 24
Charade, 264
Charente, 24
Chariot, 418, 448, 455, 467, 468, 479
Charles V, 203
Charleston, 70
Chellean, 153, 179, 395, 398, 399, 405, 406, 433, 444, 496; pick, 150, 158, 160, 397-398
Chelles, 153
Cheops, 447
Cherokee, 225, 253, 386
Chess, 482, 485
Cheyenne, 294
Chibcha, 100, 228, 338, 372, 378, 381. _See also_ Colombia
Chihli, 464
Children’s speech, 118
Chile, 384
Chilkat blanket, 361
Chimpanzee, 13, 22, 23, 27, 32
China, Chinese, 5, 39, 65, 68, 69, 95, 96, 103, 111, 113, 119, 203, 204, 210, 221, 223, 224, 226, 228, 259, 260, 266, 268, 291, 292, 329, 343, 371, 423-425, 438, 447, 458, 459, 460-474, 476, 483, 485-489, 504. _See also_ Sinitic
Chinook, 120
Chipped stone, 142, 412
Chou, 423, 461, 463, 464, 466, 470
Christian, 195, 256-258, 305, 447, 454; Christianity, 198, 209, 237, 257-259, 292, 302, 333, 334, 452, 455, 475, 483
Chronology, 319, 323, 327, 433, 434, 440, 457
Cross, 333
Ch’u, 465
Chukchi, 210, 213, 475
Chungichnish Cult, 310-315
Cicero, 425
Cities, 441
City-states, 359, 434, 443, 449
Clan, 232, 355, 360, 385, 388, 491, 500
Climate, 183, 192, 212, 405, 448, 472
Cloaca Maxima, 248
Coca, 212, 354, 381
Codes, 132, 137
Coinage, coins, 424-426, 448, 455, 484
Coliseum, 248
Colombia, 260, 338, 354, 372, 374, 378, 381, 382. _See also_ Chibcha
Color line, 481
Colorado river, 296, 298-318, 391
Columbus, 210, 290
Column, 243, 344
Comanche, 294
Combe-Capelle, 27, 29, 32
Compass, mariner’s, 467
Complex, 199, 211, 237, 238, 292, 366, 462
Confederacy, 359, 360
Confucianism, 470, 471, 483, 487; Confucius, 464
Congo, 502
Conservation, 438
Conservatism, 135, 276, 283, 291, 468
Constantine, 258
Constantinople, 250
Constellations, 204
Constitution, 133
Context, cultural, 217
Continuant sounds, 92
Conventionalization, 266, 267
Convergence, _see_ Parallelism; convergent languages, 124
Copernican, 8, 59, 208
Copper, 332, 373, 416, 417, 419, 421, 432, 441, 445, 447, 449, 450, 456, 458, 478, 479
Copper river, 421
Coptic, 104
Cordage, 349, 362, 495
Core, 160, 164, 176, 395, 398
Corrèze, 24
Corsican, 5
Cortex, 110, 137
Cortez, 203, 359
Cotton, 361, 362, 379, 426, 463, 467, 468, 479, 485, 488, 499
Counter weight, 246
Coup counting, 387
Coup-de-poing, 157, 158, 397, 398
Court, Supreme, 132, 133
Couvade, 194
Coyote, 348
Cranial capacity, _see_ Skull capacity
Cranial index, 37
Crete, Cretan, 223, 268, 269, 305, 418, 419, 423, 433, 438, 441, 442, 451, 456, 457, 458, 504, 505
Crisis rites, 363, 364, 365, 494
Cro-Magnon, 15, 27-30, 32, 34, 48, 155, 173, 344, 395, 396, 403, 404, 405
Crow, 294
Crusaders, 203
Cuba, 385
Culture area, center, 295, 336, 432, 466, 501
Cuneiform, 266, 268, 269, 422, 449, 451, 454, 463, 464
Cuzco, 380
Cybele, 455
Cycle, 226, 255, 376, 377
Cyclopean walls, 458
Czecho-Slovakia, 28, 157, 403, 412
Dagger, 417, 418, 429, 432
Dakota, 116
Damascus, 454
Danube, 402, 432; Danubian, 462
Dark Ages, 249
Darwin, 8, 11
Daun, 406
David, 456
Dawson, 22
Day count, 376
Deccan, 476
Déchelette, 420, 432
Decimal, 231
Deerskin dance, 312, 313
Degrees of circle, 207
Delaware, 253
Demotic, 266
Deniker, 52
Denmark, Danish, 67, 412, 427, 428, 435
Dentalium, 388
Descent, _see_ matrilinear, patrilinear, unilateral
Devonian, 140
Diegueño, 310, 311
Diffusion, 194-215, 218, 220, 224, 233, 238, 239, 269, 301, 326-328, 372, 418, 431, 437, 440, 462, 493, 494, 503; in language, 119
Di-Gamma, 278
Digging sticks, 501
Diomede islands, 350
Diphtheria, 69
Dipylon (pottery), 458
Distribution (geographic), 197, 327, 328, 335, 357, 499, 500
Divination, 209, 469
Djengis Khan, 474
Dniepr, 462
Dog, 106, 109, 151, 348, 349, 387, 391, 412, 428, 429, 446, 470, 491
Dolichocephalic, 21, 37, 63
Dolmen, 416, 430, 433, 435, 496
Domesticated Animals, 414, 426, 434, 444, 446, 451, 492, 498
Dordogne, 24, 27
Double-headed eagle, 202, 223
Drachma, 207
Drake, 318
Drama, 484
Dravidian, Dravida, 52, 53, 55, 96, 100, 105, 119, 135, 477, 478, 481
Dreams, 188
Drift (period), 151
Dubois, 21
Duck, 414
Duodecimal, 207
Düsseldorf, 24
Dutch, 105, 111, 489
Dwarf Black, _see_ Negrito
Dynastic, dynasties, 434, 446, 457, 500
East Indies, East Indians, 44, 46, 53, 67, 98, 213, 221, 232, 253, 260, 289, 343, 423, 471, 485, 486, 487, 488, 490, 504, 506
Easter Island, 98
Eclipses, 254
Ecuador, 228, 338
Egypt, Egyptian, 30, 55, 96, 104, 113, 141, 142, 173, 202-204, 211, 223, 232, 244, 253, 255, 258, 259, 262, 265-267, 269, 291, 305, 330, 333, 353, 371, 402, 414, 416-419, 423, 425, 431, 433-435, 438, 440-449, 453-459, 468, 479, 496-500, 503-505.
