Part 1

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In this e-text a-breve is represented by [)a], a-macron by [=a], c-dotted-over by [.c] and e-ogonek by [e,], etc.

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AN ANGLO-SAXON PRIMER

With

Grammar, Notes, and Glossary

by

HENRY SWEET, M.A., PH.D., LL.D.

Eighth Edition, Revised

Oxford At the Clarendon Press 1905

Printed in England At the Oxford University Press

{v}

PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION.

The want of an introduction to the study of Old-English has long been felt. Vernon's _Anglo-Saxon Guide_ was an admirable book for its time, but has long been completely antiquated. I was therefore obliged to make my _Anglo-Saxon Reader_ a somewhat unsatisfactory compromise between an elementary primer and a manual for advanced students, but I always looked forward to producing a strictly elementary book like the present one, which would enable me to give the larger one a more scientific character, and would at the same time serve as an introduction to it. Meanwhile, however, Professor Earle has brought out his _Book for the beginner in Anglo-Saxon_. But this work is quite unsuited to serve as an introduction to my Reader, and will be found to differ so totally in plan and execution from the present one as to preclude all idea of rivalry on my part. We work on lines which instead of clashing can only diverge more and more.

My main principle has been to make the book the easiest possible introduction to the study of Old-English.

Poetry has been excluded, and a selection made from the easiest prose pieces I could find. Old-English original prose is unfortunately limited in extent, and the most suitable pieces (such as the voyages of Ohthere and Wulfstan) are already given in the Reader; these I could not give over {vi} again. But I hope the short extracts from the Chronicle and the Martyrdom of King Edmund will be found not wanting in interest. For the rest of the selections I have had to fall back on scriptural extracts, which have the great advantages of simplicity and familiarity of subject. The Gospel extracts have been transferred here from the Reader, where they will be omitted in the next edition. The sentences which head the selections have been gathered mainly from the Gospels, Aelfric's Homilies, and the Chronicle. They are all of the simplest possible character, only those having been taken which would bear isolation from their context. They are intended to serve both as an introduction and as a supplement to the longer pieces. They are grouped roughly into paragraphs, according to the grammatical forms they illustrate. Thus the first paragraph consists mainly of examples of the nominative singular of nouns and adjectives, the second of accusative singulars, and so on.

The spelling has been made rigorously uniform throughout on an early West-Saxon basis. Injurious as normalizing is to the advanced student, it is an absolute necessity for the beginner, who wants to have the definite results of scholarship laid before him, not the confused and fluctuating spellings which he cannot yet interpret intelligently. Even for purely scientific purposes we require a standard of comparison and classification, as in the arrangement of words in a dictionary, where we have to decide, for instance, whether to put the original of _hear_ under _[=e], [=i]e, [=i]_ or _[=y]_. The spelling I here adopt is, in fact, the one I should recommend for dictionary purposes. From early West-Saxon it is an easy step both to late W. S. and to the Mercian forms from which Modern English is derived. That I give Aelfric in a spelling slightly earlier than his date is no more {vii} unreasonable than it is for a classical scholar to print Ausonius (who doubtless spoke Latin with an almost Italian pronunciation) in the same spelling as Virgil.

It is impossible to go into details, but in doubtful or optional cases I have preferred those forms which seemed most instructive to the student. Thus I have preferred keeping up the distinction between the indic. _bundon_ and the subj. _bunden_, although the latter is often levelled under the former even in early MS. In the accentuation I have for the present retained the conventional quantities, which are really 'prehistoric' quantities, as I have shown elsewhere (Phil. Soc. Proc. 1880, 1881). It is no use trying to disguise the fact that Old English philology (owing mainly to its neglect in its native land) is still in an unsettled state.

