Anglo Saxon Grammar And Exercise Book With Inflections Syntax S

Chapter 27

Chapter 2723,072 wordsPublic domain

SELECTIONS FOR READING.

PROSE.

INTRODUCTORY.

I. #The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle.#

This famous work, a series of progressive annals by unknown hands, embraces a period extending from Cæsar’s invasion of England to 1154. It is not known when or where these annals began to be recorded in English.

“The annals from the year 866--that of Ethelred’s ascent of the throne--to the year 887 seem to be the work of one mind. Not a single year is passed over, and to several is granted considerable space, especially to the years 871, 878, and 885. The whole has gained a certain roundness and fulness, because the events--nearly all of them episodes in the ever-recurring conflict with the Danes--are taken in their connection, and the thread dropped in one year is resumed in the next. Not only is the style in itself concise; it has a sort of nervous severity and pithy rigor. The construction is often antiquated, and suggests at times the freedom of poetry; though this purely historical prose is far removed from poetry in profusion of language.” (Ten Brink, _Early Eng. Lit._, I.)

II. #The Translations of Alfred.#

Alfred’s reign (871-901) may be divided into four periods. The _first_, the period of Danish invasion, extends from 871 to 881; the _second_, the period of comparative quiet, from 881 to 893; the _third_, the period of renewed strife (beginning with the incursions of Hasting), from 893 to 897; the _fourth_, the period of peace, from 897 to 901. His literary work probably falls in the second period.[A]

The works translated by Alfred from Latin into the vernacular were (1) _Consolation of Philosophy_ (_De Consolatione Philosophiae_) by Boëthius (475-525), (2) _Compendious History of the World_ (_Historiarum Libri VII_) by Orosius (c. 418), (3) _Ecclesiastical History of the English_ (_Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum_) by Bede (672-735), and (4) _Pastoral Care_ (_De Cura Pastorali_) by Pope Gregory the Great (540-604).

The chronological sequence of these works is wholly unknown. That given is supported by Turner, Arend, Morley, Grein, and Pauli. Wülker argues for an exact reversal of this order. According to Ten Brink, the order was more probably (1) _Orosius_, (2) _Bede_, (3) _Boëthius_, and (4) _Pastoral Care_. The most recent contribution to the subject is from Wülfing, who contends for (1) _Bede_, (2) _Orosius_, (3) _Pastoral Care_, and (4) _Boëthius_.

[Footnote A: There is something inexpressibly touching in this clause from the great king’s pen: gif wē ðā stilnesse habbað. He is speaking of how much he hopes to do, by his translations, for the enlightenment of his people.]

I. THE BATTLE OF ASHDOWN.

[From the _Chronicle_, Parker MS. The event and date are significant. The Danes had for the first time invaded Wessex. Alfred’s older brother, Ethelred, was king; but to Alfred belongs the glory of the victory at Ashdown (Berkshire). Asser (_Life of Alfred_) tells us that for a long time Ethelred remained praying in his tent, while Alfred and his followers went forth “like a wild boar against the hounds.”]

[[page 99]]

1 871. Hēr cuōm[1] sē hęre tō Rēadingum on Westseaxe, 2 ǫnd þæs ymb iii niht ridon ii eorlas ūp. Þa gemētte hīe

[[page 100]]

1 Æþelwulf aldorman[2] on Ęnglafelda, ǫnd him þǣr wiþ gefeaht, 2 ǫnd sige nam. Þæs ymb iiii niht Æþered cyning 3 ǫnd Ælfred his brōþur[3] þǣr micle fierd tō Rēadingum 4 gelǣddon, ǫnd wiþ þone hęre gefuhton; ǫnd þǣr wæs 5 micel wæl geslægen on gehwæþre hǫnd, ǫnd Æþelwulf 6 aldormǫn wearþ ofslægen; ǫnd þa Dęniscan āhton wælstōwe 7 gewald.

8 Ǫnd þæs ymb iiii niht gefeaht Æþered cyning ǫnd 9 Ælfred his brōþur wiþ alne[4] þone hęre on Æscesdūne. 10 Ǫnd hīe wǣrun[5] on twǣm gefylcum: on ōþrum wæs 11 Bāchsęcg ǫnd Halfdęne þā hǣþnan cyningas, ǫnd on 12 ōþrum wǣron þā eorlas. Ǫnd þā gefeaht sē cyning 13 Æþered wiþ þāra cyninga getruman, ǫnd þǣr wearþ sē 14 cyning Bāgsęcg ofslægen; ǫnd Ælfred his brōþur wiþ 15 þāra eorla getruman, ǫnd þǣr wearþ Sidroc eorl ofslægen 16 sē alda,[6] ǫnd Sidroc eorl sē gioncga,[7] ǫnd Ōsbearn eorl, 17 ǫnd Frǣna eorl, ǫnd Hareld eorl; ǫnd þā hęrgas[8] bēgen 18 geflīemde, ǫnd fela þūsenda ofslægenra, ǫnd onfeohtende 19 wǣron oþ niht.