Eighteen Provinces, 461
Elam, Elamite, 441, 449, 450
Elementary Ideas, 195
Elephant, 152, 174, 350
Ellis Landing mound, 321, 323
Empire, 333, 360, 380, 483
Encyclopædia, 468
Endocrine, 66
Endogamy, 481
Eneolithic, 417, 450
England, English, Englishmen, 67, 76, 78, 84, 134, 213, 400, 401, 407, 408, 417
Environment, 326, 502
Eoanthropus, 23
Eocene, 18
Eolithic, 146-148, 444, 446
Ephthalites, 475
Epicanthic fold, 44
Epi-Palæolithic, 409
Eriocomi, 54
Eskimo, 32, 45, 51, 53, 100, 121, 146, 181, 212, 213, 241, 336, 345, 346, 366, 367, 370, 375, 390, 391, 475
Estrangelo, 291
Estufa, 371
Ether, 479
Ethiopian, 49, 52, 472
Ethnography, 6
Ethnographic province, 295
Ethnology, 6
Etruscans, 209, 211, 217, 248, 249, 251, 278, 423, 438, 451
Eubœa, 274
Eugenics, 7
Euphrates, 203, 441, 447, 448, 451-453, 504
Euplocomi, 54
Eurasian, Eur-Asiatic, 53, 253, 327, 431, 500, 504
Euthycomi, 54
Evolution, 7
Evolutionistic anthropology, 9
Examinations, literary, 468, 470, 487
Exogamy, 232-238, 355-360, 490, 492, 493, 500, 501
Eye Color, 40, 106
Faïence, 447
Family, 232; linguistic, 88, 194, 345; names, 487
Far East, 423, 424, 474
Fasting, 364
Fashions, 126, 129, 215
Fertile Crescent, 440, 453
Fetish bundle, 368
Feudal, Feudalism, 125, 425, 448, 469, 471; Kingdom of Egypt, 446
Fibula, _see_ safety-pin
Fiji, 45
Filipinos, 67
Finland, Finns, 95, 427, 474, 476
Finno-Ugric, 95, 110, 474, 475, 476
First Salmon Rite, 304-316
Firearms, 419, 467, 474, 484, 489
Fire, 140, 169, 176, 395, 426
Fire-drill, 218, 349
Fire-worship, 302, 452
Fish, 183
Flake, 160, 164, 176, 395, 398
Flax, 414, 446
Flemish, Fleming, 105, 111
Flood legends, 200
Florida, 385
Focus (of culture), 189, 356, 377, 426, 431, 437, 440, 467, 472, 473, 476
Folk-lore, 198-202
Folkways, 128
Fonts, 282
Font-de-Gaume, 408
Foramen magnum, 26
Fossil, 137
Fowl, 414, 486, 489-491, 498, 499, 501
France, _see_ French
Franciscan, 333
Frank, 104
French, France, 43, 117, 121, 136, 220, 250, 253, 276, 395, 398, 400, 402, 405, 407, 408, 418, 424, 426, 429, 432, 506
Fricative sounds, 92
Frija, 256
Frontal angle, 33
Fuegian, 469
Fuyu, 470
Gables, 502
Gabrielino, 188, 190, 310, 311, 320
Gafsa, 400
Galley Hill, 29, 32
Galton, 83
Gamma, 270, 275
Ganges river, 479, 480
Ganggraeber, 430
Gaul, 105, 305, 425, 465
Gender, sex, 119
Genealogy, 491, 505
Generation, 57
Genetic classification, 88, 103
Genius, 71, 83, 273
Gens, 232
German, Germany, 43, 104, 117, 118, 135, 398, 421, 424, 427, 432, 464, 472
Germanic, 95, 124, 221, 419, 425, 460, 473
Ghost-dance, 334
Gibbon, 13
Gibraltar, 24, 32, 398, 404
Gideon, 456
Gimel, 270
Girls’ Rite, 300-316, 365
Glabella, 31, 33
Glaciation, Glacial period, 18, 23, 149, 350, 444
Glass, 447
Goat, 44, 415, 441, 451, 463, 473
Gold, 373, 374, 416, 421, 479
Gorilla, 13, 21, 22, 26, 27, 32, 64
Goths, Gothic, 104, 220, 251, 284; architecture, 250
Græco-Bactrian, 484
Grain, 379, 446, 462, 463, 473, 503
Grammar, 482
Great Basin, 236, 296, 336
Greece, Greek, 93, 95, 103, 111, 113, 126, 129, 204, 210, 211, 220, 226, 244, 253, 265, 269, 270-273, 346, 359, 395, 419, 421, 424, 431, 432, 447, 454, 455, 456, 457, 459, 472, 480, 483, 484, 506
Greenland, 150
Gregorian calendar, 377
Grenelle, 30
Grimaldi, 27-29, 34, 48, 155, 157, 344, 395, 404, 497
Grimm’s law, 93
Gros Ventre, 236
Ground painting, 310
Ground stone, 142, 144, 410, 444, 492, 494, 495
Gschnitz, 406
Guatemala, 185, 223, 352, 362
Guiana, 339, 383
Guinea, 502
Gunpowder, 426, 467, 474
Günz, 18, 21, 150
Gypsy, 56
Habit, 275, 283
Hadrian, tomb of, 249
Haeckel, 55
Hafting, 168, 176
Haida, 295, 356
Hairiness, 39, 62
Hair texture, 39, 41, 45, 62
Half-breeds, 81
Half-hitch coiling, 329
Hallstadt, 424, 425, 460
Hamites, Hamitic, 96, 113, 119, 120, 448, 450, 472, 497
Hammock, 361, 381, 382
Hammurabi, 451, 458
Han, 463, 465-468, 470
Harpoon, 165, 167, 348, 349, 389, 390, 396, 406, 408, 411, 426, 428, 429, 492
Haruspicy, 209, 210
Harvey, 125
Hawaii, 69, 73
Hawaiki, 491
Head hunting, 489, 490
Hebrew, Hebrews, 96, 103, 201, 207, 211, 253, 265, 269, 282, 285, 286, 451, 457, 458, 472, 473, 505. _See also_ Jew