In the Grammar I have cut down the phonology to the narrowest limits, giving only what is necessary to enable the beginner to trace the connection of forms within the language itself. Derivation and syntax have been treated with the same fulness as the inflections. In my opinion, to give inflections without explaining their use is as absurd as it would be to teach the names of the different parts of a machine without explaining their use, and derivation is as much a fundamental element of a language as inflection. The grammar has been based throughout on the texts, from which all words and sentences given as examples have, as far as possible, been taken. This I consider absolutely essential in an elementary book. What is the use of a grammar which gives a number of forms and rules which the learner has no occasion to apply practically in his reading? Simply to cut down an ordinary grammar and prefix it to a selection of elementary texts, without any attempt to adapt them to one another, is a most unjustifiable proceeding. {viii}

In the Glossary cognate and root words are given only when they occur in the texts, or else are easily recognizable by the ordinary English reader.

All reference to cognate languages has been avoided. Of course, if the beginner knows German, the labour of learning Old English will be lightened for him by one half, but he does not require to have the analogies pointed out to him. The same applies to the relation between Old and Modern English. To trace the history of the sounds would be quite out of place in this book, and postulates a knowledge of the intermediate stages which the beginner cannot have.

The Notes consist chiefly of references to the Grammar, and are intended mainly for those who study without a teacher. As a general rule, no such references are given where the passage itself is quoted in the Grammar.

On the whole I do not think the book could be made much easier without defeating its object. Thus, instead of simply referring the student from _st[e,]nt_ to _standan_, and thence to the Grammar, I might have saved him all this trouble by putting '_st[e,]nt_, 3 sg. pres. of _standan_, stand,' but the result would be in many cases that he would not look at the Grammar at all--surely a most undesirable result.

Although I have given everything that I believe to be _necessary_, every teacher may, of course, at his own discretion add such further illustrations, linguistic, historical, antiquarian, or otherwise, as he thinks likely to instruct or interest his pupils.

My thanks are due to Professor Skeat, not only for constant advice and encouragement in planning and carrying out this work, but also for help in correcting the proofs.

In conclusion I may be allowed to express a hope that this little book may prove useful not only to young beginners, but also to some of our Professors of and {ix} Examiners in the English language, most of whom are now beginning to see the importance of a sound elementary knowledge of 'Anglo-Saxon'--a knowledge which I believe this book to be capable of imparting, if studied diligently, and not hurriedly cast aside for a more ambitious one.

HENRY SWEET.

HEATH STREET, HAMPSTEAD, _March 31, 1882_.

PREFACE TO THIRD EDITION.

In the present edition I have put this book into what must be (for some time at least) its permanent form, making such additions and alterations as seemed necessary.

If I had any opportunity of teaching the language, I should no doubt have been able to introduce many other improvements; as it is, I have had to rely mainly on the suggestions and corrections kindly sent to me by various teachers and students who have used this book, among whom my especial thanks are due to the Rev. W. F. Moulton, of Cambridge, and Mr. C. Stoffel, of Amsterdam.

HENRY SWEET.

LONDON, _October 15, 1884_.

{x}

CONTENTS.

Page

GRAMMAR 1

TEXTS 55

NOTES 91

GLOSSARY 97

{1}

GRAMMAR.

The oldest stage of English before the Norman Conquest is called 'Old English,' which name will be used throughout in this Book, although the name 'Anglo-Saxon' is still often used.

There were several dialects of Old English. This book deals only with the _West-Saxon_ dialect in its earliest form.

SOUNDS.

VOWELS.

The vowel-letters in Old English had nearly the same values as in Latin. Long vowels were occasionally marked by ('), short vowels being left unmarked. In this book long vowels are marked by (-). The following are the elementary vowels and diphthongs, with examples, and key-words from English, French (F.), and German (G.):--

a _as in_ mann (G.) nama (_name_). [=a] " father st[=a]n (_stone_). ae " man glaed (_glad_). [=ae] " d[=ae]d (_deed_)[1]. e " ete (F.) ic ete[2] (_I eat_). [=e] " see (G.) h[=e] (_he_). [e,] " men m[e,]nn (_men_). {2} i " fini (F.) cwic (_alive_). [=i] " sieh (G.) w[=i]n (_wine_). ie " fin ieldran (_ancestors_). [=i]e " h[=i]eran (_hear_). o " beau (F.) god (_god_). [=o] " so (G.) g[=o]d (_good_). u " sou (F.) sunu (_son_). [=u] " gut (G.) n[=u] (_now_). y " vec_u_ (F.) synn (_sin_). [=y] " gruen (G.) br[=y]d (_bride_). ea = ae + a eall (_all_). [=e]a = [=ae] + a [=e]ast (_east_). eo = e + o weorc (_work_). [=e]o = [=e] + o d[=e]op (_deep_). _e_ and _[e,]_ are both written e in the MSS.

