Part 4

t[=o]- as a verbal prefix has nothing to do with the preposition _t[=o]_ (which occurs in _t[=o].gaedre_, 'together,' &c.), but signifies 'separation,' as in _t[=o].berstan_ (burst asunder), _t[=o].bre[.g]dan_ (shake off), and hence 'destruction,' as in _t[=o].cw[=i]esan_ (crush to pieces, bruise).

un- negatives, as in _un-[.g]es[=ae]li[.g]_ (unhappy). {38}

ENDINGS.

(_a_) NOUNS.

_Personal._

-end, from the present participle _-ende_, = '-er':--_H[=ae]lend_ (healer, Saviour), _b[=u]end_ (dweller).

-ere = '-er':--_s[=a]were_ (sower), _mynetere_ (money-changer, minter) from _mynet_ (coin).

-ing, patronymic, _aetheling_ (son of a noble, prince) from _aethele_ (noble).

_Abstract._

-nes, fem. from adjectives:--_g[=o]d-nes_ (goodness), _rihtw[=i]snes_ (righteousness).

-uth, -tho, fem., generally from adjectives:--_[.g][=e]oguth_ (youth), _str[e,]n[.g]tho_ (strength) from _strang_.

-ung, fem. from verbs:--_scotung_ (shooting, shot), _h[e,]rgung_ (ravaging), from _scotian_, _h[e,]rgian_.

The following are also independent words:--

-d[=o]m, masc.:--_w[=i]s-d[=o]m_ (wisdom), _th[=e]ow-d[=o]m_ (servitude).

-h[=a]d, masc.:--_[.c]ild-h[=a]d_ (childhood).

-r[=ae]den, fem.:--_[.g]e.cwid-r[=ae]den_ (agreement) from _cwide_ (speech); _mann-r[=ae]den_ (allegiance).

-s[.c]ipe, masc.:--_fr[=e]ond-s[.c]ipe_ (friendship). Concrete in _waeter-s[.c]ipe_ (piece of water, water).

(_b_) ADJECTIVES.

-en, with mutation, denotes 'material,' 'belonging to':--_gylden_ (golden), _st[=ae]nen_ (of stone), _h[=ae]then_ (heathen) from _h[=ae]th_ (heath). In _seolcen_ (silken) there is no mutation.

-feald = '-fold':--_hund-feald_ (hundred-fold).

-i[.g]:--_miht-i[.g]_ (mighty); _h[=a]l-i[.g]_ (holy) from _h[=a]l_ (whole). {39}

-isc, with mutation:--_[E,]n[.g]lisc_ (English) from _Angel_; _m[e,]nn-isc_ (human) from _mann_.

-ol:--_swic-ol_ (deceitful).

-iht, with mutation, denotes 'material,' 'nature':--_st[=ae]n-iht_ (stony).

-sum = 'some':--_h[=i]er-sum_ (obedient).

The following exist (sometimes in a different form) as independent words:--

-faest:--_s[=o]th-faest_ (truthful).

-full:--_sorg-full_ (sorrowful), _[.g]e.l[=e]af-full_ (believing, pious).

-l[=e]as = '-less':--_[=a]r-l[=e]as_ (dishonoured, wicked).

-lic (cp. _[.g]e.l[=i]c_) = '-ly':--_folc-lic_ (popular), _heofon-lic_ (heavenly).

-weard = '-ward':--_s[=u]than-weard_ (southward).

VERBS.

-l[=ae][.c]an:--_[=a]n-l[=ae][.c]an_ (unite), _[.g]e.thw[=ae]r-l[=ae][.c]an_ (agree).

ADVERBS.

-e, the regular adverb-termination:--_lange_ (long), _[.g]e.l[=i]ce_ (similarly) from _lang_, _[.g]e.l[=i]c_. Sometimes _-l[=i]ce_ (from _-lic_) is used to form adverbs, as _bl[=i]the-l[=i]ce_ (gladly) from _bl[=i]the_.

DERIVATIONS FROM PARTICIPLES.