Heddle, 222, 361
Hellenism, Hellenistic, 225, 255, 484
Hellespont, 453
Hemp, 415, 416, 466
Hepatoscopy, _see_ Liver divination
Heraldry, 203
Herd instinct, 59, 128, 277
Heredity, 34, 72, 80, 239
Hermes, 256
Herodotus, 9
Hesi Dance, 309
Hiaksai, 470
Hieratic, 266, 449, 454
Hieroglyphic writing, 266, 443, 449, 454, 456, 458
Himyarites, 287
Hindi, 221
Hindu, 39, 41, 42, 44, 111, 126, 210, 224, 231, 239, 247, 260, 287, 288, 289, 346, 423, 472, 481, 482, 484, 490, 504, 505, 506; Hinduism, 476, 480, 493. _See also_ India
Hippopotamus, 152
History, 482
Hittites, 202, 223, 268, 269, 422, 423, 442, 451, 453, 458, 506
Hokan, 121
Homer, 210, 278, 459, 479
_Homo Heidelbergensis_, 22; _Mousteriensis_, 24; _Neandertalensis_, 24, 27, 29; _primigenius_, 24; _sapiens_, 27, 29, 34, 155, 395
Homonyms, 223
Honan, 464, 466
Hongkong, 68, 69
Hopi, 135, 181, 187, 236, 252
Hoplites, 129
Horse, 152, 350, 384, 387, 414, 426, 433, 448, 455, 458, 462, 463, 473, 479, 497, 498
Hottentot, 45, 52, 54, 71, 96, 120, 121, 145, 502
Hour, 207, 225
Hrdlička, 65
Huastec, 135
Huichol, 203
Hun, 462, 465, 475
Hundsteig, 157, 412
Hungary, Hungarian, 69, 87, 95, 110, 424, 431, 432, 474, 476. _See also_ Magyar
Hupa, 313, 320
Huxley, 55
Hyksos, 104, 446, 448, 451, 458
Iberian, 43, 432, 451
Ibero-insular, 53
Ideograms, ideographic writing, 223, 224, 263, 291, 329, 449
Independent Evolutions, 260. _See also_ Parallelism
Igorot, 372
Ikhnaton, 448, 455
Iliad, 422
Illyrian, 460
Imitation, 216, 239, 326, 327, 468
Inca, 134, 242, 371, 378, 380, 382
Incorporating languages, 100, 102, 104, 121
India, 44, 46, 52, 53, 95, 96, 105, 202, 204, 210, 211, 223, 251, 258, 269, 287, 290, 353, 371, 406, 419, 423, 426, 452, 454, 459, 462, 463, 466, 467, 469, 472-486, 488-490, 493, 499, 503, 504. _See also_ Hindu
Indian Ocean, 45, 49
Indic, 135, 452
Indo-Afghan, 53
Indo-Bactrian, 287
Indo-Australian, Indo-Australoid, 44-46, 55, 476, 477, 486, 488
Indo-China, 46, 234, 260, 358, 463, 469, 485, 486, 489
Indo-European, 95, 96, 100, 111, 113, 119, 120, 121, 124, 125, 135, 220, 221, 286, 346, 450-453, 457, 459, 460, 473, 477-479
Indo-Germanic, 95
Indo-Iranian, Indo-Iranic, 221, 479
Indo-Melanesian, 493
Indo-Oceanic, 478, 489, 502
Indonesia, Indonesian, 44, 53, 487
Indus River, 479, 480
Inflecting languages, 100, 102, 220
Inion, 31
Initiation, 363, 364, 389, 438
Inter-continental distribution of races, 49
Intelligence tests, 75
Interglacial periods, 18, 23, 250, 398
Invention, 58, 142, 166, 167, 168, 176, 179, 182, 185, 186, 191, 197, 216, 239, 264, 268, 269, 271, 273, 286, 311, 327, 328, 353, 371, 376, 398, 418, 431, 438, 459, 461, 467, 482, 493
Iran, Iranian, Iranic, 95, 450-452, 479
Ireland, 246, 420, 432
Iron, 332, 373, 419, 421, 422, 426, 430, 433, 445, 447, 455, 458, 469, 479, 488, 490, 496, 497, 498, 501, 502, 505
Iron Age, 142, 146, 394, 408, 415, 419-426, 431, 446, 450, 456, 470
Iroquois, 100, 121, 347, 356, 359, 386
Irrationality, 277
Irula, 41, 46, 476, 486
Ishtar, 256
Islam, 253, 332, 455
Israel, 456
Isolating languages, 100, 102, 124
Isolation, 182, 195, 197, 383, 492, 501, 505
Isthmus, 440, 441
Italy, Italian, 76-79, 209-217, 247, 250, 253, 274, 400-402, 404, 417-419, 423, 424, 432, 497, 506
Ivory, 166, 172, 175
Jackal, 348, 429
Jade, 466, 473
Jahveh, 455
Japan, Japanese, 24, 35, 39, 40, 65, 69, 97, 100, 107, 113, 119, 204, 210, 224, 259, 343, 419, 424, 470-472, 475, 485, 504
Java, 19, 258, 289, 489, 491
Javelin, 165
Jersey, 24
Jerusalem, 453
Jesuit, 204
Jesus, 255, 257, 454
Jeu-di, 256
Jew, Jewish, 44, 53, 57, 127, 183, 257, 258, 423, 454, 484. _See also_ Hebrew
Jim Crow, 58
Jimsonweed, 306-316
Johannesburg, 67
Jumping Dance, 312, 313
Jupiter, 254, 256, 258
Kalahari, 501
Kamchadal, 475
Kaph, 274
Kapila, 480
Kappa, 275
Kardouchoi, 452
Karma, 482
Kassites, 451, 455, 458
Katun, 376
Kayak, 391
Kelts, Keltic, 95, 104, 105, 419, 424, 460, 472
Keres, 187
Kesslerloch, 157, 177
Keystone, 247
Kharoshthi, 287
Khmer, 485
Khorasan, 417
Kings, Kingship, 441, 446, 478, 488, 491, 499, 500, 502, 505
