Part 1

Transcriber's Note: [=o] represents a macron over the letter o. Spelling has been harmonized. CONTENTS categories have been inserted in text.

THE WAYSIDE AND WOODLAND SERIES

ANIMAL LIFE OF THE BRITISH ISLES

ANIMAL LIFE OF THE BRITISH ISLES

A POCKET GUIDE TO THE MAMMALS, REPTILES AND BATRACHIANS OF WAYSIDE AND WOODLAND

BY EDWARD STEP, F.L.S.

AUTHOR OF "WAYSIDE AND WOODLAND TREES" "WAYSIDE AND WOODLAND BLOSSOMS," ETC., ETC.

WITH 111 PLATES FROM PHOTOGRAPHS INCLUDING 48 IN COLOUR BY W. J. STOKOE

LONDON FREDERICK WARNE & CO. LTD. AND NEW YORK 1921

"The lusty life of wood and underwood, . . . . . . . . The tawny Squirrel vaulting through the boughs, The Deer, the high-back'd Polecat, the Wild Boar, The burrowing Badger."

TENNYSON, _The Foresters_.

PRINTED IN GREAT BRITAIN

PREFACE

It is unnecessary to say much by way of Preface to the present volume, the series of popular handbooks of which it forms part being so widely known to Nature-lovers. The same methods of treatment that were followed in the previous volumes have been pursued here, though the smaller number of species falling within its scope has allowed a fuller consideration of each.

With the exception of the birds (dealt with in Mr. Coward's companion volumes), all the terrestrial animals endowed with a bony framework are included. There are, indeed, a few other native mammals that might have been described; but as they are restricted to the sea it was felt to be undesirable to include their life-histories in the "Wayside and Woodland Series."

The Author and Publishers desire to express their thanks to the undermentioned naturalist photographers who have contributed their admirable work for reproduction, viz.: Mr. Douglas English, F.Z.S., for Plates 1, 5, 6, 10, 11, 12, 14, 15, 17, 20, 23, 25, 26, 27, 37 to 41, 46, 47, 48, 50, 53 to 62, 65, 66, 69, 70, 71, 75, 84, 89, 90, 93, 96, 97, 98, 101, 103, 104, 105, and the lower photograph on Plate 109. To Mr. Oxley Grabham for Plates 3, 4, 7, 8, 21, 24, 28, 30, 32, 43, 49, 52, 63, 85, 94, 95, and 107. Mr. Riley Fortune for Plates 16, 19, 33, 45, 51, 77 to 80, 82, and 88. Mr. Charles Reid for Plates 2, 34, 35, 42, 64, 73, 76, and 83. Mr. Stanley C. Johnson, B.A., for Plates 92, 99, 100, 106, 108, 110, 111, and the upper subject on Plate 109. Mr. E. W. Taylor for Plates 18, 86, and 91.

The Author's own contribution consists of Plates 9, 13, 22, 29, 31, 36, 44, 67, 68, 72, 74, and 87.

The appearance of 48 of these photographs in the natural colours is due to the skilful work of Mr. W. J. Stokoe.

CONTENTS PAGE

PREFACE v

INTRODUCTORY 1

INSECT-EATERS: MOLE, SHREWS, AND HEDGEHOG 9

FLYING MAMMALS: BATS 30

FLESH-EATERS: FOX, BADGER, OTTER, WEASELS, MARTENS, AND WILD CAT 52

GNAWING ANIMALS: RABBIT, HARES, DORMOUSE, VOLES, MICE, RATS, AND SQUIRRELS 78

HOOFED ANIMALS: RED DEER, FALLOW DEER, AND ROE DEER 124

LIZARDS AND SLOW-WORM 136

SNAKES 146

AMPHIBIOUS ANIMALS: FROGS, TOADS, AND NEWTS 157

CLASSIFIED INDEX TO ORDERS, GENERA, AND SPECIES 179

GENERAL INDEX 181

INTRODUCTORY

Apart from the birds and the fishes, the vertebrates or backboned animals of the British Islands constitute a very select group. Within the historical period several former notable members of that company have ceased to be represented in the freedom of nature in this country, and their forms can be studied only in museums and zoological gardens. Although we have to regret the absence from our list of the Beaver and the Wild Boar, the Ure-ox and the Short-horned Wild Ox, the Brown Bear and the savage Wolf, there are still sufficient of our vertebrates left to give a zest to the observations of the rambler in the woodlands, over the mountains and along the quiet waysides and streams of our country.