Many abstract words are formed from present participles (often in a passive sense) and past participles (often in an active sense):--

-nes:--_for.[.g]iefen-nes_ (forgiveness), _[.g]e.r[e,][.c]ed-nes_ (narrative), _welwillend-nes_ (benevolence).

-lic:--_un[=a]r[=i]med-lic_ (innumerable).

-l[=i]ce:--_welwillend-l[=i]ce_ (benevolently).

* * * * * {40}

SYNTAX.

GENDER.

When masculine and feminine beings are referred to by the same adjective or pronoun, the adjective or pronoun is put in the neuter:--_h[=i]e [.g]e.samnodon h[=i]e_, _ealle th[=a] h[=e]afod-m[e,]nn, and [=e]ac swelce w[=i]f-menn_ ... _and th[=a] h[=i]e bl[=i]thost w[=ae]ron_ ... (they gathered themselves, all the chief men, and also women ... and when they were most merry ...). Here _bl[=i]thost_ is in the neuter plur.

CASES.

Accusative. Some verbs of asking (a question) and requesting, together with _l[=ae]ran_ (teach), take two accusatives, one of the person, and another of the thing:--_h[=i]e hine ne dorston [=ae]ni[.g] thing [=a]scian_ (they durst not ask him anything); _w[=e] magon [=e]ow r[=ae]d [.g]e.l[=ae]ran_ (we can teach you a plan).

The accusative is used adverbially to express duration of time: _hw[=y] stande [.g][=e] h[=e]r ealne dae[.g] [=i]dle?_ (why stand ye here all the day idle?)

Dative. The dative in Old E. is of two kinds, (1) the dative proper, and (2) the instrumental dative, interchanging with the regular instrumental. It is not always easy to separate the two.

(1) The dative proper usually designates personal relations, and is frequently used with verbs, together with an accusative (generally of the thing). The dative is also used with adjectives. It is used not only with verbs of _giving_, &c., as in _h[=e] sealde [=ae]lcum [=a]nne p[e,]ning_ (he gave each a penny); _addressing_, as in _ic [=e]ow s[e,][.c][.g]e_ (I say to you), _h[=e] thancode his Dryhtne_ (he thanked his Lord); but also with many verbs of _benefiting_, _influencing_, &c., as in _ne d[=o] ic th[=e] n[=a]nne t[=e]onan_ (I do thee no injury), _h[=i]e noldon him l[=i]efan_ (they would not allow {41} them to do so); _th[=ae]m r[=e]thum st[=i]erde_ (restrained the cruel ones). Also in looser constructions, to denote the person indirectly affected, benefited, &c., as in _by[.c][.g]ath [=e]ow ele_ (buy for yourselves oil). Note especially the following idiom: _h[=i]e [.g]e.s[=o]hton Bretene Brettum t[=o] fultume_ (they came to Britain as a help to the Britains--to help them); _h[=e] clipode Cr[=i]st him t[=o] fultume_ (he called Christ to his help).

The dative is also used with adjectives of _nearness_, _likeness_, &c.:--_[=E]admund cyning clipode [=a]nne biscop the him [.g]e.h[e,]ndost waes_ (King Edmund summoned a bishop who was nearest at hand to him); _heofona r[=i][.c]e is [.g]e.l[=i]c th[=ae]m mangere the s[=o]hte thaet g[=o]de m[e,]regrot_ (the kingdom of the heavens is like the merchant who sought the good pearl).

(2) The instrumental dative is used to denote the _instrument_ and _manner_ of an action: _h[=e] [.g]e.[e,]ndode yflum d[=e]athe_ (he ended with an evil death). Hence its use to form adverbs, as in _s[.c][=e]afm[=ae]lum_ (sheafwise). It also signifies time when:--_thrim [.g][=e]arum [=ae]r th[=ae]m the h[=e] forth.f[=e]rde_ (three years before he died), which is also expressed by the instrumental itself:--_s[=e]o wolde [e,]fsian [=ae]lce [.g][=e]are thone sanct_ (she used to cut the saint's hair every year); _th[=y] f[=e]orthan [.g][=e]are his r[=i][.c]es_ (in the fourth year of his reign). A past participle with a noun in the instrumental dative is used like the ablative absolute in Latin: _Hubba be.l[=a]f on Northhymbra-lande, [.g]e.wunnenum si[.g]e mid waelhr[=e]ownesse_ (H. remained in Northumbria, victory having been won with cruelty).