Kiowa, 294
Kitchenmiddens, 412, 429, 430, 435
Kiva, 371
Kjökkenmöddings, 429
Klamath, 115
Knossos, 456
Kokorai, 470
Kolarian, 41, 46, 98, 105, 477, 478, 486
Koph, 274, 275
Koppa, 275
Korai, 470
Korea, Korean, 96, 204, 291, 292, 424, 468-471
Koryak, 210, 475
Kossæans, 451
Krapina, 24, 32, 154
Kris, 419
Kuksu Cult, 306-316
Kurds, 53, 452
Kwakiutl, 295, 356
Kyoto, 69
La Ferrassie, 24, 157
Lake-dwellings, 434, 463, 473
La Madeleine, 153, 175. _See also_ Magdalenian
La Mairie, 176
Lamp, 389, 390, 396
Language, 57
Laotse, 464
La Plata, 338, 339
Lapp, 53, 475, 476
La Quina, 24
La Tène, 424, 425, 460
Latin, Latins, 76, 95, 103-105, 111, 113, 119, 124, 126, 132, 136, 274, 278, 346
Latitude, geographical, 68
Laugerie Basse Haute, 27
Laurel-leaf blade, 162
Law, phonetic, 92; scientific, 324
Lead, 374
League of Five Nations, 356
Least common multiples, 226
Leaven, 463
Le Moustier, 24, 32, 153-179. _See also_ Mousterian
Lentils, 414
Ligurians, 459
Limiting conditions, 226, 335
Linguistic family, _see_ family, linguistic
Linnæus, 49
Lintel, 243, 244
Lissotrichi, 54, 55
Lithuanian, 95
_Litorina litorea_, 428; period, 428, 430
Littoral, 53
Liver divination, 209, 210, 217, 248, 438
Llama, 342, 350, 361, 380
Lolo, 95, 210, 468, 469
London, 29
Loom, 222, 332, 360-362, 379, 414
Lophocomi, 54
Los Angeles, 310
Lotus, 244
Louisiana, 2
Lourdes, 174
Lucretius, 9
Luiseño, 188, 310, 320
Lunation, 374, 375, 376
Lybians, 472
Lydia, 451, 455
Macedonia, Macedonian, 104, 129, 451, 484
Mackenzie (Yukon) area, 295, 336, 388, 389, 391
Madagascar, 98, 488, 500
Magdalenian, 27, 28, 146, 153-179, 348, 390, 395, 396, 400, 402, 404-408, 411, 412, 427, 433, 496, 502
Magellan, Strait of, 351
Magic, 200, 219, 232, 254, 491, 494
Magic Flight, 198, 201, 218, 391
Magism, 452
Maglemose, 396, 408, 410, 412, 428, 429
Magnetic needle, 467
Magyar, 95, 110, 474. _See also_ Hungarian
Maidu, 121, 307, 309
Maize, 185, 218, 237, 341, 353, 379, 382, 467, 468, 490
Malay, 52, 54, 488, 489
Malayan, 49, 149
Malayo-Polynesian, 98, 100, 119, 121, 485, 487
Malay Peninsula, 45, 98, 258, 290, 486, 487
Malaysian, Malaysia, 41, 44, 46, 136, 209, 222, 223, 257, 289, 423, 463, 469, 471, 472, 486-490, 500
Mammoth, 151, 152, 174, 175
Manchu, 95, 291, 454, 465, 466, 474, 476
Maneh, 207
Mangyan, 290
Manila, 68, 69, 290
Manioc, 382
Marduk, 256
Marginal areas, cultures, 335, 383, 388, 437, 440, 469, 473, 475, 478, 503
Mars, 254, 255
Marseilles, 424
Mas d’Azil, 157, 406
Masks, 187, 294, 356, 363, 366, 369, 502
Masonry, 370, 371, 380, 385, 418, 426, 427, 430, 447, 498
Mathematics, 482
Matrilinear descent, 232-238, 331, 355-360, 490, 493, 500
Mauer, 22
Mauretanians, 496
Maya, 100, 105, 113, 116, 135, 197, 205, 206, 223, 225, 226, 228, 230-232, 239, 246, 261, 262, 266, 268, 333, 338, 347, 349, 358, 362, 368, 369, 371, 372, 376-378, 438
Measles, 66
Measures, 454
Medes, 452
Medicine-man, _see_ Shaman
Mediterranean (race), 41-43, 55, 77, 82, 457, 505, 506
Mediterranean Sea, area, 43, 49, 81, 120, 222, 250, 287, 335, 398, 402, 404, 419, 425, 430, 435, 454, 474, 476, 485, 499, 504
Megalith, 426, 433, 460, 471, 496, 497
Melanesia, Melanesian, 41, 44, 52, 55, 98, 227, 232, 234, 236, 487, 489, 490, 493, 502, 504
Melanochroid, 53, 55
Mena, 434, 435
Mencius, 464
Menhir, 416
Mentone, 27, 29
Memphis, 70
Mercre-di, 256
Mercury, 254-256
Mesha, 269
Mesolithic, 396, 409, 410
Mesocephalic, 37
Metal Age, 141, 149
Metallurgy, 332, 341, 373
Mesopotamia, 202, 215, 247, 250, 440, 441, 451-453, 473
Mesozoic, 15
Mexico, Mexican, 65, 105, 185, 203, 228, 229, 236, 244, 251, 260, 261, 290, 295, 310, 329, 332, 338, 340, 342, 351, 356, 357, 361, 369, 370, 372, 374, 379, 384, 385, 387, 431, 440, 442, 504
Mexico, Gulf of, 369
Microliths, 406, 407, 428
Micronesia, Micronesian, 98, 487, 490
Middle America, 205, 206, 213, 340-342, 352-358, 361, 363, 367, 368, 370, 371, 373, 381, 383, 385, 388, 391, 440-442
Middle Kingdom, 446, 451
Middle Stone Age, 396, 409
Midianite, 456
Migration, 195, 214, 228, 461, 472, 491
Milan, 250