To observe these mammals, reptiles, and batrachians we must go afoot: the bicycle or the motor-car is of use only to convey us quickly out of town to appropriate localities in the open country. Arrived there, quietness must be the order of the day--the footfall light and the voice lowered in conversation if there are two or more in company. The sitter will see far more than the man who wants to perambulate the entire wood or explore the acreage of moorland. A comfortable seat having been chosen with deliberation for the view it affords of a wood margin, a hillside, or stream curve, according to the habits of the creatures we are hoping to see, the field-glass should be brought into requisition, and every inch of the field of vision carefully and repeatedly scanned. The movement of a grass-blade, the trembling of a fern frond or the rustling of a dead leaf will often indicate the precise spot to be watched. It will be understood that as most of these creatures are more or less nocturnal in their activities, observation must be continued until sometime after dusk at least, in order to be successful.

If the observer is new to this work, he should endeavour, if possible--on the first occasion at least--to get as companion a friend who has already some experience of field-work. A day with such a companion will do more to open his eyes than a whole chapter of printed hints; for it is as true to-day as it was in 1855, when Charles Kingsley wrote in his "Glaucus"--"The greatest difficulty in the way of beginners is (as in most things) to 'learn the art of learning.' They go out, search, find less than they expected, and give the subject up in disappointment. It is good to begin, therefore, if possible by playing the part of 'jackal' to some practised naturalist, who will show the tyro where to look, what to look for, and, moreover, what it is that he has found: often no easy matter to discover." On that last point the "Wayside and Woodland Series" has done much to simplify matters.

Respecting the utility of taking an interest in these fellow inhabitants of our country, one of the intellectual giants[A] of the Victorian Age described Natural History "as the greatest of all sources of that pleasure which is derivable from beauty. I do not pretend," he says, "that natural history knowledge, as such, can increase our sense of the beautiful in natural objects. I do not suppose that the dead soul of Peter Bell, of whom the great poet of nature says--

"'A primrose by the river's brim, A yellow primrose was to him-- And it was nothing more,'

would have been a whit roused from its apathy by the information that the primrose is a Dicotyledonous Exogen with a monopetalous corolla and central placentation. But I advocate natural history knowledge from this point of view, because it would lead us to _seek_ the beauties of natural objects, instead of trusting to chance to force them on our attention. To a person uninstructed in natural history, his country or sea-side stroll is a walk through a gallery filled with wonderful works of art, nine-tenths of which have their faces turned to the wall. Teach him something of natural history, and you place in his hands a catalogue of those which are worth turning round. Surely our innocent pleasures are not so abundant in this life that we can afford to despise this or any other source of them. We should fear being banished for our neglect to that limbo, where the great Florentine tells us are those who during this life 'wept when they might be joyful.'"

[Footnote A: Huxley.]

Some of the species described have a very limited range in our country at present, the Deer, for example, being restricted as wild animals to-day to the Scottish mountains and glens and the West Country moors, but even these may be studied as tolerably free animals in the New Forest, Epping Forest, and in many parks such as those at Windsor and Richmond, as well as in private domains. To the Deer we must add the Wild Cat, the Pine Marten, and the Alpine Hare as mammals that must be sought in special restricted areas; but most of the others may be reckoned to be met with, sooner rather than later, in our country rambles.

