Part 9

And it is not a little significant that the egg-layers are confined to Australia and New Guinea, the home of many other primitive and ancient types which have disappeared from the rest of the world. In one sense indeed the platypus and the echidna are not exactly primitive creatures, as they have several specialised characters which were evidently wanting in their ancestors. They may rather be described as specialised branches of an ancient and primitive stock.

The duckbill is a heavily made aquatic mammal of about the size of a very short-legged rabbit, with blackish, mole-like fur above, passing gradually into whitish beneath, and a short, thick, tapering tail. The very short limbs terminate in thick toes, connected together by a web and armed with strong, pointed claws. In the fore-feet the margin of the web projects considerably beyond the claws, but on the rare occasions that the animal leaves the water the margin is folded downward beneath the claws, so as to leave the claws exposed. In museum-specimens, however, the web is almost invariably shown fully expanded, as in the accompanying illustration; a condition in which it would obviously be impossible for the animal to walk on land.

The most remarkable external feature of the duckbill is undoubtedly the duck-like, naked beak, pierced with two holes representing the nostrils. In stuffed specimens, at any rate, this beak is dark-coloured and horny in consistence, and looks as though it did not belong to the animal, but in life it is soft and tender. Medium-sized, dark eyes complete the physiognomy of this strange creature, in which external ears are wanting.

The internal arrangements of the mouth of the duckbill are scarcely less curious than the exterior. In early life the mouth is furnished, both above and below, with three pairs of somewhat quadrangular cheek-teeth, with raised and cusped margins. Beneath these grow up certain large horny plates, and about the time that full maturity is attained the teeth become worn out, and are finally shed, thus leaving the horny plates as the sole masticating organs.

This replacement of the teeth by horny plates appears to be connected with the nature of the food, for while in early life the duckbill appears to subsist mainly on water insects and other comparatively soft aquatic creatures, later on it takes to feeding almost entirely on bivalve shells of one particular species; and for crushing the stout shells of these molluscs it has been suggested that the tough horny plates are better suited than brittle teeth.

Duckbills, except when in their burrows, pass the greater portion of their time in the water, selecting quiet pools for their favourite haunts. In such situations they may be seen on a still evening floating and diving, and looking more like bottles in the water than anything else. They obtain their food chiefly by probing in the mud with their duck-like beaks. The dwelling-chamber of the burrow is situated in the bank above the water level, but its entrance is below the surface, although there is also an exit on the land. In the pairing-season the males, which are armed with a poison-bearing spine on the inside of each hind-leg, fight fiercely among themselves.

The duckbill, of which there is but a single species, is absolutely confined to southern and eastern Australia and Tasmania; and its nearest living relative is the echidna, of which a picture and notice follow.

THE SPINY ANT-EATER OR ECHIDNA

(_Tachyglossus aculeatus_)

No one who looked at the portrait of the spiny ant-eater for the first time, and had no knowledge of its anatomy or history, would be likely to guess that it was a near relative of the duckbill. But in natural history, when we have to deal with members of different groups, externals count for very little, and all depends upon internal organisation. In the latter respect the echidnas, for there is more than one species, resemble in all essential features the duckbill, as they do in laying hard-shelled eggs, from which the young are eventually hatched. The single egg of the echidna, in place of being laid in a burrow, is, however, carried about by the female in a pouch developed for the purpose on the under side of her body shortly before the egg is laid; and in this same temporary pouch the young is likewise nurtured during the earlier stages of its existence.

The duckbill and the echidna afford an excellent example of the diversity of appearance produced in animals more or less nearly related to each other by specialisation and adaptation to totally distinct modes of life. In the duckbill the specialisation and adaptation are for an aquatic existence; in the echidna they are for a burrowing, terrestrial life and a diet of ants.

To an ant-eater teeth of any kind would be not only useless, but an actual hindrance, and they have accordingly been discarded, while the muzzle has been prolonged into a decidedly bird-like beak. In this respect the echidna much resembles the great South American ant-eater, which belongs to a totally different group of mammals.

To enable it to dig out the nests of the ants which form its chief food, and likewise to excavate the burrows in which it passes the day, the echidna is armed with powerful claws, those on the hind-feet being, however, much larger and more curved than those in front. It is with these strong hind-claws that the earth loosened by the fore-feet is thrown out from ants’ nests and the burrow. Like the porcupine, which is also a nocturnal and a burrowing creature, the echidna has its back protected with an array of parti-coloured horny spines mingled with hairs. The degree of development of the spines is, however, subject to great variation; and there is one race in which the hair predominates, and the spines appear only in the midst of the dense brown fur. Like the platypus, the echidna has no external ears.