Milk, 463, 468
Millet, 414, 446, 463, 502
Milton, 115
Mina, 204
Mindel, 18, 150
Mindoro, 290
Ming, 468
Minoan, 423, 456-459, 479, 480
Minos, 456
Minuscules, 281
Minusinsk, 462
Miocene, 18, 148
Mission style, 251
Missing link, 11
Missionaries, 204, 333
Mississippi River, 294, 340, 385; valley, 386
Mit, 259
Mitanni, 451, 458
Mithra, Mithraism, 258, 259
Miwok, 236, 307
Moab, 269
Mogul, 251, 475
Mohammedan, Mohammedanism, 96, 198, 223, 251, 258, 259, 290, 451, 463, 475, 476, 483, 484, 488-490, 497, 500, 504, 506
Mohave, 188, 190, 236, 311
Moi, 41, 46, 486
Moiety, 232-238, 355, 360, 490, 492, 493, 494
Mon, 485
Mon-Khmer, 98
Money, 480
Mongol, 95, 210, 214, 251, 291, 343, 424, 454, 462, 465, 466, 468, 473, 474, 475, 484, 485, 487
Mongolia, 204, 462, 485
Mongolian, 30, 35, 44, 54, 343, 476, 477, 485
Mongoloid, 39, 41, 42, 44, 46, 49, 52, 53, 55, 62, 343, 475, 486-488, 504, 505
Monolatry, 455
Monosyllabism, 124
Monotheism, 448, 455
Moor, Moorish, 250, 496
Moravia, 24, 29, 432
Mores, 128
Morocco, Moroccans, 211, 448, 496
Mortillet, Gabriel de, 153
Mosaic law, 184
Mother goddess, 455
Mother tongue, 94, 96
Mound Builders, 212, 373, 386
Mourning Anniversary, 303-316
Mousterian, 23, 25, 45, 153-179, 395, 398, 400, 405, 406, 427, 433, 444
Mouth, 374, 376
Mulatto, 80
Müller, F., 54
Müller, Sophus, 420, 435
Munda-Kol, 98, 486
Muskogean, 100, 359
Mutations, 239
Mycenæ, 246, 420, 423
Mycenæan, 420, 457, 458, 459
Nabonidus, 434
Nabu, 256
Nahua, Nahuatl, 105, 116, 134, 338, 346, 347, 359. _See also_ Aztec
Napoleon, 5
Naram-sin, 434
Nasal index, 38
Nashville, 70
Natal, 67
Nationality, 56, 111
Naturalism in art, 177, 402, 408, 456, 458, 502
Navaho, 116, 187, 188, 190, 236, 252, 296
Neandertal, 32, 48, 64, 110, 139, 155, 395, 396, 400, 404, 405, 472; Neandertaloid, 403, 497
Near East, 207, 417, 426, 437, 442, 443, 474
Nebuchadnezzar, 434, 451
Needle, 165, 349, 396, 412, 423
Negrillo, 502
Negrito, 39, 41, 45, 46, 52, 55, 73, 486, 490
Negro, 3, 28, 32, 36, 39, 41, 44, 45, 52, 58, 77, 79, 84, 105, 106, 111, 196, 205, 477, 495-502, 505
Negroid, 30, 34, 38, 40, 41, 42, 45, 49, 53, 55, 62, 73, 155, 344, 395, 404, 476, 486, 487, 488, 490, 492, 497, 503, 504, 505
Neolithic, 30, 142, 144, 146, 168, 170, 177, 344, 348, 394, 395, 402, 406, 408, 410-416, 426, 429, 432, 433, 434, 435, 437, 438, 442, 444-446, 450, 456, 458-460, 462, 473, 478, 492, 496, 501, 504; Early Neolithic, 143, 410, 412, 413, 426, 428, 429; Full Neolithic, 143, 145, 396, 410, 413, 416, 426, 430, 435, 446, 450
Nestorian, 291, 454, 475
Net, 349
Nevada, 296, 303
New Empire, 446, 448
New Grange, 420
New Guinea, 45, 98, 213, 232, 234, 487, 490, 492
New Mexico, 187, 251, 294, 296, 304, 310
New Orleans, 70
New Stone Age, _see_ Neolithic
New-year rites, 312-315
New York, 78, 79
Nicaragua, 336
Nicknames, 236
Nicobar, 486
Niger, 502
Nile, 105, 440, 442, 444, 445, 457, 497, 504
Nippur, 247
Noah, 96
Nordic, 39, 41-43, 55, 82, 460, 476, 506
Northeast area, Northern Woodland, 295, 336, 341, 355, 385, 386, 389, 391
North Sea, 43, 419, 427
Northwest area, North Pacific Coast, 235, 253, 295, 317, 336, 340, 355, 357, 360, 361, 363, 368, 373, 375, 387, 388, 391, 459
Norwegian, 111
Nubian, 54
Numbers, holy, 252
Numerals, Arabic, 230, 275, 482; position, 230; Roman, 230
Nutka, 295
Oats, 415, 416, 468
Obercassel, 27, 28
Oblique eye, 44
Obstacle Pursuit, _see_ Magic Flight
Occident, 467, 471, 476, 477
Oceania, 44, 45, 49, 98, 235, 259, 471, 478, 487, 492, 505
Odyssey, 422
Ofnet, 157
Ogham, 425
Ohio Valley, 212, 373, 386
Old Kingdom, 446, 448
Old Stone Age, _see_ Palæolithic
Oligocene, 18, 148
Omaha, 294, 303
Orang-utan, 13, 32, 64
Oregon, 303, 313
Orient, 395, 413, 415, 417, 418, 426, 427, 430-432, 435, 437, 438, 457, 459, 461, 462, 479, 499
Oriental mirage, 437
Orinoco, 338
Orthodox, 257
Ostrich, 497, 501
Overblowing, 227
Overlapping, 36, 39
Over-tones, 227
Pagoda, 460
Palæo-Asiatic, 475
Palæolithic, 23, 63, 142-179, 345, 348, 350, 390, 393-410, 413, 426, 433, 470, 495, 501, 504; Lower, 151, 154, 161, 172, 395-410, 411, 426, 444-446, 477; Upper, 27, 29, 151, 154, 155, 161, 165, 395-410, 411, 412, 426, 427, 444, 445, 478, 496, 504