20 Ǫnd þæs ymb xiiii niht gefeaht Æþered cyning ǫnd 21 Ælfred his brōður wiþ þone hęre æt Basengum, ǫnd þǣr 22 þa Dęniscan sige nāmon.

23 Ǫnd þæs ymb ii mōnaþ gefeaht Æþered cyning ǫnd 24 Ælfred his brōþur wiþ þone hęre æt Męretūne, ǫnd hīe 25 wǣrun on tuǣm[9] gefylcium, ǫnd hīe būtū geflīemdon, ǫnd 26 lǫnge on dæg sige āhton; ǫnd þǣr wearþ micel wælsliht 27 on gehwæþere hǫnd; ǫnd þā Dęniscan āhton wælstōwe

[[page 101]]

1 gewald; ǫnd þær wearþ Hēahmund bisceop ofslægen, 2 ǫnd fela gōdra mǫnna. Ǫnd æfter þissum gefeohte cuōm[1] 3 micel sumorlida.

4 Ǫnd þæs ofer Ēastron gefōr Æþered cyning; ǫnd hē 5 rīcsode v gēar; ǫnd his līc līþ æt Wīnburnan.

6 Þā fēng Ælfred Æþelwulfing his brōþur tō Wesseaxna 7 rīce. Ǫnd þæs ymb ānne mōnaþ gefeaht Ælfred cyning 8 wiþ alne[4] þone hęre lȳtle werede[10] æt Wiltūne, ǫnd hine 9 lǫnge on dæg geflīemde, ǫnd þā Dęniscan āhton wælstōwe 10 gewald.

11 Ǫnd þæs gēares wurdon viiii folcgefeoht gefohten wiþ 12 þone hęre on þȳ cynerīce be sūþan Tęmese, būtan þām þe 13 him Ælfred þæs cyninges brōþur ǫnd ānlīpig aldormǫn[2] ǫnd 14 cyninges þegnas oft rāde onridon þe mǫn nā ne rīmde; 15 ǫnd þæs gēares wǣrun[5] ofslægene viiii eorlas ǫnd ān cyning. 16 Ǫnd þȳ gēare nāmon Westseaxe friþ wiþ þone hęre.

CONSULT GLOSSARY AND PARADIGMS UNDER FORMS GIVEN BELOW.

No note is made of such variants as y (ȳ) or i (ī) for ie (īe). See Glossary under ie (īe); occurrences, also, of #and# for #ǫnd#, #land# for #lǫnd#, are found on almost every page of Early West Saxon. Such words should be sought for under the more common forms, #ǫnd#, #lǫnd#.

[1] = cwōm. [2] = ealdormǫn. [3] = brōþor. [4] = ealne. [5] = wǣron. [6] = ealda. [7] = geonga. [8] = hęras. [9] = twǣm. [10] = werode.

[Linenotes:

100.8. #gefeaht#. Notice that the singular is used. This is the more common construction in O.E. when a compound subject, composed of singular members, follows its predicate. Cf. _For thine is the kingdom, and the power, and the glory_. See also p. 107, note on #wæs#.] [[Linenote 107.14-15]]

100.18. #ǫnd fela þūsenda ofslægenra#, _and there were many thousands of slain_ (§ 91).

101.12: #būtan þām þe#, etc., _besides which, Alfred ... made raids against them_ (#him#), _which were not counted_. See § 70, Note.]

II. A PRAYER OF KING ALFRED.

[With this characteristic prayer, Alfred concludes his translation of Boëthius’s _Consolation of Philosophy_. Unfortunately, the only extant MS. (Bodleian 180) is Late West Saxon. I follow, therefore, Prof. A. S. Cook’s normalization on an Early West Saxon basis. See Cook’s _First Book in Old English_, p. 163.]

[[page 102]]

1 Dryhten, ælmihtiga God, Wyrhta and Wealdend ealra 2 gesceafta, ic bidde ðē for ðīnre miclan mildheortnesse, 3 and for ðǣre hālgan rōde tācne, and for Sanctæ Marian 4 mægðhāde, and for Sancti Michaeles gehīersumnesse, and 5 for ealra ðīnra hālgena lufan and hīera earnungum, ðæt 6 ðū mē gewissie bęt ðonne ic āworhte tō ðē; and gewissa 7 mē tō ðīnum willan, and tō mīnre sāwle ðearfe, bęt ðonne 8 ic self cunne; and gestaðela mīn mōd tō ðinum willan and 9 tō mīnre sāwle ðearfe; and gestranga mē wið ðæs dēofles 10 costnungum; and āfierr fram mē ðā fūlan gālnesse and 11 ǣlce unrihtwīsnesse; and gescield mē wið mīnum wiðerwinnum, 12 gesewenlīcum and ungesewenlīcum; and tǣc mē 13 ðīnne willan tō wyrceanne; ðæt ic mæge ðē inweardlīce 14 lufian tōforan eallum ðingum, mid clǣnum geðance and 15 mid clǣnum līchaman. For ðon ðe ðū eart mīn Scieppend, 16 and mīn Alīesend, mīn Fultum, mīn Frōfor, mīn Trēownes, 17 and mīn Tōhopa. Sīe ðē lof and wuldor nū and 18 ā ā ā, tō worulde būtan ǣghwilcum ęnde. Amen.