Genitive. The genitive is often used in a partitive sense:--_his f[=e]onda sum_ (one of his enemies); _hiera f[=i]f w[=ae]ron dysi[.g]e_ (five of them were foolish). Hence it is generally used with _fela_, as in _fela wundra_ (many miracles); also with numerals when used as substantives (p. 18).

The genitive is often used like an accusative to denote the object of various emotions and mental states, such as {42} _joy_, _desire_, _remembering_:--_h[=i]e thaes fae[.g]nodon sw[=i]the_ (they rejoiced at it greatly); _m[=e] l[=e]ofre w[=ae]re thaet ic on [.g]e.feohte f[=e]olle with th[=ae]m the m[=i]n folc m[=o]ste hiera eardes br[=u]can_ (it would be pleasanter to me to fall in fight that my people might enjoy (possess) their country); _ic thaes [.g]e.wilni[.g]e_ (I desire that); _[.g]if h[=e] his f[=e]ores r[=o]hte_ (if he cared about his life); _h[=e] waes thaes H[=ae]lendes [.g]e.myndi[.g]_ (he was mindful of--he remembered the Saviour).

Some of these verbs, such as _biddan_ (ask), take an accusative of the person and a genitive of the thing:--_h[=e] hine hl[=a]fes bitt_ (he asks him for bread).

Verbs of _depriving_, _restraining_, &c., have the same construction:--_nis Angel-cynn be.d[=ae]led Dryhtnes h[=a]lgena_ (England is not deprived of the Lord's saints).

Some verbs of _giving_, &c., take a genitive of the thing and a dative of the person:--_him waes of.togen [=ae]lces f[=o]dan_ (they were deprived of all food).

The genitive is often used to _define_ an adjective or noun:--_th[=u] eart wierthe sl[e,][.g]es_ (thou art worthy of death); _on th[=ae]m [.g][=e]are the Aelfred aetheling [=a]n and tw[e,]nti[.g] [.g][=e]ara waes_ (in the year when Prince Alfred was twenty-one).

CONCORD.

Adjectives agree with their nouns not only when used attributively (g[=o]de m[e,]nn), but also when the adjective follows the noun, either predicatively or in apposition:--_th[=a] m[e,]nn sind g[=o]de_; _h[=e] [.g]e.seah [=o]thre [=i]dle standan_ (he saw others standing idle); _h[=i]e c[=o]mon mid langum s[.c]ipum, n[=a] manigum_ (they came with long ships, not many).

APPOSITION.

In such expressions as 'the island of Britain,' the second noun is not put in the genitive, but the two are simply put in {43} apposition, both being declined separately:--_Breten [=i]e[.g]land, on Bretene (th[=ae]m) [=i]e[.g]lande_. In 'king Alfred,' &c., the proper name is put first in the same way:--_Aelfred aetheling_ (prince Alfred); _on Aethelredes cyninges dae[.g]e_ (in the days of king Aethelred).

There is a similar apposition with the adjective _sum_ followed by a noun or pronoun, as in _sume th[=a] m[e,]nn_ (some of the men); _th[=a] th[=a] h[=e] s[=e]ow, sumu h[=i]e f[=e]ollon with we[.g]_ (while he sowed, some of them [the seeds] fell by the road). Sometimes the pronoun precedes, as in _th[=a] b[=ae]don h[=i]e sume thaet Samson m[=o]ste him macian sum gamen_ (then some of them asked that Samson might make some sport for them).

Another kind of apposition occurs in instances like the following, where we have an adjective agreeing with a following noun, and denoting a part of it:--_h[=i]e [.g]e.s[=ae]ton s[=u]thanwearde Bretene [=ae]rest_ (they occupied the south of Britain first); _s[=u]thanweard hit_ (= thaet land) _haefdon Peohtas_ (the Picts had the south part of it).

ADJECTIVES.