In view of the practice usual in natural histories of arranging the vertebrate animals in a series with the Birds separating the Mammals from the Reptiles, it may at first sight appear incongruous to bring the latter classes together as we have done; but to the present writer the fitness of this arrangement is quite clear. It is widely held that the Mammalia--the highest class of vertebrates, and therefore the most complex of all animals--have been evolved from an extinct group (_Theromorpha_) of Reptiles, whose remains are found in strata of the Permian and Jurassic Periods. There are, it is true, similar evidences furnished by the rocks showing that the Birds had a reptilian origin; but the Birds did not form an evolutionary stage between the Reptile and the Mammal, but evolved side by side with the latter.

The existing British Mammals represent the six orders Insectivora (shrews, mole, and hedgehog), Chiroptera (bats), Carnivora (beasts of prey), Rodentia (gnawing animals), Cetacea (whales and dolphins), and Ungulata (hoofed animals). These all agree with the Reptiles and Batrachians in having a many-jointed internal skeleton, a bony framework giving support to a system of powerful muscles; and of this framework the most important feature is the long backbone or vertebral column consisting of a number of bony rings jointed together by outgrowths or "processes," and held in position by strong ligaments. This attachment of the rings by their flat surfaces produces the spine or vertebral column, with a canal on its upper half in which lies the spinal cord. This column, for descriptive purposes, is divided into regions--cervical, dorsal, lumbar, sacral, and caudal. The number of rings or vertebræ in each region varies somewhat in the different classes and orders, but as a rule the cervical or neck vertebræ are seven; the dorsal, to which the ribs are connected, are about thirteen (extreme numbers are nine and twenty-two); the vertebræ of the lumbar or loin region are usually six or seven, but they vary inversely to those of the dorsal from two to twenty-three; the sacral vertebræ (about five) are in the adult fused together into a solid bone (sacrum) of triangular shape; the caudal vertebræ vary from three (man) to nearly fifty, according to the length of tail common to the genus or species.

In front of the neck is the skull, in the Mammals a bony case containing the brain and organs of sense, made up of plates interlocking by their zigzag margins; in the Reptiles and lower vertebrates a more or less open framework. The lower jaw, or mandible, is in adult Mammals the only part of the skull that is separate. Its hinder ends work in cavities on the lower part of the skull, and are held in position by strong ligaments and muscles.

The ribs are attached to the dorsal vertebræ, and connect by cartilage at the other end with the sternum or breastbone--really a series of united bones in the middle line of the chest (thorax). The blade-bones (scapula) of the forelimbs are attached to the upper ribs by the flat or concave side; and the hinder limbs are connected strongly to the sacrum by means of the hip-bones which are united below to form the pelvis, to which the thigh-bone is jointed. The Reptiles and Amphibians exhibit some differences in their skeletal structure which will be pointed out later.

In the matter of teeth there is great diversity among the Mammals--even in the small number of British species. With a view to a proper understanding of the teeth in, say, the Rodents and the Ungulates, it is necessary to write a few words respecting tooth-structure. Although in adult Mammals the teeth are so intimately connected with the jaw as to appear outgrowths from it, this is not the case really. They originate in the skin which covers the jaw, and the most effective part of their structure--the enamel--is derived from the epidermis, the outer layer of the skin. The centre of each tooth is filled with pulp, around which is the bone-like dentine with an outer coat of hard, glossy enamel. In the incisors or cutting teeth of the Rodents, while the front of the tooth is protected by a thick plate of hard enamel, the back portion consists only of dentine which wears away whilst the enamel front maintains a chisel-like cutting edge. In the grinding teeth or molars, especially noticeable in the Ungulates, the enamel is thrown into ridges and tubercles, so that the action of these in the upper and lower jaws upon each other is like that of "the upper and the nether millstones" in grinding corn.

Four forms of teeth are recognised in the Mammals: the incisors in the front of the jaw, the pointed, round canines or "eye-teeth" next to them, and at the sides the cheek teeth, separated into premolars and molars. In describing the teeth in any species a simple formula is adopted which shows at a glance the number of each kind in one side of each jaw. Taking our own normal dental equipment as an example, it would be expressed in this fashion:--

_i 2/2, c 1/1, pm 2/2, m 3/3 = 32_

the upper figures representing the number of each kind in the upper jaw and the lower figures the teeth of the lower jaw, and the total being reached by multiplying by two for the two sides of the skull. Often in our rambles we may come across the skull of some animal, and an examination of the teeth will help us to the identity of its late owner.