[Linenotes:

3-4: #Marian ... Michaeles#. O.E. is inconsistent in the treatment of foreign names. They are sometimes naturalized, and sometimes retain in part their original inflections. #Marian#, an original accusative, is here used as a genitive; while #Michaeles# has the O.E. genitive ending.

17: #Sīe ðē lof#. See § 105, 1.]

III. THE VOYAGES OF OHTHERE AND WULFSTAN.

[Lauderdale and Cottonian MSS. These voyages are an original insertion by Alfred into his translation of Orosius’s _Compendious History of the World_.

“They consist,” says Ten Brink, “of a complete description of all the countries in which the Teutonic tongue prevailed at Alfred’s time, and a full narrative of the travels of two voyagers, which the king wrote down from their own lips. One of these, a Norwegian named Ohthere, had quite circumnavigated the coast of Scandinavia in his travels, and had even penetrated to the White Sea; the other, named Wulfstan, had sailed from Schleswig to Frische Haff. The geographical and ethnographical details of both accounts are exceedingly interesting, and their style is attractive, clear, and concrete.”

Ohthere made two voyages. Sailing first northward along the western coast of Norway, he rounded the North Cape, passed into the White Sea, and entered the Dwina River (#ān micel ēa#). On his second voyage he sailed southward along the western coast of Norway, entered the Skager Rack (#wīdsǣ#), passed through the Cattegat, and anchored at the Danish port of Haddeby (#æt Hǣþum#), modern Schleswig.

Wulfstan sailed only in the Baltic Sea. His voyage of seven days from Schleswig brought him to Drausen (#Trūsō#) on the shore of the Drausensea.]

[[page 103]]

#Ohthere’s First Voyage.#

1 Ōthęre sǣde his hlāforde, Ælfrede cyninge, þæt hē 2 ealra Norðmǫnna norþmest būde. Hē cwæð þæt hē būde 3 on þǣm lande norþweardum wiþ þā Westsæ. Hē sǣde 4 þēah þæt þæt land sīe swīþe lang norþ þonan; ac hit is 5 eal wēste, būton on fēawum stōwum styccemælum wīciað 6 Finnas, on huntoðe on wintra, ǫnd on sumera on fiscaþe 7 be þǣre sǣ. Hē sǣde þæt hē æt sumum cirre wolde 8 fandian hū lǫnge þæt land norþryhte lǣge, oþþe hwæðer 9 ǣnig mǫn be norðan þǣm wēstenne būde. Þā fōr hē 10 norþryhte be þǣm lande: lēt him ealne weg þæt wēste 11 land on ðæt stēorbord, ǫnd þā wīdsǣ on ðæt bæcbord þrīe 12 dagas. Þā wæs hē swā feor norþ swā þā hwælhuntan 13 firrest faraþ. Þā fōr hē þā gīet norþryhte swā feor swā 14 hē meahte on þǣm ōþrum þrīm dagum gesiglan. Þā bēag 15 þæt land þǣr ēastryhte, oþþe sēo sǣ in on ðæt lǫnd, hē 16 nysse hwæðer, būton hē wisse ðæt hē ðǣr bād westanwindes 17 ǫnd hwōn norþan, ǫnd siglde ðā ēast be lande 18 swā swā hē meahte on fēower dagum gesiglan. Þā 19 sceolde hē ðǣr bīdan ryhtnorþanwindes, for ðǣm þæt 20 land bēag þǣr sūþryhte, oþþe sēo sǣ in on ðæt land, hē 21 nysse hwæþer. Þā siglde hē þǫnan sūðryhte be lande

[[page 104]]

1 swā swā hē męhte[1] on fīf dagum gesiglan. Ðā læg þǣr 2 ān micel ēa ūp in on þæt land. Þā cirdon hīe ūp in on 3 ðā ēa, for þǣm hīe ne dorston forþ bī þǣre ēa siglan for 4 unfriþe; for þǣm ðæt land wæs eall gebūn on ōþre healfe 5 þǣre ēas. Ne mētte hē ǣr nān gebūn land, siþþan hē 6 frǫm his āgnum hām fōr; ac him wæs ealne weg wēste 7 land on þæt stēorbord, būtan fiscerum ǫnd fugelerum ōnd 8 huntum, ǫnd þæt wǣron eall Finnas; ǫnd him wæs ā 9 wīdsǣ on ðæt bæcbord. Þā Beormas hæfdon swīþe wel 10 gebūd hira land: ac hīe ne dorston þǣr on cuman. Ac 11 þāra Terfinna land wæs eal wēste, būton ðǣr huntan 12 gewīcodon, oþþe fisceras, oþþe fugeleras.

[1] = meahte, mihte.

[Linenotes:

104.6: #frǫm his āgnum hām#. An adverbial dative singular without an inflectional ending is found with #hām#, #dæg#, #morgen#, and #ǣfen#.