The ordinary, or five-toed, echidna has a much more extensive range than the platypus, occurring, in suitable localities, not only all over Australia and Tasmania, but likewise in New Guinea. The last-named island is likewise the home of the much larger three-toed echidna (_Proechidna bruijnii_), in which the beak is longer, more slender, and distinctly curved, while the number of the toes on each foot is reduced to three.

With the commencement of evening the echidna issues forth from the lair or burrow, in which it has passed the day, in search of food--this comprising not only ants, both ordinary and white, but likewise such other insects and their grubs as may be encountered or dug up during the nocturnal wanderings. Soon after daybreak the creature returns to its burrow. During the hottest and driest part of the Australian summer spiny ant-eaters fall into a torpid condition, when they exist for weeks at a time on no other nourishment but their own fat. In cases of extreme hunger they are stated to fill their stomachs with sand. At the end of the dry season, when rain falls and the country resumes its verdure, the echidnas wake up, and the males relinquish their normally solitary life and take to themselves partners.

On occasions of danger the echidna has two means of defence--it can either roll itself up into a ball and present a sphere of spikes to its enemy, or it can burrow with such rapidity that it actually seems to sink into the earth as if swimming.

The single egg appears to be conveyed to the pouch by the female in her mouth, and the parent assists the young echidna, whose muzzle is armed with a special knob for that purpose, in breaking the shell. Naked and blind when first hatched, the young one remains in the pouch till its spines make their appearance, drawing its nutriment from two pores through which the milk flows. When the young echidna has been turned adrift in the world to shift for itself, the maternal breeding-pouch shrivels up, to be re-developed the following year.

As in the case of the platypus, no remains of extinct echidnas are found anywhere except in the superficial deposits of Australia itself. Certain teeth from rocks older than the Chalk, both in Europe and America, may, however, indicate the ancestral stock of the egg-laying group.

THE BLACK SWAN

(_Cygnus atratus_)

When the old Roman poet penned the well-known line, “Rara avis in terris, nigroque simillima cygno,”[A] he little imagined that a black swan was actually living in the then unknown and undreamt-of Antipodes, to be discovered in the dim and distant future by the sailors of a little island in the far north inhabited by fair-haired barbarians of whom he may or may not have heard.

[A] “A rare bird in the world, and most like a black swan.”

The black swan of Australia, from which the Swan River takes its name, is not perhaps the ideal black swan of the poet, for, as a matter of fact, it has a good deal of white in its wings, although but little of this is visible when the wings are closed, as in the illustration. Moreover, the general colour of the plumage is brownish black, rather than pure black, while the beak is crimson with a white tip, and the eyes are scarlet. From all other swans this species differs by the curling feathers in the region of the shoulder, and the extreme shortness of the tail. Other distinctive features are to be found in the compressed body, the long neck, the small, gracefully carried head, and the absence of a ridge to the beak.

The range of the black swan includes both Australia and Tasmania, where it is found not only on the coast, but likewise on the rivers and lakes of the interior. In the earlier days of Australian colonisation it abounded in many parts of the country; but, unfortunately, it is a bird by no means shy, and therefore comparatively easy to shoot, and in consequence of this it has been incessantly and relentlessly persecuted, even the cygnets, while still unable to fly, being hunted among the reeds in the swamps and killed out of pure maliciousness. As a result of this persecution the species has everywhere become scarce, and from some parts of the country has been exterminated.

During the winter months these swans collect in small parties and families in South Australia, and return to their breeding-places in spring. The nest is a huge, ill-built structure, made out of coarse materials and lined with sedge. It is generally situated in the neighbourhood of small islands, where the parent birds can readily collect the large amount of material required for its construction. The clutch consists of from five to seven dirty white or pale green spotted eggs, which are brooded with great assiduity by the female, while the male keeps guard in the neighbourhood. The cygnets are clothed in a grey or rufous down, and can swim and dive as soon as they are hatched. The food of both young and adults comprises water-plants of all kinds, as well as worms, molluscs, and small frogs and fishes.

The black swan is a noisy species, more especially during the pairing-season, when it gives vent to loud trumpetings. When doing so, the neck is stretched out straight along the water, so that the beak lies close to the surface. At this season the males become very pugnacious, and fight much among themselves.

It is a beautiful sight to watch a party of these swans swimming on a still lake or river by moonlight in large circles; but this is exceeded when the birds mount into the air and reveal the striking contrast formed by the white of the pinions against the sable of the rest of the plumage. When flying, these swans stretch out their necks to the fullest extent, and accompany the loud and regular beat of their wings with continuous and resounding trumpetings.