The weak forms are used:

(1) after the definite article:--_se aethela cyning_ (the noble king); _thaes aethelan cyninges_, _thaet g[=o]de m[e,]regrot_, _th[=a] g[=o]dan m[e,]regrotu_.

(2) after _this_:--_th[=a]s earman landl[=e]ode_ (these poor people, _pl._); _thes h[=a]lga cyning_ (this holy king), _thisses h[=a]lgan cyninges_.

(3) occasionally after other demonstrative and indefinite adjectives, and often after possessive pronouns:--_th[=i]ne d[=i]eglan gold-hordas_ (thy hidden treasures).

(4) in the vocative:--_th[=u] yfla th[=e]ow and sl[=a]wa!_ (thou bad and slothful servant); _[=e]al[=a] th[=u] l[=e]ofa cyning!_ (oh, thou dear king).

Note that _[=o]ther_ always keeps the strong form: _th[=a] [=o]thru d[=e]or_ (the other wild beasts). So also do the possessive pronouns: {44} _th[=a]s m[=i]n word_ (these my words). _[=A]n_ in the sense of 'one' keeps the strong form to distinguish it from the weak _[=a]na_ = 'alone': _thaet [=a]n d[=e]orwierthe m[e,]regrot_ (the one precious pearl).

ARTICLES.

The definite article is omitted as in Modern English before names such as _God_, and also before _Dryhten_ (the Lord), _D[=e]ofol_ (the Devil), although _se D[=e]ofol_ also occurs, and names of nations:--_Bretta cyning_ (king of the Britons).

It is omitted in many prepositional combinations, not only in those where it is omitted in Modern English also, as in _si[.g]efaest on s[=ae] and on lande_ (victorious on sea and on land), but also in many others: _[.g]ew[e,]nde t[=o] wuda on.[.g][=e]an_ (went back to the wood); _se floth[e,]re f[=e]rde eft t[=o] s[.c]ipe_ (the army of pirates went back to their ships); _h[=e] f[=e]ng t[=o] r[=i][.c]e_ (he took the government--came to the throne).

The definite article is, on the other hand, sometimes used where it would not be in Modern E., as in _se mann_ = 'man' (men in general).

The indefinite article is often not expressed at all:--_thaet dyde unhold mann_ (an enemy did that); _h[=e] be.stealcode on land sw[=a] sw[=a] wulf_ (he stole to land like a wolf). Or it is expressed by _sum_: _on th[=ae]m lande waes sum mann, L[=e]ofr[=i][.c] [.g]e.h[=a]ten_ (in that country was a man called L.). Or by _[=a]n_, as in Modern English_:--[=a]n wulf wearth [=a].s[e,]nd t[=o] be.w[e,]rienne thaet h[=e]afod with th[=a] [=o]thru d[=e]or_ (a wolf was sent to protect the head against the other wild beasts).

PRONOUNS.

_Hwaet_ is used interrogatively of persons where we should use 'who':--_h[=e] nyste hwaet h[=i]e w[=ae]ron_ (he did not know who they were). {45}

VERBS.

NUMBER.

After _[=ae]lc th[=a]ra the_ (each of-those-who) the verb is put in the sing., agreeing not with _th[=a]ra the_ but with _[=ae]lc_:--_[=ae]lc th[=a]ra the th[=a]s m[=i]n word [.g]e.h[=i]erth_ (each of those who hear these my words).

When _thaet_ or _this_ is connected with a plural predicate by means of the verb 'to be,' the verb is put in the plural:--_thaet w[=ae]ron th[=a] [=ae]restan s[.c]ipu D[e,]niscra manna the Angel-cynnes land [.g]e.s[=o]hton_ (those were the first ships of Danish men which came to the land of the English race).

Impersonal verbs take an accusative of the person, sometimes also with a genitive of the thing.

Others, such as _thyn[.c]an_ (appear), take a dative of the person:--_waes him [.g]e.th[=u]ht thaet h[=i]e be.h[=y]dden thaet h[=e]afod_ (they thought they (the Danes) had hidden the head).

TENSES.