104.8: #ǫnd þæt wǣron#. See § 40, Note 3.]

13 Fela spella him sǣdon þā Beormas ǣgþer ge of hiera 14 āgnum lande ge of þǣm landum þe ymb hīe ūtan wǣron; 15 ac hē nyste hwæt þæs sōþes wæs, for þǣm hē hit self ne 16 geseah. Þā Finnas, him þūhte, ǫnd þā Beormas sprǣcon 17 nēah ān geþēode. Swīþost hē fōr ðider, tō ēacan þæs 18 landes scēawunge, for þǣm horshwælum, for ðǣm hīe 19 habbað swīþe æþele bān on hiora[2] tōþum--þā tēð hīe brōhton 20 sume þǣm cyninge--ǫnd hiora hȳd bið swīðe gōd tō 21 sciprāpum. Sē hwæl bið micle lǣssa þonne ōðre hwalas: 22 ne bið hē lęngra ðonne syfan[3] ęlna lang; ac on his āgnum 23 lande is sē bętsta hwælhuntað: þā bēoð eahta and fēowertiges 24 ęlna lange, and þā mǣstan fīftiges ęlna lange; 25 þāra hē sǣde þæt hē syxa sum ofslōge syxtig on twām 26 dagum.

[2] = hiera. [3] = seofon.

[Linenotes:

104.15: #hwæt þæs sōþes wæs#. Sweet errs in explaining #sōþes# as attracted into the genitive by #þæs#. It is not a predicate adjective, but a partitive genitive after #hwæt#.

104.25: #syxa sum#. See § 91, Note 2.]

[[page 105]]

1 Hē wæs swȳðe spēdig man on þǣm ǣhtum þe heora[2] 2 spēda on bēoð, þæt is, on wildrum. Hē hæfde þā gȳt, ðā 3 hē þone cyningc[5] sōhte, tamra dēora unbebohtra syx hund. 4 Þā dēor hī hātað ‘hrānas’; þāra wǣron syx stælhrānas; 5 ðā bēoð swȳðe dȳre mid Finnum, for ðǣm hȳ fōð þā 6 wildan hrānas mid. Hē wæs mid þǣm fyrstum mannum 7 on þǣm lande: næfde hē þēah mā ðonne twēntig hrȳðera, 8 and twēntig scēapa, and twēntig swȳna; and þæt lȳtle 9 þæt hē ęrede, hē ęrede mid horsan.[4] Ac hyra ār is mǣst 10 on þǣm gafole þe ðā Finnas him gyldað. Þæt gafol bið 11 on dēora fellum, and on fugela feðerum, and hwales bāne, 12 and on þǣm sciprāpum þe bēoð of hwæles hȳde geworht 13 and of sēoles. Ǣghwilc gylt be hys gebyrdum. Sē byrdesta 14 sceall gyldan fīftȳne mearðes fell, and fīf hrānes, 15 and ān beren fel, and tȳn ambra feðra, and berenne kyrtel 16 oððe yterenne, and twēgen sciprāpas; ǣgþer sȳ syxtig 17 ęlna lang, ōþer sȳ of hwæles hȳde geworht, ōþer of sīoles.[6]

[2] = hiera. [4] = horsum. [5] = cyning. [6] = sēoles.

[Linenote:

105.2: #on bēoð#. See § 94, (5).]

18 Hē sǣde ðæt Norðmanna land wǣre swȳþe lang and 19 swȳðe smæl. Eal þæt his man āðer oððe ęttan oððe ęrian 20 mæg, þæt līð wið ðā sǣ; and þæt is þēah on sumum 21 stōwum swȳðe clūdig; and licgað wilde mōras wið ēastan 22 and wið ūpp on emnlange þǣm bȳnum lande. On þǣm 23 mōrum eardiað Finnas. And þæt bȳne land is ēasteweard 24 brādost, and symle swā norðor swā smælre. Ēastewęrd[7] 25 hit mæg bīon[8] syxtig mīla brād, oþþe hwēne brǣdre; 26 and middeweard þrītig oððe brādre; and norðeweard hē 27 cwæð, þǣr hit smalost wǣre, þæt hit mihte bēon þrēora 28 mīla brād tō þǣm mōre; and sē mōr syðþan,[9] on sumum

[[page 106]]

1 stōwum, swā brād swā man mæg on twām wucum oferfēran; 2 and on sumum stōwum swā brād swā man mæg 3 on syx dagum oferfēran.

[7] = -weard. [8] = bēon. [9] = siððan.

[Linenote:

105.19: #Eal þæt his man#. Pronominal genitives are not always possessive in O.E.; #his# is here the partitive genitive of #hit#, the succeeding relative pronoun being omitted: _All that (portion) of it that may, either-of-the-two, either be grazed or plowed_, etc. (§ 70, Note).]