The diphthongs are pronounced with the stress on the first element.

Those who find a difficulty in learning strange vowel-sounds may adopt the following approximate pronunciation:--

a as in ask (short) nama (n[)a]hm[)a]h). [=a] " father st[=a]n (stahn). ae " man glaed (glad). [=ae] " there [=ae]r (air). e, [e,] " men ete (etty), m[e,]nn (men). [=e] " they h[=e] (hay). i, ie " fin cwic (quick), ieldran (ildr[)a]hn). [=i], [=i]e " see w[=i]n (ween), h[=i]eran (heer[)a]hn). o " not god (god). [=o] " note g[=o]d (goad). u " full full (full). [=u] " fool n[=u] (noo). y " fin synn (zin). [=y] " see br[=y]d (breed). ea = [)e]-[)a]h eall ([)e]-[)a]hl). [=e]a = ai-[)a]h [=e]ast (ai-[)a]hst). {3} eo = [)e]-o weorc (w[)e]-ork). [=e]o = ai-o d[=e]op (dai-op).

The pronunciation given in parentheses is the nearest that can be expressed in English letters as pronounced in Southern English.

CONSONANTS.

Double consonants must be pronounced double, or long, as in Italian. Thus _sunu_ (son) must be distinguished from _sunne_ (sun) in the same way as _penny_ is distinguished from _penknife_. So also _in_ (in) must be distinguished from _inn_ (house); noting that in modern English final consonants in accented monosyllables after a short vowel are long, our _in_ and _inn_ both having the pronunciation of Old English _inn_, not of O.E. _in_.

_c_ and _g_ had each a _back_ (guttural) and a _front_ (palatal) pron., which latter is in this book written _[.c]_, _[.g]_.

c = _k_, as in _c[=e]ne_ (bold), _cn[=a]wan_ (know).

[.c] = _kj_, a _k_ formed in the _j_ (English _y_) position, nearly as in the old-fashioned pron. of _sky_: _[.c]iri[.c]e_ (church), _sty[.c][.c]e_ (piece), _th[e,]n[.c]an_ (think).

g initially and in the combination _ng_ was pron. as in 'get': _g[=o]d_ (good), _lang_ (long); otherwise (that is, medially and finally after vowels and _l, r_) as in German _sagen: dagas_ (days), _burg_ (city), _h[=a]lga_ (saint).

[.g] initially and in the combination _n[.g]_ was pronounced _gj_ (corresponding to _kj_): _[.g][=e]_ (ye), _[.g]eorn_ (willing), _spr[e,]n[.g]an_ (scatter); otherwise = _j_ (as in 'you'): _dae[.g]_ (day), _wr[=e][.g]an_ (accuse), _h[e,]r[.g]ian_ (ravage). It is possible that _[.g]_ in _[.g]e-boren_ (born) and other unaccented syllables was already pronounced _j. [.c][.g] = [.g][.g]: s[e,][.c][.g]an_ (say), _hry[.c][.g]_ (back).

f had the sound of _v_ everywhere where it was possible:--_faran_ (go), _of_ (of), _ofer_ (over); not, of course, in _oft_ (often), or when doubled, as in _offrian_ (offer). {4}

h initially, as in _h[=e]_ (he), had the same sound as now. Everywhere else it had that of Scotch and German _ch_ in _loch_:--_h[=e]ah_ (high), _Wealh_ (Welshman), _riht_ (right). _hw_, as in _hwaet_ (what), _hw[=i]l_ (while), had the sound of our _wh_; and _hl, hn, hr_ differed from _l, n, r_ respectively precisely as _wh_ differs from _w_, that is, they were these consonants devocalized, _hl_ being nearly the same as Welsh _ll:--hl[=a]ford_ (lord), _hl[=u]d_ (loud); _hnappian_ (doze), _hnutu_ (nut); _hrathe_ (quickly), _hr[=e]od_ (reed).