There being no future inflection in Old E., the present is used instead:--_ne [=a].b[=y]hth n[=ae]fre E[=a]dmund Hinguare_ (Edmund will never submit to H.); _g[=a] [.g][=e] on m[=i]nne w[=i]n[.g]eard, and ic s[e,]lle [=e]ow thaet riht bith_ (go ye into my vineyard, and I will give you what is right). As we see in this example, there is a tendency to use _b[=e]on_ in a future sense. Another example is _[.g]if ic b[=e]o [.g]e.bunden mid seofon r[=a]pum, s[=o]na ic b[=e]o [.g]e.wield_ (if I am bound with seven ropes, I shall at once be overcome). The future is sometimes expressed by _will_ and _shall_, as in Modern English, though generally with a sense of volition with the one, and of necessity with the other, the idea of simple futurity coming out most clearly in the preterites _wolde_ and _scolde_:--

_H[=e] [.g]e.l[=ae]hte [=a]ne l[=e]on the hine [=a].b[=i]tan wolde_ (he seized a lion {46} that was going to devour him); _h[=i]e w[=e]ndon thaet h[=i]e scolden m[=a]re on.f[=o]n_ (they expected to receive more).

The preterite has the meaning of the modern

(1) Preterite and imperfect:--_se s[=a]were [=u]t [=e]ode his s[=ae]d t[=o] s[=a]wenne, and th[=a] th[=a] h[=e] s[=e]ow ..._ (the sower _went_ out to sow his seed, and while he _was sowing_ ...).

(2) Perfect:--_h[=e]r is m[=i]n cnapa, thone ic [.g]e[.c][=e]as_ (here is my servant, whom I have chosen);--_[=u]re cyning c[=o]m n[=u] h[=e]r t[=o] lande_ (our king has just landed here).

(3) Pluperfect:--_th[=a] th[=a] [.g]e.c[=o]mon the ymb th[=a] [e,]ndlyftan t[=i]d c[=o]mon_ (when those came who had come at the eleventh hour).

Periphrastic tenses are sometimes formed, as in Modern E., by _haebbe_ and _haefde_ with the past participles, and often have the meanings of the modern perfect and pluperfect respectively, as in _n[=u] ic haebbe [.g]estr[=i]ened [=o]thru tw[=a] pund_ (now I have gained two other pounds), but even the pluperfect often has the sense of a simple preterite. The participle is undeclinable in the later language, but originally it was declined, being really an adjective in apposition to the noun or pronoun governed by _habban_: _h[=i]e haefdon hiera cyning [=a].worpenne_ (they had deposed their king).

The pluperfect sense is often indicated by the addition of the adverb _[=ae]r_ (before):--_his sw[=e]ora, the [=ae]r waes for.slae[.g]en_ (his neck, which had been cut through).

The periphrastic forms of intransitive verbs are formed with _wesan_:--_siththan h[=i]e [=a].farene w[=ae]ron_ (after they had gone away). Here the participle always agrees with the noun or pronoun with which it is connected.

The periphrases with the present participle have no distinctive meanings of duration, &c.:--_[=a]n mann waes eardiende on Israh[=e]la th[=e]ode, Manu[=e] [.g]e.h[=a]ten_ (a man dwelt in Israel called Manue). {47}

PASSIVE.

The passive is formed with _wesan_ or _weorthan_ with the past participle. These forms are very vague in meaning, and the distinction between the two auxiliaries is not clearly marked, but _wesan_ appears to indicate a state, _weorthan_ an action.

_wearth [.g]e.lufod_ is generally preterite or perfect in meaning: _[=a]n wulf wearth [=a].s[e,]nd_ (a wolf was sent); _m[=i]ne l[=e]ofe the[.g]nas, the on hiera b[e,]ddum wurdon of.slae[.g]ene_ (my beloved thanes, who have been killed in their beds).

_waes [.g]e.lufod_, indicating a state, is naturally pluperfect in meaning:--_se [=ae]rendraca sae[.g]de his hl[=a]forde h[=u] him [.g]e.andwyrd waes_ (the messenger told his lord how he had been answered).

SUBJUNCTIVE.