4 Ðonne is tōemnes þǣm lande sūðeweardum, on ōðre 5 healfe þæs mōres, Swēoland, oþ þæt land norðeweard; 6 and tōemnes þǣm lande norðeweardum, Cwēna land. Þā 7 Cwēnas hęrgiað hwīlum on ðā Norðmęn ofer ðone mōr, 8 hwīlum þā Norðmęn on hȳ. And þǣr sint swīðe micle 9 męras fersce geond þā mōras; and berað þā Cwēnas hyra 10 scypu ofer land on ðā męras, and þanon hęrgiað on ðā 11 Norðmęn; hȳ habbað swȳðe lȳtle scypa and swȳðe 12 leohte.

[Linenote:

106.11-12: #scypa ... leohte#. These words exhibit inflections more frequent in Late than in Early West Saxon. The normal forms would be #scypu#, #leoht#; but in Late West Saxon the -u of short-stemmed neuters is generally replaced by -a; and the nominative accusative plural neuter of adjectives takes, by analogy, the masculine endings; #hwate#, #gōde#, #hālge#, instead of #hwatu#, #gōd#, #hālgu#.]

#Ohthere’s Second Voyage.#

13 Ōhthęre sǣde þæt sīo[1] scīr hātte Hālgoland, þe hē on 14 būde. Hē cwæð þæt nān man ne būde be norðan him. 15 Þonne is ān port on sūðeweardum þǣm lande, þone man 16 hǣt Sciringeshēal. Þyder hē cwæð þæt man ne mihte 17 geseglian on ānum mōnðe, gyf man on niht wīcode, and 18 ǣlce dæge hæfde ambyrne wind; and ealle ðā hwīle hē 19 sceal seglian be lande. And on þæt stēorbord him bið 20 ǣrest Īraland, and þonne ðā īgland þe synd betux Īralande 21 and þissum lande. Þonne is þis land, oð hē cymð 22 tō Scirincgeshēale, and ealne weg on þæt bæcbord Norðweg.

[[page 107]]

1 Wið sūðan þone Sciringeshēal fylð swȳðe mycel 2 sǣ ūp in on ðæt land; sēo is brādre þonne ǣnig man ofer 3 sēon mæge. And is Gotland on ōðre healfe ongēan, and 4 siððan Sillęnde. Sēo sǣ līð mænig[2] hund mīla ūp in on 5 þæt land.

[1] = sēo. [2] = mǫnig.

6 And of Sciringeshēale hē cwæð ðæt hē seglode on fīf 7 dagan[3] tō þǣm porte þe mǫn hǣt æt Hǣþum; sē stęnt 8 betuh Winedum, and Seaxum, and Angle, and hȳrð in 9 on Dęne. Ðā hē þiderweard seglode fram Sciringeshēale, 10 þā wæs him on þæt bæcbord Dęnamearc and on 11 þæt stēorbord wīdsǣ þrȳ dagas; and þā, twēgen dagas ǣr 12 hē tō Hǣþum cōme, him wæs on þæt stēorbord Gotland, 13 and Sillęnde, and īglanda fela. On þǣm landum eardodon 14 Ęngle, ǣr hī hider on land cōman.[4] And hym wæs 15 ðā twēgen dagas on ðæt bæcbord þā īgland þe in on 16 Dęnemearce hȳrað.

[3] = dagum. [4] = cōmen.

[Linenotes:

107.7: #æt Hǣþum#. “This pleonastic use of _æt_ with names of places occurs elsewhere in the older writings, as in the Chronicle (552), ‘in þǣre stōwe þe is genęmned æt Searobyrg,’ where the _æt_ has been erased by some later hand, showing that the idiom had become obsolete. _Cp._ the German ‘Gasthaus zur Krone,’ Stamboul = _es tān pólin_.” (Sweet.) See, also, _Atterbury_, § 28, Note 3.

107.14-15: #wæs ... þā īgland#. The singular predicate is due again to inversion (p. 100, note on #gefeaht# [[linenote 100.8]]). The construction is comparatively rare in O.E., but frequent in Shakespeare and in the popular speech of to-day. Cf. _There is_, _Here is_, _There has been_, etc., with a (single) plural subject following.]

#Wulfstan’s Voyage.#

17 Wulfstān sǣde þæt hē gefōre of Hǣðum, þæt hē wǣre 18 on Trūsō on syfan dagum and nihtum, þæt þæt scip wæs 19 ealne weg yrnende under segle. Weonoðland him wæs

[[page 108]]

1 on stēorbord, and on bæcbord him wæs Langaland, and 2 Lǣland, and Falster, and Scōnēg; and þās land eall 3 hȳrað tō Dęnemearcan. And þonne Burgenda land wæs 4 ūs on bæcbord, and þā habbað him sylfe[1] cyning. Þonne 5 æfter Burgenda lande wǣron ūs þās land, þā synd hātene 6 ǣrest Blēcinga-ēg, and Mēore, and Ēowland, and Gotland 7 on bæcbord; and þās land hȳrað tō Swēom. And Weonodland 8 wæs ūs ealne weg on stēorbord oð Wīslemūðan. 9 Sēo Wīsle is swȳðe mycel ēa, and hīo[2] tōlīð Wītland and 10 Weonodland; and þæt Wītland belimpeð tō Estum; and 11 sēo Wīsle līð ūt of Weonodlande, and līð in Estmęre; 12 and sē Estmęre is hūru fīftēne[3] mīla brād. Þonne cymeð 13 Ilfing ēastan in Estmęre of ðām męre, ðe Trūsō standeð 14 in stæðe; and cumað ūt samod in Estmęre, Ilfing ēastan 15 of Estlande, and Wīsle sūðan of Winodlande. And 16 þonne benimð Wīsle Ilfing hire naman, and ligeð of þǣm 17 męre west and norð on sǣ; for ðȳ hit man hǣt 18 Wīslemūða.