r was always a strong trill, as in Scotch:--_r[=ae]ran_ (to raise), _h[=e]r_ (here), _word_ (word).

s had the sound of _z_:--_s[=e][.c]an_ (seek), _sw[=a]_ (so), _w[=i]s_ (wise), _[=a].r[=i]san_ (rise); not, of course, in combination with hard consonants, as in _st[=a]n_ (stone), _faest_ (firm), _r[=i][.c]sian_ (rule), or when double, as in _cyssan_ (kiss).

th had the sound of our _th_ (= dh) in _then_:_--th[=u]_ (thou), _thing_ (thing), _s[=o]th_ (true), _h[=ae]then_ (heathen); except when in combination with hard consonants, where it had that of our _th_ in _thin_, as in _s[=e][.c]th_ (seeks). Note _haefth_ (has) = _haevdh_.

w was fully pronounced wherever written:--_wr[=i]tan_ (write), _n[=i]we_ (new), _s[=e]ow_ (sowed _pret._).

STRESS.

The stress or accent is marked throughout in this book, whenever it is not on the first syllable of a word, by (.) preceding the letter on which the stress begins. Thus _for.[.g]iefan_ is pronounced with the same stress as that of _forgive_, _andswaru_ with that of _answer_.

* * * * *

PHONOLOGY.

VOWELS.

Different vowels are related to one another in various ways in O.E., the most important of which are _mutation_ (German _umlaut_) and _gradation_ (G. _ablaut_). {5}

The following changes are _mutations_:--

a .. [e,]:--mann, _pl._ m[e,]nn; wand (wound _prt._), w[e,]ndan (to turn).

ea (= a) .. ie (= [e,]):--eald (old), ieldra (older); feallan (fall), fielth (falls).

[=a] .. [=ae]:--bl[=a]wan (to blow), bl[=ae]wth (bloweth); h[=a]l (sound), h[=ae]lan (heal).

u .. y:--burg (city), _pl._ byri[.g]; trum (strong), trymman (to strengthen).

o .. y:--gold, gylden (golden); coss (a kiss), cyssan (to kiss).

e .. i:--beran (to bear), bireth (beareth); cwethan (speak), cwide (speech).

eo (= e) .. ie (= i):--heord (herd), hierde (shepherd); [.c]eorfan (cut), [.c]ierfth (cuts).

u .. o:--curon (they chose), [.g]e.coren (chosen).

[=u] .. [=y]:--c[=u]th (known), c[=y]than (to make known); f[=u]l (foul), [=a].f[=y]lan (defile).

[=o] .. [=e]:--s[=o]hte (sought _prt._), s[=e][.c]an (to seek); f[=o]da (food), f[=e]dan (to feed).

[=e]a .. [=i]e:--h[=e]awan (to hew), h[=i]ewth (hews); t[=e]am (progeny), t[=i]eman (teem).

[=e]o .. [=i]e:--st[=e]or (rudder), st[=i]eran (steer); [.g]e.str[=e]on (possession), [.g]es.tr[=i]enan (gain).

Before proceeding to gradation, it will be desirable to describe the other most important vowel-relations.

a, ae, ea. In O.E. original _a_ is preserved before nasals, as in _mann_, _lang_, _nama_ (name), and before a single consonant followed by _a_, _u_, or _o_, as in _dagas_ (days), _dagum_ (to days), _faran_ (go), _gafol_ (profit), and in some words when _e_ follows, as in _ic fare_ (I go), _faren_ (gone). Before _r_, _l_, _h_ followed by another consonant, and before _x_ it becomes _ea_, as in _heard_ (hard), _eall_ (all), _eald_ (old), _eahta_ (eight), _weaxan_ (to grow). Not in _baerst_ (p. 7). In most other cases it becomes _ae_:--_dae[.g]_, (day), _dae[.g]es_ (of a day), _faest_ (firm), _waer_ (wary). {6}

e before nasals always becomes _i_: compare _bindan_ (to bind), pret. _band_, with _beran_ (to bear), pret. _baer_.