Palæozoic, 15
Palawan, 290
Palestine, 183, 305, 440, 454, 457
Pali, 11, 291
Panama, 351, 440, 441
Pan’s pipes, 226, 382
Pantheon, 249, 251
Papago, 184
Paper, 426, 468; money, 468, 474
Papua, Papuan, 45, 52, 54, 55, 98, 487, 492
Parallelism, Parallels, 197, 198, 216-240, 261, 262, 268, 269, 281, 327-329; in language, 119; primary, 223, 225; secondary, 220
Paris, 214
Parsis, Parsees, 302, 452, 481
Parthenon, 244
Parthia, 452
Patagonia, Patagonian area, 53, 338, 345, 373, 378, 383, 384, 387
Patrilinear descent, 232, 331, 344-360, 493, 500
Pattern, 130, 199, 367, 467, 481, 482, 493, 494, 498
Patwin, 307, 309
Pawnee, 369
Pea, 414
Peat, 428
Pebbles, painted, 407
Pegu, 485
Peking, 461
Penutian languages, 125
Pericles, Periclean, 83
Périgord, 27, 29
Permutations, 225, 376
Peripheral, _see_ marginal
Persia, Persian, 95, 104, 204, 221, 259, 261, 302, 417, 423, 447, 450, 451, 452, 454, 459, 479, 484
Peru, 105, 125, 203, 228, 240, 260, 327, 338, 341, 348, 361, 362, 369, 370, 372, 374, 378-381, 440, 442, 504
Peschel, 51
Pessimism, 479, 482
Phalanx, 129
Phidias, 425
Philippines, 45, 209, 210, 289, 290, 335, 372
Philistine, 184, 423, 457, 458
Philology, 485
Philosophy, 478, 479, 480, 482, 483
Phœnicia, Phœnician, 96, 184, 207, 265, 269, 270-272, 274, 285, 438, 442, 451, 454, 455, 457, 505
Phonetic law, 94
Phonetic writing, 263, 449
Phrygians, 452
Pictographs, picture-writing, 224, 263, 378
Pig, _see_ swine
Piltdown, 15, 22, 23, 26, 64, 110, 154
Pilum, 129
Pima, 181, 187, 190, 356
Pipe, 211
Pitch, absolute, 226, 227
Pithecanthropus, 14, 19, 21-23, 26, 30, 32, 64, 139, 140, 147, 154
Pit-loom, 499
Pizarro, 203
Plains area, 236, 294, 295, 336, 340, 355, 366, 368, 369, 386
Planets, 225, 254, 377
Plateau area, 236, 295, 336, 388, 391
Platinum, 373
Plato, 425
Pleistocene, 18, 19, 26, 110, 147-150, 154, 344, 404, 406, 444
Pliocene, 18, 148
Plow, 416, 418, 423, 462, 469, 479
Poles, Poland, 76, 77, 78, 401
Polished stone, _see_ ground stone
Polygyny, 500
Polynesia, Polynesian, 39, 41, 42, 46, 52, 53, 65, 67, 98, 124, 145, 182, 232, 236, 260, 350, 487-491, 505
Polysynthetic languages, 100, 102
Pomo, 120, 307
Pompeii, 256
Poncho, 363
Pope, 276
Porcelain, 426, 448, 467
Portugal, Portuguese, 213, 246, 407, 420, 432, 489
Postglacial, 28
Potato, 280, 468
Potlatch, 388
Pottery, 143, 188, 189, 211, 315, 316, 319, 353, 370, 379, 383, 385, 389, 410, 411, 416, 426, 427, 429, 434, 441, 444-446, 448, 450, 456, 458, 467, 469, 470, 489, 491, 492
Potter’s wheel, 418, 425, 456, 458
Predmost, 29, 157, 403, 412
Predynastic, 443, 444, 446
Pre-Chellean, 154, 399
Pre-Mousterian, 398, 400
Priest, 188, 209, 254, 267, 294, 358, 363, 367, 369, 381, 469, 479, 481, 482
Primates, 11, 13, 152
Printing, 468
Prismatic flake, 162, 164
Prognathism, 24, 30, 38, 41, 56, 62
Progress, 292
Promiscuity, 331
Prophets, 455
Protestantism, 258
Proto-American, 388
Proto-Caucasian, 44, 344, 476, 477
Proto-Mongoloid, 343, 344
Proto-Neolithic, 409, 410
Proverbs, 196, 400
Psychology, 225, 226, 237, 239, 325, 362, 447
Ptolemaic, 208, 255, 447
Ptolemy, 255
Puberty rites, 365, 366
Pueblo, 181, 184, 187, 188, 190, 192, 296, 305, 332, 356, 358, 359, 366-370, 377, 378, 384
Punjab, 287, 480
Pulse, 65
Punic, 270
Pygmies, 45, 502
Pyramid, 242, 358, 371, 386, 433, 446-447, 458
Pyrenees, 104, 400, 406, 407
Quadroon, 80
Quipus, 378
Quaternary, 18, 149
Quebec, 217
Quechua, 100, 105, 134, 346, 347
Race, 326, 460; classification, 34-57; concept, 3-6, 56, 57, 396, 481, 504-506; fossil, 11-33; problems, 58-86
Radiations, 437, 497
Rain-coat, 469
Rajah, 210
Rameses, 422
Rationalization, 59, 60, 277, 281, 283, 438
Rattan, 489, 502, 503
Raven legends, 218
Realism in art, _see_ naturalism
Reason, 276, 277, 292
Rebirth, 479, 482
Rebus writing, 223, 263-268, 291, 329, 330, 378
Recent, 18, 149, 445
Red Sea, 287, 451
Reform, 275, 276
Reindeer, 151, 152, 154, 165, 176, 177, 406, 475
Rejects, 144
Relativity of standards, 127