[1] = selfe. [2] = hēo. [3] = fīftīene.

[Linenote:

108.1-4: #him ... ūs#. Note the characteristic change of person, the transition from _indirect_ to _direct discourse_.]

19 Þæt Estland is swȳðe mycel, and þǣr bið swȳðe manig 20 burh, and on ǣlcere byrig bið cyning. And þǣr bið 21 swȳðe mycel hunig, and fiscnað; and sē cyning and þā 22 rīcostan męn drincað mȳran meolc, and þā unspēdigan 23 and þā þēowan drincað medo.[4] Þǣr bið swȳðe mycel 24 gewinn betwēonan him. And ne bið ðǣr nǣnig ealo[5] 25 gebrowen mid Estum, ac þǣr bið medo genōh. And þǣr 26 is mid Estum ðēaw, þonne þǣr bið man dēad, þæt hē līð 27 inne unforbærned mid his māgum and frēondum mōnað, 28 ge hwīlum twēgen; and þā cyningas, and þā ōðre hēahðungene 29 męn, swā micle lęncg[6] swā hī māran spēda 30 habbað, hwīlum healf gēar þæt hī bēoð unforbærned, and

[[page 109]]

1 licgað bufan eorðan on hyra hūsum. And ealle þā hwīle 2 þe þæt līc bið inne, þǣr sceal bēon gedrync and plega, 3 oð ðone dæg þe hī hine forbærnað. Þonne þȳ ylcan dæge 4 þe hī hine tō þǣm āde beran wyllað, þonne tōdǣlað hī 5 his feoh, þæt þǣr tō lāfe bið æfter þǣm gedrynce and þǣm 6 plegan, on fīf oððe syx, hwȳlum on mā, swā swā þæs fēos 7 andēfn bið. Ālęcgað hit ðonne forhwæga on ānre mīle 8 þone mǣstan dǣl fram þǣm tūne, þonne ōðerne, ðonne 9 þone þriddan, oþ þe hyt eall ālēd bið on þǣre ānre mīle; 10 and sceall bēon sē lǣsta dǣl nȳhst þǣm tūne ðe sē dēada 11 man on lið. Ðonne sceolon[7] bēon gesamnode ealle ðā 12 męnn ðe swyftoste hors habbað on þǣm lande, forhwæga 13 on fīf mīlum oððe on syx mīlum fram þǣm fēo. Þonne 14 ærnað hȳ ealle tōweard þǣm fēo: ðonne cymeð sē man 15 sē þæt swiftoste hors hafað tō þǣm ǣrestan dǣle and tō 16 þǣm mǣstan, and swā ǣlc æfter ōðrum, oþ hit bið eall 17 genumen; and sē nimð þone lǣstan dǣl sē nȳhst þǣm 18 tūne þæt feoh geærneð. And þonne rīdeð ǣlc hys weges 19 mid ðǣm fēo, and hyt mōtan[8] habban eall; and for ðȳ 20 þǣr bēoð þā swiftan hors ungefōge dȳre. And þonne his 21 gestrēon bēoð þus eall āspęnded, þonne byrð man hine ūt, 22 and forbærneð mid his wǣpnum and hrægle; and swīðost

[[page 110]]

1 ealle hys spēda hȳ forspęndað mid þǣm langan legere 2 þæs dēadan mannes inne, and þæs þe hȳ be þǣm wegum 3 ālęcgað, þe ðā fręmdan tō ærnað, and nimað. And þæt 4 is mid Estum þēaw þæt þǣr sceal ǣlces geðēodes man 5 bēon forbærned; and gyf þār[9] man ān bān findeð unforbærned, 6 hī hit sceolan[7] miclum gebētan. And þǣr is mid 7 Estum ān mǣgð þæt hī magon cyle gewyrcan; and þȳ 8 þǣr licgað þā dēadan męn swā lange, and ne fūliað, þæt 9 hȳ wyrcað þone cyle him on. And þēah man āsętte 10 twēgen fǣtels full ealað oððe wæteres, hȳ gedōð þæt 11 ǣgþer bið oferfroren, sam hit sȳ sumor sam winter.

[4] = medu. [5] = ealu. [6] = lęng. [7] = sculon. [8] = mōton. [9] = ðǣr.

[Linenotes:

109.2: #sceal#. See § 137, Note 2 (2).