_e_ before _r_ (generally followed by a consonant) becomes _eo:--eorthe_ (earth), _heorte_ (heart). Not in _berstan_ (p. 7). Also in other cases:--_seolfor_ (silver), _heofon_ (heaven).

i before _r_ + cons. becomes _ie:--bierth_ (beareth) contr. from _bireth, hierde_ (shepherd) from _heord_ (herd), _wiersa_ (worse).

[e,] before _r_, or _l_ + cons. often becomes _ie:--fierd_ (army) from _faran_, _bieldo_ (boldness) from _beald_, _ieldra_ (elder) from _eald_.

By _gradation_ the vowels are related as follows:--

e (i, eo) .. a (ae, ea) .. u (o):--

_bindan_ (inf.), _band_ (pret.), _bundon_ (they bound). _beran_ (inf.), _baer_ (pret.), _boren_ (past partic.). _[.c]eorfan_ (cut), _[.c]earf_ (pret.), _curfon_ (they cut), _corfen_ (past partic.). _b[e,]nd_ (bond) = mutation of band, _byr-then_ (burden) of _bor-en_.

a (ae, ea) .. [=ae]:--_spraec_ (spoke), _spr[=ae]con_ (they spoke), _spr[=ae][.c]_ (speech).

a .. [=o]:--_faran_ (to go), _f[=o]r_ (pret.), _f[=o]r_ (journey). _[.g]e.f[=e]ra_ (companion) mutation of _f[=o]r_.

[=i] .. [=a] .. i:--_wr[=i]tan, wr[=a]t, writon, [.g]e.writ_ (writing, _subst._). _(be).l[=i]fan_ (remain), _l[=a]f_ (remains), whence by mutation _l[=ae]fan_ (leave).

[=e]o ([=u]) .. [=e]a .. u (o):--_[.c][=e]osan_ (choose), _[.c][=e]as, curon, coren_. _cys-t_ (choice). _(for).l[=e]osan_ (lose), _l[=e]as_ (loose), _[=a].l[=i]esan_ (release), _losian_ (to be lost). _b[=u]gan_ (bend), _boga_ (bow).

We see that the laws of gradation are most clearly shown in the conjugation of the strong verbs. But they run through the whole language, and a knowledge of the laws of gradation and mutation is the main key to O.E. etymology.

It is often necessary to supply intermediate stages in connecting two words. Thus _l[e,][.c][.g]an_ (lay) cannot be directly referred to _li[.c][.g]an_ (lie), but only to a form *_lag_-, preserved in the preterite _lae[.g]_. So also _bl[e,]ndan_ (to blind) can be referred only indirectly to the adjective _blind_ through an intermediate *_bland_-. Again, the root-vowel of _byrthen_ {7} (burden) cannot be explained by the infinitive _beran_ (bear), but only by the past participle _[.g]e.boren_. In the same way _hryre_ (fall _sb._) must be referred, not to the infinitive _hr[=e]osan_, but to the preterite plural _hruron_.

The vowel-changes in the preterites of verbs of the 'fall'-conjugation (1) _feallan_, _f[=e]oll_, &c., are due not to gradation, but to other causes.