For the purposes of the present work it is unnecessary to enter minutely into all the characters that distinguish the Mammals from the other backboned animals. One is really sufficient--the possession of glands (teats) in the skin of the female which secrete milk for the nourishment of the new-born young. There are, in addition, differences in the structure of the skull and the articulation of the lower jaw. The skin is always more or less clothed with hair. The heart has a single left aortic arch, the blood is hot, and the heart and lungs are lodged in a special cavity separated from the abdomen by a muscular partition known as the diaphragm.

Respecting one item in the foregoing--it has been said truly that the possession of a few or many true hairs as outgrowths from pits in the skin is alone sufficient to distinguish a Mammal from any other animal. Although these hairs may take different forms, they are alike in their origin--even, to take an extreme case, the spines of the Hedgehog. Each hair consists of an outer wall enclosing a central cavity filled with pith, in which is the dark pigment which gives the hair its colour. In the Mammals this pigment is always brown, and the varying tints of the hairs--black, brown, tawny, cream-colour or white--depends upon the amount of pigment and its disposition in the pith, combined with differences in the density of the envelope. In some cases, as about the mouth, eyes, and ears of the Cat, long sensitive hairs are connected with the terminations of nerves, which help the animal to feel its way. There are no marked colour differences in the fur of the sexes, such as we find in the plumage of Birds; though we do find such discrepancies in the presence or absence of horns in Deer, and in the manes and hair-tufts of some exotic Mammals. Certain species, such as the Alpine Hare and the Stoat, undergo a marked seasonal change of colour in the fur under the influence of low temperature. This may be quite sudden, owing to a rapid fall of temperature, and--as shown by Metchnikoff--is effected by the pigment granules being consumed by a sort of phagocyte. By Metchnikoff's researches an old controversy appears to have been settled finally.

ANIMAL LIFE OF THE BRITISH ISLES.

INSECT-EATERS: MOLE, SHREWS, AND HEDGEHOG

*Hedgehog* (_Erinaceus europæus_, Linn.).

The Hedgehog, Urchin or Hedgepig is so distinct from every other British mammal, that anybody could correctly name it at sight. The development of many of its hairs into long, stiff spines gives it an individuality that is not to be confused with any other; but there are other peculiarities, such as the extreme shortness of the head and neck in comparison with the bulk of its body, and the muscular power that enables it to remain rolled into a ball with every part protected by erected spines. But for the fact that the Hedgehog is frequently introduced into houses and gardens to keep down insect pests, few town-dwellers would have had the opportunity of seeing the Hedgehog alive; for it is a nocturnal beast coming from its retreat only at dusk and hunting through the night. There are, however, exceptions to this rule when a heavy summer downpour of rain has drenched the herbage and caused the snails and slugs to show considerable activity. Then the Hedgehog wakens also, and reduces their numbers; for it is with such fare, plus insects, worms, mice, rats, frogs, lizards and snakes, that the Hedgehog maintains his portliness. He passes the day under a heap of dead leaves or moss in a spinney or thick hedgerow, and the solitary observer in such places may sometimes be guided to this retreat by his snoring!

The winter time is spent as a rule in continued sleep; though he has been known on mild nights in winter to wake up and prowl around for the very few good things then to be found. But he is no intermittent hibernator like the Squirrel and Dormouse; therefore he makes no provision by laying up winter stores, which are only possible for seed-feeders. For his winter retreat he looks out for a hole in the bank--perhaps one that has been gradually enlarged by a colony of wasps to accommodate their continually increasing nest--and this he lines with dry leaves and moss, carried in by the mouth. Then he snuggles into his bed and goes to sleep until the spring.