Renaissance, 284
Resist dyeing, 223
Respiration, 65
Retouching, 161, 395, 398, 400
Revolution, Russian, 276
Rhine, 400
Rhinoceros, 151, 152
Rhodesia, 25; Rhodesian Man, 25, 26, 64, 497
Rice, 344, 372, 363, 468, 479, 485, 490
Richmond, 321
Riding gear, 387
Rime, 468
Riss, 18, 150
River Drift, 151
Roads, 380, 424
Rock shelters, 501
Rocky mountains, 202, 294, 386
Rodents, 11, 295
Roman, Rome, 77, 82, 104, 126, 129, 190, 195, 198, 209, 211, 230, 248, 250, 256, 265, 269, 273, 274, 305, 395, 419, 425, 447, 474, 499; Empire, 204, 207, 258, 451, 463, 466
Romance, 95, 104, 121
Romanesque, 249, 250
Rostro-carinate implements, 148
Runic writing, 425
Russia, Russian, 49, 53, 95, 203, 213, 285, 398, 401, 427, 432, 462, 473-475
Rutot, 147
Rye, 415, 416
Sabæans, 287
Sabbath, 257, 258
Sacramento River, 367; Valley, 309
Sacrifice, 469, 479, 491; human, 341, 363, 369, 370
Safety-pin, 418, 419, 424, 427, 431-433
Sahara, 496
Sakai, 46, 486
Sakhalien, 470, 475
Salish, 120, 295, 356
Samoyed, 96, 474, 475
Sandals, 363
San Francisco Bay, 307, 320
San Joaquin River, 307
Sankhya philosophy, 480
Sanskrit, 103, 124, 126, 136, 220, 287, 289, 346, 347, 477, 479
Santa Barbara Islands, 384
Santander, 157
Saracen, 250, 419
Sardinia, 432
Sargon, 434, 435, 451, 458
Sassanian, 250, 452
Saturn, 254, 255, 258
Saul, 423
Scandinavia, Scandinavian, 43, 284, 395, 408, 427, 428, 430, 431, 432, 435, 460, 475, 505
Scapulimancy, 210, 469
Schoetensack, 21
Schweizersbild, 157, 412
Scimitar, 419
Scotch, Scots, Scotland, 28, 117, 190, 408, 412
Sculpture, 371, 396, 418, 484, 488, 491
Scythian, 459
Semang, 486
Semite, Semitic, 53, 96, 100, 103, 111, 113, 119-121, 135, 224, 268, 272, 274, 285, 286, 289, 448-454, 472, 473, 482, 484, 505
Senegal, 502
Senoi, 41, 46, 486
Sequoya, 225
Serb, 43
Shabattum, 257
Shakespeare, 115
Shansi, 464
Shaman, 303-311, 349, 363, 366, 367
Shan-Siamese, 95, 465, 485
Shantung, 464
Sheep, 210, 414, 415, 429, 441, 446, 450, 463, 473, 498
Shekel, 207
Shell Mounds, 212, 429, 434, 470
Shensi, 464, 466
Shield, 502
Shi-Hwang-ti, 5, 465
Shinra, 470
Shinto, 471, 483
Shoshonean, 135
Shoulder blade divination, _see_ Scapulimancy
Siam, 486
Si-an-fu, 461
Sib, 232
Siberia, 53, 210, 213, 218, 222, 350, 364, 390, 398, 432, 462, 475, 476
Sicilian, Sicily, 250, 404, 432, 435, 459
Sickles, 462
Sierra Nevada, 303
Silk, 426, 465
Silver, 373, 374
Sinai, 417, 447
Sinew-backed bow, 316, 391, 503
Singapore, 68
Singhalese, 135
Sinitic, 95, 100, 485
Siouan, 100, 135, 253; Sioux, 294
Sirgenstein, 412
Sivaism, 478
Sixty in measures, 207
Skin boat, 389, 390
Skull capacity, 21, 23, 24, 38, 39, 137
Skull cult, 478, 489, 490
Slav, Slavic, 76, 95, 111, 257
Slavery, 500
Sled, 389, 390
Smallpox, 66, 69
Smiths, 497
Smoking, _see_ tobacco
Snails, 408
Soffit, 246
Solomon Islands, 226
Solstices, 375, 388
Solutré, 153, 157
Solutrean, 27, 29, 153, 395, 396, 400, 401, 403, 406, 411, 412, 496
Somaliland, 448
Somatology, 5
Sonant sounds, 93
Sothic year, 443
Soul, 171, 187, 349, 364, 482, 483
Sound shift, 93
Southeast area, Southern Woodland, 295, 336, 358, 360, 373, 385, 386
Southwest area, 181, 184, 190, 211, 235, 294, 296, 304, 317, 336, 340, 341, 355, 356-358, 360, 361, 369-372, 375, 384, 387, 389, 431, 459
Spanish-American, 310
Spain, Spaniards, Spanish, 69, 119, 121, 134, 203, 212, 223, 250, 251, 289, 290, 361, 384, 387, 398, 400-402, 404, 407, 408, 417-419, 432, 435, 454, 489, 496
Spanning, 242
Sparta, 129
Spear thrower, 166, 349, 390, 396, 495
Specialization, 311, 317, 354, 367
Spindle, 362
Spinning, 222
Split, 446
Spy, 24, 34
Stability of speech, 104
St. Acheul, 157, 398
Stations, 151, 157
Stature, 30, 37, 41
Steel, 422, 423, 426, 456
Stock, linguistic, _see_ Family, linguistic
Stone Age, 141, 145, 396, 489, 496
Stone-Bronze period, 417
Stopped sounds, 92
Straits Settlements, 68
Stratification, 319, 445, 450; stratigraphy, 319, 324
St. Sophia, 250, 251
Stucken, 201
Sudan, 39, 52, 54, 96, 497, 499, 500
Suez, 441
Sumatra, 248, 289, 486, 487, 489
Sumer, Sumerian, 113, 203, 223, 266, 268, 434, 438, 441, 442, 448, 449, 452, 453, 458, 463, 472, 506