The subjunctive states something not as a fact, as in the indicative, but merely as an object of thought. Hence it is used to express wish, conditions, doubt, &c.

A. In principal sentences.

_Wish_ and _command_ (often nearly equivalent to the imperative):--_thaes him s[=i]e wuldor and lof [=a] b[=u]tan [e,]nde_ (therefore let there be to him praise and glory ever without end); _ne h[=e] ealu ne drince n[=ae]fre oththe w[=i]n_ (nor shall he ever drink ale or wine).

B. In dependent sentences.

The chief cases are the following:--

(1) In _indirect narrative_ and _question_: _s[=e]o cw[=e]n sae[.g]de thaet hiere n[=ae]re be healfum d[=ae]le [.g]e.sae[.g]d be Salomones m[=ae]rtho_ (the queen said that she had not been told about Solomon's glory by half); _ic [=a]sci[.g]e hw[=ae]r s[=e]o offrung s[=i]e_ (I ask where the offering is); _m[e,]nn woldon s[.c][=e]awian h[=u] h[=e] l[=ae][.g]e_ (men {48} wished to see how he lay). When the statement in the indirect narration is perfectly certain in itself, and not merely accepted on the authority of the speaker, it is put in the indicative:--_h[=e] hiere sae[.g]de on hw[=ae]m his miht waes_ (he told her what his strength consisted in).

(2) After verbs of _desiring_ and _commanding_:--

_thaes ic [.g]e.wilni[.g]e and [.g]e.wys[.c]e mid m[=o]de thaet ic [=a]na ne be.l[=i]fe aefter m[=i]num l[=e]ofum the[.g]num_ (that I desire and wish with heart that I may not remain alone after my dear thanes).

(3) To express _purpose_:--_th[=y] l[=ae]s [.g][=e] thone hw[=ae]te [=a].wyrtwalien_ (lest ye root up the wheat);--_Dryhten [=a]s.t[=a]g nither, t[=o] b[=ae]m thaet h[=e] [.g]e.s[=a]we th[=a] burg_ (the Lord descended, in order that he might see the city).

(4) To express _result_:--_th[=u] naefst th[=a] mihte thaet th[=u] mae[.g]e him with.standan_ (thou hast not the power that thou canst withstand him).

(5) To express _hypothetical comparison_ (as if):--_se wulf folgode forth mid th[=ae]m h[=e]afde, swelce h[=e] tam w[=ae]re_ (the wolf followed on with the head, as if he were tame); _h[=e] [.g]e.l[=ae]hte [=a]ne l[=e]on, and t[=o].brae[.g]d h[=i]e t[=o] sty[.c][.c]um, swelce h[=e] t[=o].t[=ae]re ti[.c][.c]en_ (he seized a lion and tore her to pieces, as if he were rending a kid).

(6) In _conditional_ clauses, generally with _[.g]if_ or _b[=u]tan_, and in _concessive_ clauses with _th[=e]ah_, _th[=e]ah the_:--_God w[=a]t thaet ic nyle [=a].b[=u]gan fram his b[=i]g[e,]ngum [=ae]fre, swelte ic, libbe ic_ (God knows that I will not swerve from his worship ever, whether I die or live); _th[=a]s flotm[e,]nn cumath, and th[=e] cwicne [.g]e.bindath, b[=u]tan th[=u] mid fl[=e]ame th[=i]num f[=e]ore [.g]e.beorge_ (these pirates will come and bind thee alive, unless thou savest thy life with flight); _God hielt [=E]admund h[=a]lne his l[=i]chaman oth thone mi[.c]lan dae[.g], th[=e]ah the h[=e] on moldan c[=o]me_ (God will keep Edmund {49} with his body whole until the great day, although he has come to earth--been buried). Sometimes the idea of 'if' must be got from the context:--_clipiath t[=o] thissum [.g]ieftum sw[=a] hwelce sw[=a] [.g][=e] [.g]e.m[=e]ten_ (summon to this wedding whomsoever ye meet, = _if_ ye meet any one); _h[=i]e be.h[=e]ton hiere s[.c]eattas with th[=ae]m the h[=e]o be.swice Samson_ (they promised her money in consideration of her betraying Samson, = if she would...).