The Hedgehog's eyesight does not appear to be very good, but this is made up to him by a very acute sense of smell. He hunts along the hedgebottoms and the sides of ditches, and in some localities he is frequently to be seen in such situations. But we have met with signs of his presence high up on the moors where he finds dense cover among the heather and bilberry. His common diet of snails and beetles is varied by the eggs of the robin and meadow pipit, and occasionally he stumbles upon a huge store of food in the shape of a dozen or more eggs of pheasant or partridge. By depressing his spines he may even find his way between the bars of a hen-coop, but after eating a great part of the hen he may be too portly to get out, and then falls a victim to the enraged poultry-farmer. He is, of course, too short-legged to accomplish the operation formerly attributed to him--that of milking cows--unless, of course, the cow assented to the robbery and laid down to it. But no evidence has been given in support of the charge, which is of kindred nature to the aspersions of Pliny, Ælian and other of the ancients that it climbed apple and fig trees, gathering and throwing down the fruit, then throwing itself down so that its spines would impale its plunder with which it walked off. One weak point in the story is the fact that the Hedgehog has no use for such fare as apples, and as for the milk--any one inspecting the small gape of his mouth would exonerate him from the charge of getting a cow's dug into it.

He is said to be capable of killing and eating a wild Rabbit; but, of course, although he runs well, he could never catch a Rabbit unless the rodent were wounded. He is also a good swimmer and climber, not only of trees but of rain-pipes and rough walls, especially where these are creeper-clad. In addition to the food mentioned above he takes slugs and worms, mice, rats, lizards, frogs, and snakes--including the Viper to whose poison he is immune. It is certain that it fights with Rats, and Lord Lilford has told how it cleared a garden of them; but the Rat is sometimes the victor and eats the Hedgehog. The Hedgehog on occasion will indulge in a feast of carrion.

Only animals that are very hungry will attack the Hedgehog, and then the young are preferred if available. Gipsies, Foxes, and Badgers appear to be his principal enemies. The Fox is said to have a special and disgusting method of making the Hedgehog unroll when he is on the defensive; and a writer in _The Field_ some years ago stated that when caught by the Badger the Hedgehog utters a pitiful wail, though he will permit himself to be torn to pieces by a terrier without a cry.

The male and female are known respectively as Boar and Sow, to carry out the idea that they are a lesser kind of pig. Though the males are very quarrelsome among themselves, they have the domestic virtue and mate for life. Some time between the end of June and the end of August, the female produces a litter of four to seven blind and helpless young, sparsely clad with pale, flexible spines, and the ears drooping. The spines gradually stiffen and become first dull grey, then brown and ringed with three bands, of which the middle one is dark and the others light. The spines are arranged in radiating groups, surrounded by coarse harsh fur. Normally, these spines lie flat upon the body, but can be erected at will. They cover the entire upper surface with the exception of the short conical head and stumpy little tail--which is shorter even than the short rounded ear. The head and underside are clothed with harsh fur of a dirty brown or dirty white colour. In Devon and Cornwall it is known as Furze-a-boar. It expresses its feelings by means of a quiet grunt; the youngsters by a squeak.

The adult male Hedgehog is about nine and a quarter inches in measurement of head and body, and the tail is a little over an inch; the female is less than the male by about three-quarters of an inch. In relation to its entire bulk--it weighs one and a half pounds--the neck and body are said to be shorter than in any other British mammal. The eyes are bright and prominent. The legs are so short that the body but little more than clears the ground in walking. Both hand and foot has five clawed toes, and five pads on the sole.

The sharply pointed spines are about three-quarters of an inch in length. They are quite hard, and have from twenty-two to twenty-four longitudinal grooves. They have a hemispherical base above which is a narrow neck sharply bent, so that the spine is almost at right angles with the base.

When attacked the Hedgehog has the skunk-like habit of emitting a highly objectionable odour in order to disgust its assailant.

We have never tried Hedgehog-meat as food, but several well-known men have testified to its excellence when cooked gipsy-fashion--in a crust of clay.

The dentition of the Hedgehog is _i 3/2, c 1/1, pm 3/2, m 3/3 = 36_.

* * * * *