109.7: #Ālęcgað hit#. Bosworth illustrates thus:

vi v iv iii ii i 1 2 3 4 5 6 | | | | | | X | | | | | | XX X X | | | | | | XXX XX XX X X ------------------------------- XXXX XXX XXX XX XX X _e_ _d_ _c_ _b_ _a_ Where the horsemen The six parts of the property assemble. placed within one mile.

“The horsemen assemble five or six miles from the property, at _d_ or _e_, and run towards _c_; the man who has the swiftest horse, coming first to 1 or _c_, takes the first and largest part. The man who has the horse coming second takes part 2 or _b_, and so, in succession, till the least part, 6 or _a_, is taken.”

110.5-6: #man ... hī#. Here the plural #hī# refers to the singular #man#. _Cf._ p. 109, ll. 18-19, #ǣlc ... mōtan#. In _Exodus_ xxxii, 24, we find “_Whosoever_ hath any gold, let _them_ break it off”; and Addison writes, “I do not mean that I think _anyone_ to blame for taking due care of _their_ health.” The construction, though outlawed now, has been common in all periods of our language. Paul remarks (_Prinzipien der Sprachgeschichte_, 3d ed., § 186) that “When a word is used as an indefinite [one, man, somebody, etc.] it is, strictly speaking, incapable of any distinction of number. Since, however, in respect of the external form, a particular number has to be chosen, it is a matter of indifference which this is.... Hence a change of numbers is common in the different languages.” Paul fails to observe that the change is always from singular to plural, not from plural to singular. See _Note on the Concord of Collectives and Indefinites_ (Anglia XI, 1901). See p. 119, note on ll. 19-21.]

IV. THE STORY OF CÆDMON.

[From the so-called Alfredian version of Bede’s _Ecclesiastical History_. The text generally followed is that of MS. Bodley, Tanner 10. Miller (_Early English Text Society_, No. 95, _Introd._) argues, chiefly from the use of the prepositions, that the original O.E. MS. was Mercian, composed possibly in Lichfield (Staffordshire). At any rate, O.E. idiom is frequently sacrificed to the Latin original.

“Cædmon, as he is called, is the first Englishman whose name we know who wrote poetry in our island of England; and the first to embody in verse the new passions and ideas which Christianity had brought into England.... Undisturbed by any previous making of lighter poetry, he came fresh to the work of Christianising English song. It was a great step to make. He built the chariot in which all the new religious emotions of England could now drive along.” (Brooke, _The History of Early English Literature_, cap. XV.) There is no reason to doubt the historical existence of Cædmon; for Bede, who relates the story, lived near Whitby, and was seven years old when Cædmon died (A.D. 680)].

[[page 111]]

1 In ðysse abbudissan mynstre wæs sum brōðor syndriglīce 2 mid godcundre gife gemǣred ǫnd geweorðad, for þon 3 he gewunade gerisenlīce lēoð wyrcan, þā ðe tō ǣfęstnisse[1] 4 ǫnd tō ārfæstnisse belumpon; swā ðætte swā hwæt swā 5 hē of godcundum stafum þurh bōceras geleornode, þæt hē 6 æfter medmiclum fæce in scopgereorde mid þā mǣstan 7 swētnisse ǫnd inbryrdnisse geglęngde, ǫnd in Ęngliscgereorde 8 wel geworht forþ brōhte. Ǫnd for his lēoþsǫngum

[[page 112]]

1 mǫnigra mǫnna mōd oft to worulde forhogdnisse ǫnd tō 2 geþēodnisse þæs heofonlīcan līfes onbærnde wǣron. Ǫnd 3 ēac swelce[2] mǫnige ōðre æfter him in Ǫngelþēode ongunnon 4 ǣfęste lēoð wyrcan, ac nǣnig hwæðre him þæt gelīce 5 dōn ne meahte; for þon hē nālæs frǫm mǫnnum nē ðurh 6 mǫn gelǣred wæs þæt hē ðone lēoðcræft leornade, ac hē 7 wæs godcundlīce gefultumod, ǫnd þurh Godes gife þone 8 sǫngcræft onfēng; ǫnd hē for ðon nǣfre nōht lēasunge, 9 nē īdles lēoþes wyrcan ne meahte, ac efne þā ān ðā ðē tō 10 ǣfęstnisse[1] belumpon ǫnd his þā ǣfęstan tungan gedafenode 11 singan.

[1] = ǣfæstnesse. [2] = swilce.

[Linenotes:

111.1: #ðysse abbudissan.# The abbess referred to is the famous Hild, or Hilda, then living in the monastery at Streones-halh, which, according to Bede, means “Bay of the Beacon.” The Danes afterward gave it the name Whitby, or “White Town.” The surroundings were eminently fitted to nurture England’s first poet. “The natural scenery which surrounded him, the valley of the Esk, on whose sides he probably lived, the great cliffs, the billowy sea, the vast sky seen from the heights over the ocean, played incessantly upon him.” (Brooke.)