CONSONANTS.

s becomes _r_ in the preterite plurals and past participles of strong verbs, as in _curon_, _[.g]e.coren_ from _[.c][=e]osan_, _w[=ae]ron_ pl. of _waes_ (was), and in other formations, such as _hryre_ (fall) from _hr[=e]osan_.

th becomes _d_ under the same conditions, as in _wurdon_, _[.g]e.worden_ from _weorthan_ (become), _cwaeth_ (quoth), pl. _cw[=ae]don_, _cwide_ (speech) from _cwethan_ (infin.).

r is often transposed, as in _iernan_ (run) from original *_rinnan_ (cp. the subst. _ryne_), _berstan_ (burst) from *_brestan_, _baerst_ (burst _pret._) from _braest_, _hors_ (horse) from *_hross_.

The combinations cae-, gae- become _[.c]ea-_, _[.g]ea-_, as in _[.c]eaf_ (chaff) from *_caef_, _s[.c]eal_ (shall) from *_scael_, _[.g]eaf_ (gave) = *_gaef_ from _[.g]iefan_ (cp. _cwaeth_ from _cwethan_), _[.g]eat_ (gate)--cp. _faet_ (vessel).

g[=ae]- often becomes _[.g][=e]a-_, as in _[.g][=e]afon_ (they gave), with which compare _cw[=ae]don_ (they said).

ge- becomes _[.g]ie_, as in _[.g]iefan_, _[.g]ieldan_ (pay) from *_gefan_, *_geldan_--cp. _cwethan_, _delfan_. Not in the prefix _[.g]e-_ and _[.g][=e]_ (ye).

When g comes before a consonant in inflection, it often becomes _h_, as in _h[=e] l[=i]ehth_ (he lies) from _l[=e]ogan_ (mentiri).

h after a consonant is dropt when a vowel follows, the preceding vowel being lengthened, thus _Wealh_ (Welshman) has plural _W[=e]alas_.

* * * * *

INFLECTIONS.

NOUNS.

Gender. There are three genders in O.E.--masculine, neuter, and feminine. The gender is partly natural, partly {8} grammatical. By the natural gender names of male beings, such as _se mann_ (the man), are masculine; of female beings, such as _s[=e]o dohtor_ (the daughter), are feminine; and of young creatures, such as _thaet [.c]ild_ (the child), neuter. Note, however, that _thaet w[=i]f_ (woman) is neuter.

Grammatical gender is known only by the gender of the article and other words connected with the noun, and, to some extent, by its form. Thus all nouns ending in _-a_, such as _se m[=o]na_ (moon), are masculine, _s[=e]o sunne_ (sun) being feminine. Those ending in _-d[=o]m_, _-h[=a]d_, and _-s[.c]ipe_ are also masculine:--_se w[=i]sd[=o]m_ (wisdom), _se [.c]ildh[=a]d_ (childhood), _se fr[=e]onds[.c]ipe_ (friendship). Those in _-nes_, _-o_ (from adjectives) _-r[=ae]den_, and _-ung_ are feminine:--_s[=e]o rihtw[=i]snes_ (righteousness), _s[=e]o bieldo_ (boldness) from _beald_, _s[=e]o mann-r[=ae]den_ (allegiance), _s[=e]o scotung_ (shooting).

Compounds follow the gender of their last element, as in _thaet burg-[.g]eat_ (city-gate), from _s[=e]o burg_ and _thaet [.g]eat_. Hence also _se w[=i]f-mann_ (woman) is masculine.

The gender of most words can be learnt only by practice, and the student should learn each noun with its proper definite article.

Strong and Weak. Weak nouns are those which form their inflections with _n_, such as _se m[=o]na_, plural _m[=o]nan_; _s[=e]o sunne_, genitive sing. _th[=ae]re sunnan_. All the others, such as _se dae[.g]_, pl. _dagas_, _thaet h[=u]s_ (house), gen. sing. _thaes h[=u]ses_, are strong.

Cases. There are four cases, nominative, accusative, dative, and genitive. The acc. is the same as the nom. in all plurals, in the sing. of all neuter nouns, and of all strong masculines. Masculine and neuter nouns never differ in the plural except in the nom. and acc., and in the singular they differ only in the acc. of weak nouns, which in neuters is the same as the nom. The dative plural of nearly all nouns ends in _-um_. {9}

STRONG MASCULINES.

(1) as-plurals.