When the statement is assumed as unreal, instead of merely hypothetical, as in the above instances, both clauses are put in the subjunctive, the preterite being substituted for the present, as in Modern English also, where _if I were_ ... implies _I am not_.... The modern distinction between _if I were_ and _if I had been_, the former corresponding to the present indicative _I am not_, the latter to the preterite _I was not_, is not made in Old English, which uses _gif ic w[=ae]re_ in both instances. Sometimes the 'if'-clause has to be supplied in thought:--_m[=e] l[=e]ofre w[=ae]re thaet ic on [.g]e.feohte f[=e]olle with th[=ae]m the m[=i]n folc m[=o]ste hiera eardes br[=u]can_ (I would rather fall in fight that my people might possess their country), where we must supply some such clause as _[.g]if hit sw[=a] b[=e]on mihte_ (if it might be so--if it were possible to save my people by my death).

(7) In clauses dependant on a _negative sentence_:--_nis n[=a]n thing the his mihte with.stande_ (there is nothing that resists his might). Sometimes the negation must be gathered from the context, as in _se h[=a]lga is m[=ae]rra thonne m[e,]nn mae[.g]en [=a].sm[=e]an_ (the saint is more illustrious than men can conceive = the saint is so illustrious that no men can conceive it).

(8) In other cases, to express uncertainty, futurity, &c.: _th[=i]n r[=i][.c]e [.g]e.w[=i]tt fram th[=e], oth thaet th[=u] wite thaet God [.g]e.wielt manna r[=i][.c]a_ (thy kingdom shall depart from thee, till thou knowest that God rules the kingdoms of men); _uton_ {50} _weorthian [=u]rne naman, [=ae]r th[=ae]m the w[=e] s[=i]en t[=o].d[=ae]lde [.g]eond ealle eorthan!_ (let us make our name famous, before we are dispersed over the earth).

The preterite subjunctive is often expressed by _should_ and _would_ with an infinitive, as in Modern English.

_Scolde_ is used after verbs of _desiring_, _requesting_ and _commanding_:--_biddende thone Aelmihtigan thaet h[=e] him [=a]rian scolde_ (praying the Almighty to have mercy on him). In the following example the verb of commanding is understood from the noun _[=ae]rende_:--_h[=e] s[e,]nde t[=o] thaem cyninge b[=e]otlic [=ae]rende, thaet h[=e] [=a].b[=u]gan scolde t[=o] his mannr[=ae]denne, [.g]if h[=e] his f[=e]ores r[=o]hte_ (he sent to the king an arrogant message, that he was to turn to his allegiance, if he cared about his life).

_Wolde_ is used after verbs of _purpose_:--_se cyning [=e]ode inn thaet he wolde [.g]e.s[=e]on th[=a] the th[=ae]r s[=ae]ton_ (the king went in to see those who were sitting there).

INFINITIVE.

After verbs of commanding the infinitive often seems to have a passive sense:--_h[=i]e h[=e]ton him s[e,]ndan m[=a]ran fultum_ (they ordered that more forces should be sent to them). So also after verbs of hearing, &c.:--_thaet m[=ae]ste wael the w[=e] s[e,][.c][.g]an h[=i]erdon_ (the greatest slaughter we have heard told of). In such cases an indefinite pronoun has been omitted: 'ordered them to send ...' etc.

GERUND.

The gerund is used--

(1) to express purpose:--_[=u]t [=e]ode se s[=a]were his s[=ae]d t[=o] s[=a]wenne_ (the sower went forth to sow his seed).

(2) it defines or determines an adjective (adverb or noun): _hit is scandlic ymb swelc t[=o] sprecenne_ (it is shameful to speak of such things). {51}

PREPOSITIONS.

Some prepositions govern the accusative, such as _thurh_ (through), _ymbe_ (about); some the dative (and instrumental), such as _aefter_ (after), _[=ae]r_ (before), _aet_ (at), _be_ (by), _binnan_ (within), _b[=u]tan_ (without), _for_ (for), _fram_ (from), _of_ (of), _t[=o]_ (to).