The black swan bears captivity well, alike in its own country and in Europe, being content with small rations and breeding regularly every season.

The Australian black swan is by no means the only abnormally coloured member of its tribe inhabiting the Southern Hemisphere, its place in South America being taken by the black-necked swan (_C. nigricollis_), which is a native of Chile, Argentina, and some of the other southern countries. In this handsome species the head and neck are black, and the remainder of the plumage white; the lores, or bare patches in front of the eyes, and the basal portion of the beak being red. In its long and wedge-shaped tail the black-necked swan differs from the black species and resembles the ordinary European mute swan (_C. olor_), from which it is structurally distinguished by the scalloped margins of the webs of the toes. The adults of all swans, except the black and the black-necked species, are wholly white; the smallest kind is the coscoroba swan of South America, which is no larger than a goose, and has been referred to a genus by itself.

THE BUSTARD

(_Otis tarda_)

By the extermination of the bustard, or great bustard, as it is sometimes called in order to distinguish it from its smaller relatives, the British Islands have lost one of the finest members of their bird fauna; and, unfortunately, all attempts to rehabilitate this magnificent species have resulted in failure. It is to be feared, moreover, that any such attempts have but little chance of success in the future, for the bustard is a native of open downs and fallows, where it must live an undisturbed and untrammelled existence, and in England at the present day this is almost an impossibility in country of that description. In this respect the bustard stands at a great disadvantage in comparison with the capercaillie, whose reintroduction into the forests of Scotland was a relatively easy matter.

Like those of most polygamous birds, the cocks of the bustard are much larger than the hens, rivalling full-grown turkeys in the matter of size; they are also much more attractively coloured, and are furnished with a quantity of white fluffy plumes, which are only fully displayed when the birds perform their curious nuptial parade to attract the hens, although some of them may be seen when two cocks are fighting, as depicted in the plate. Another peculiarity of the cock is the possession of a great pouch, communicating with the windpipe, on the throat, which can be inflated under the influence of excitement.

When the wings are closed and the bird is engaged in feeding or other normal occupation, the colouring of the body-feathers of the cock bustard is admirably adapted to harmonise with the generally sandy or earthy hue of the surroundings. In the case of the hen the whole plumage is protectively covered. The one feature of the body-plumage in both sexes which produces such a wonderful harmony between the colouring and that of the surroundings is the presence of a vast number of narrow black bars on a rufous buff ground, this type of colouring not only matching sandy or loamy soil, but likewise aiding to break up the outline of the bird.

When bustards lived in England their favourite resorts were the dry, heathy uplands of Norfolk and Suffolk, and the downland of Cambridgeshire, and the neighbourhood of Royston. At the present day these splendid birds are still common in many parts of the Continent, their range including the greater portion of central and southern Europe and a large extent of central Asia, while in winter it likewise embraces northern Africa. The steppes of Russia, the plains of the Danube in its course through Hungary, and the open tracts of central Asia are the regions where bustards are now to be met with in the greatest numbers, although large flocks may be seen in parts of Spain.

Bustards, which associate in large flocks, are essentially birds of the open country, never entering woods, and preferring elevated ground, whence they can command a wide view of the plains below, to which they descend during the daytime in search of food. They are exceedingly shy and mistrustful, giving every bush in their path a wide berth, lest it should conceal a lurking foe, and taking to flight on the least alarm. For warning of the presence of danger they seem to depend mainly upon sight, although their hearing is also good; on the other hand, their sense of smell, like that of most birds is but poorly developed. This excessive shyness renders the bustard a difficult bird to bag, even by the experienced gunner.

At the commencement of the pairing-season the cocks endeavour to attract the attention of the hens by their nuptial display. Advancing towards the latter they ruffle out their feathers like an excited turkey-cock, at the same time lowering their wings and spreading out the tail like a fan. The gular pouch is also inflated, so as to make the neck appear as thick as possible, and the beautiful under feathers are displayed to the utmost extent, the body and neck being half buried in a billowy mass of snow-white plumes. It is at this time also that the cocks rush at one another with trailing wings to contend with beak and talons for the mastery. On such occasions it is possible to capture these generally shy birds with the hand.

The nest is generally constructed amid growing corn, the hen merely scratching a slight hollow in the ground, which she lines with straw, bents, and grass. The three or four eggs are incubated by the hen alone, and when the young are hatched, both these and their parents leave the standing corn only for short periods. At first the young bustards feed chiefly upon insects and worms, to which they are directed by the old birds, but later on vegetable substances constitute almost their sole food. Young peas and cabbage form very favourite food, but in default of better nutriment grass is largely eaten.