Sun Dance, 294, 369
Sungari river, 470
Superior, Lake, 421
Supraorbital ridges, 21, 24, 29
Surd sounds, 93
Survival, 281
Susa, 449, 450
Sussex, 22
Suwanee river, 3
Swastika, 123, 333
Sweden, 428
Swine, 414, 415, 441, 450, 463, 490, 491
Swiss, Switzerland, 111, 157, 177, 412, 415, 421, 424, 431, 432
Sword, 418, 419, 432
Syllabic writing, 224, 226
Symbiosis, 412
Synthetic languages, 220
Syria, 250, 258, 270, 291, 402, 407, 440, 441, 451, 454, 496; Syriac, 291
System, 266, 267; systemization, 480
Szechuan, 468
Taboo, 491, 494
Tagalog, 290
Tagbanua, 290
T’ai, 95, 485, 486
Taj Mahal, 251
Talent, 207
Tamerlane, 475
Tang, 465, 468
Tano, 187
Taos, 181
Tapioca, 382
Tapuya, 100
Tardenoisian, 407
Taro, 490, 491
Tasmania, 32, 39, 45, 55, 222, 329, 495
Tatar, 473
Tectiform paintings, 170
Telegrams, 283
Tell-el-Amarna, 454
Temperature, 65
Temple, 358, 363, 368, 369, 371, 381, 385, 386, 441, 479
Tenochtitlan, 359
Teocentli, 353
Tepecano, 310
Tertiary, 18, 23, 148
Testament, Old, 210, 422, 435
Tewa, 187, 236
Texas, 236, 385
Textile patterns, 221, 223; processes, 222
Thor, 256
Thracians, 452
Thutmose III, 447, 458
Tibet, 204, 210, 248, 290, 485
Tibeto-Burman, 95, 477, 485
Tie dyeing, 223
Tierra del Fuego, 222, 384
Tiger, 152
Tigris, 203, 448, 451, 452, 453
Time reckoning, 225
Tin, 227, 228, 373, 417, 421, 430, 431, 447, 449, 478
Tipi, 294, 340, 386, 391
Titicaca, Lake, 380
Tlingit, 117, 295, 356
Toala, 41, 46, 486
Tobacco, 211, 212, 302, 354, 467
Toda, 481
Tokyo, 69
Toloache, 310
Tomahawk pipe, 212
Tonalamatl, 376
Torres Straits, 492
Totem, 232-238, 331, 355-360, 490, 492, 493, 500, 501
Tourassian, 406
Town life, 372, 385, 386
Tradition, 239, 326
Travois, 387
Treadle shed, 222
Tribe, 232
Trinil, 21
Tropical Forest area, 338, 339, 342, 355, 361, 369, 370, 373, 378, 381, 382, 501
Trousers, 460
Troy, 418, 423, 433, 441, 451, 457, 458
Tsimshian, 295, 356
Ts’in, 465
Tübatulabal, 135
Tuberculosis, 69
Tungus, 95, 474, 475
Tunis, 404
Tupi, 100, 105, 352
Turco-Tartar, 53
Turk, Turkey, Turkish, 95, 103, 203, 287, 424, 450, 452, 453, 474, 475, 476, 484
Turkistan, 204, 287, 441, 449, 454, 455, 462, 473, 484
Turquoise, 187, 188
Twins, identical, 71
Two Rivers, 440
Typhoid, 69
Tyrrhenians, 248
Unconscious, 125-131
Ugrian, 53
Ungulates, 11, 29
Uigur, 291
Unilateral descent, 232-238, 358, 493
Ulotrichi, 54, 55
United States, 67, 68, 69, 70, 73, 98, 106, 107, 133, 181, 213, 268, 296, 334, 342, 358
Ural-Altaic, 96, 100, 118, 450, 453, 472, 474, 475
Uralic, 95, 432, 462, 474
Urus, _see_ Bos primigenius
Uto-Aztecan, 121, 352
Vau, 278
Vault, 243, 346
Vedas, 479, 480; Vedic, 423, 479, 480, 484
Vedda, 39, 41, 46, 55, 476, 486
Vei, 225
Vendre-di, 256
Venus, 254, 255, 256, 377
Victory Dance, 300, 302
Vigesimal, 231
Virama, 288
Vocabulary, size of, 114
Vowel points, 286, 288
Wagon, 416
Wailaki, 207
Walloon, 111
Washington, 281
Waterloo, 5
Wealth, 295, 388
Wealth-display dances, 306-316
Week, 226, 241, 252-262, 326
Wei valley, 465
Welsh, 104, 117
West African area, 196, 205, 225, 234, 501, 502
West Indies, 211, 339
Wheat, 344, 414, 415, 426, 441, 446, 450, 460, 463
Wheel, 123, 362, 416, 424, 430, 441, 448, 462
Whipping, 363, 365
Whistle, 165
White Huns, 475
Willendorf, 173
Windbreak, 495, 501
Wissler, 337
Woden, 256, 257
Wolf, 348
Woodward, 22
Wool, 361, 463, 468, 479
World-renewing rites, 312-315
Writing, 223, 224, 228, 263-292, 333, 418, 426, 431, 433, 435, 441, 442, 445, 446, 449, 454, 463, 469, 471, 478-480, 482, 486, 488, 498, 500. _See also_ Alphabet, Pictographs, Phonetic
Würm, 18, 23, 150, 405, 445
Würtemberg, 412
Xanthochroid, 53, 55
Xylophone, 502
Yamato, 470
Yangtse river, 465
Yellow river, 461
Yenisei, 462
Yeniseian, 475
Y-grec, 279
Yokuts, 125, 188, 307, 310
_Yoldia arctica_, 427; Sea, 427, 428
Yucatan, 205, 231, 246
Yuki, 307
Yukaghir, 475
Yuma, 311
Yünnan, 486
Yurok, 313, 320
Zapotec, 338
Zayin, 278
Zero, 230, 482, 485
Zeta, 278
Zeus, 256
Zinc, 417
Zodiac, 204, 254, 448
Zoroastrianism, 252
Zulu, 116
Zuñi, 181, 187, 252