THE SOMALI OSTRICH

(_Struthio molybdophanes_)

Ostriches, which are natives of the deserts and semi-desert plains of Africa and south-western Asia, cannot possibly be mistaken for any other birds, and therefore stand in no need of description, although it may be as well to mention that they are the largest of living birds, and are absolutely peculiar in having only two toes to each foot, as well as in the absence of feathers on the thigh. It was at one time considered that the lack of the power of flight, which characterises these birds in common with their relatives the rheas of South America, the emu of Australia, the cassowaries of Austro-Malaya and Australasia, and the tiny kiwis and rheas of New Zealand, was a primitive feature. But this is manifestly an erroneous idea, and all these groups are evidently descended from birds endowed with the power of flight, their nearest relatives being the tinamus of South America and the game-birds, with which they agree in the presence of longitudinal light stripes on the downy dress of the chicks.

Naturalists now recognise four kinds of African ostriches, which, although generally classed as distinct species, might perhaps be better regarded as local races of a single specific type. These, regarded as species, comprise the typical red-legged and red-thighed North African ostrich (_Struthio camelus_), ranging into Palestine and Arabia, and laying thickly pitted eggs; the Somali ostrich (_S. molybdophanes_), characterised by its bluish grey neck and thighs; the Masai ostrich (_S. masaicus_) of East Africa, with the bare parts red, the body-plumage of the cocks brownish black in place of black, and the eggs pitted; and, lastly, the South African _S. australis_, which lays smooth-shelled eggs and has the neck and thighs light bluish grey. In the Somali ostrich, which inhabits Somaliland and western Gallaland as far as the Juba River, the colour of the bare parts of the body may best be described as grey or slaty blue, while the margins of the beak and the front surfaces of the lower part of the legs are dull vermilion.

Ostriches are essentially gregarious birds, associating either in small family parties comprising five or six birds, or in large flocks, which in East Africa mingle freely with herds of hartebeests, gnus, and bontequaggas. They require a wide extent of open country, with grass and, above all, water, of which they drink frequently and copiously. Although ostriches feed chiefly upon vegetable substances, they likewise consume worms, insects, molluscs, reptiles, and probably also small birds and mammals, while in captivity they will swallow almost anything that is offered them, including nails, keys, and copper coins. In a state of nature they swallow sand, earth, and small stones, in order to assist the action of their gizzards.

The cocks appear to be polygamous, although some doubt has been expressed as to whether this is really the case; and it seems certain that several hens lay in the same nest, where as many as thirty eggs may be laid in a slight hollow in the sand. Incubation is undertaken by the cock alone, and it is he who looks after the chicks, which he tends with remarkable care. The chicks when they escape from the eggs (each of which weighs as much as twenty-four hens’ eggs) are as large as hens; and, with their bristly feather-quills, are rather suggestive of two-legged hedgehogs.

Ostriches are extremely shy and remarkably swift birds, so that they are difficult either to stalk or to ride down. When brought to bay, or when running loose in captivity, they should be approached with great caution, as a kick from their strongly clawed feet will prove fatal to an animal of the size of a jackal, if not also to a human being. The vision of these giant birds is very strongly developed and capable of sweeping the country to the distance of at least a mile; and their senses of hearing and smell are also good, although taste appears to be practically wanting. Occasionally ostriches indulge in a kind of dance; and they are also subject, when startled, to sudden collapse, which may have given rise to the old fable of their burying their heads in the sand and leaving their bodies exposed.

If allowed sufficient space, ostriches thrive remarkably well in confinement; and ostrich-farming, for the sake of the lovely white plumes of the cocks, has become an important industry, not only in Africa, but in many other parts of the world. Ostrich-farming was commenced in Algeria, and by 1865 had been introduced in Cape Colony, whence it has spread northwards, while it has also been established in Egypt, southern Russia, California, Patagonia, and Argentina. The cocks are clipped regularly every eight months.

THE PIED HORNBILL

(_Buceros bicornis_)

The hornbills, which are as large as big eagles, are some of the most extraordinary and bizarre of all birds, not only on account of the huge beaks from which they take their name, but from their strange and unique nesting-habits. In the enormous development of the beak these Old World birds are paralleled by the toucans of tropical America, although the two groups are in nowise nearly related. Such a huge and apparently unnecessary structure might at first sight seem too heavy and bulky for the bird by which it is carried; but internally the beak is generally a mere delicate tissue of bone, so that its weight is really very slight. Indeed, these enormous beaks are in most cases probably much less of an incumbrance to their owners than are the matinee hats favoured by ladies of the present day.