Note, also, in this connection, the numerous Latin words that the introduction of Christianity (A.D. 597) brought into the vocabulary of O.E.: #abbudisse#, #mynster#, #bisceop#, #Lǣden#, #prēost#, #æstel#, #mancus#.

112.4-5: The more usual order of words would be #ac nǣnig, hwæðre, ne meahte ðæt dōn gelīce him#.

112.10-11: #ǫnd his ... singan#, _and which it became his (the) pious tongue to sing_.]

12 Wæs hē, sē mǫn, in weoruldhāde[3] gesęted oð þā tīde þe 13 hē wæs gelȳfdre ylde, ǫnd nǣfre nǣnig lēoð geleornade. 14 Ǫnd hē for þon oft in gebēorscipe, þonne þǣr wæs blisse 15 intinga gedēmed, þæt hēo[4] ealle sceolden þurh ęndebyrdnesse 16 be hearpan singan, þonne hē geseah þā hearpan him 17 nēalēcan, þonne ārās hē for scǫme frǫm þǣm symble, 18 ǫnd hām ēode tō his hūse. Þā hē þæt þā sumre tīde 19 dyde, þæt hē forlēt þæt hūs þæs gebēorscipes, ǫnd ūt wæs

[[page 113]]

1 gǫngende tō nēata scipene, þāra heord him wæs þǣre 2 nihte beboden; þā hē ðā þǣr on gelimplīcre tīde his 3 leomu[5] on ręste gesętte ǫnd onslēpte, þa stōd him sum 4 mǫn æt þurh swefn, ǫnd hine hālette ǫnd grētte, ǫnd hine 5 be his nǫman nęmnde: “Cædmǫn, sing mē hwæthwugu.” 6 Þā ǫndswarede hē, ǫnd cwæð: “Ne cǫn ic nōht singan; 7 ǫnd ic for þon of þyssum gebēorscipe ūt ēode ǫnd hider 8 gewāt, for þon ic nāht singan ne cūðe.” Eft hē cwæð sē ðe 9 wið hine sprecende wæs: “Hwæðre þū meaht mē singan.” 10 Þā cwæð hē: “Hwæt sceal ic singan?” Cwæð hē: “Sing 11 mē frumsceaft.” Þā hē ðā þās andsware onfēng, þā 12 ongǫn hē sōna singan, in hęrenesse Godes Scyppendes, 13 þā fers ǫnd þā word þe hē nǣfre ne gehȳrde, þāra ęndebyrdnes 14 þis is:

[3] = woruldhāde. [4] = hīe. [5] = limu.

[Linenotes:

112.14-15: #blisse intinga#, _for the sake of joy_; but the translator has confused _laetitiae causā_ (ablative) and _laetitiae causa_ (nominative). The proper form would be #for blisse# with omission of #intingan#, just as _for my sake_ is usually #for mē#; _for his_ (_or their_) _sake_, #for him#. _Cf. Mark_ vi, 26: “Yet _for his oath’s sake, and for their sakes which sat with him_, he would not reject her,” #for ðǣm āðe, ǫnd for ðǣm þe him mid sǣton#. _For his sake_ is frequently #for his ðingon# (#ðingum#), rarely #for his intingan#. #Þingon# is regularly used when the preceding genitive is a noun denoting a person: _for my wife’s sake_, #for mīnes wīfes ðingon# (_Genesis_ xx, 11), etc.

112.18-19: #þæt ... þæt hē forlēt#. The substantival clause introduced by the second #þæt# amplifies by apposition the first #þæt#: _When he then, at a certain time_ (instrumental case, § 98, (2)), _did that, namely, when he left the house_. The better Mn.E. would be _this ... that_: “Added yet _this_ above all, _that_ he shut up John in prison” (_Luke_ iv, 20).

113.1-2: #þāra ... beboden#. This does not mean that Cædmon was a herdsman, but that he served in turn as did the other secular attendants at the monastery.

113.13-14: #þāra ęndebyrdnes þis is#. Bede writes _Hic est sensus, non autem ordo ipse verborum_, and gives in Latin prose a translation of the hymn from the Northumbrian dialect, in which Cædmon wrote. The O.E. version given above is, of course, not the Northumbrian original (which, however, with some variations is preserved in several of the Latin MSS. of Bede’s _History_), but a West Saxon version made also from the Northumbrian, not from the Latin.]

15 Nū sculon hęrigean[6] heofonrīces Weard, 16 Metodes meahte ǫnd his mōdgeþanc, 17 weorc Wuldorfæder, swā hē wundra gehwæs, 18 ēce Drihten ōr onstealde.

[[page 114]]

1 Hē ǣrest scēop eorðan bearnum 2 heofon tō hrōfe, hālig Scyppend; 3 þā middangeard mǫnncynnes Weard, 4 ēce Drihten, æfter tēode 5 fīrum foldan, Frēa ælmihtig.

[6] = hęrian.

[Linenotes:

113.15: #Nū sculon hęrigean#, _Now ought we to praise_. The subject #wē# is omitted in the best MSS. Note the characteristic use of synonyms, or epithets, in this bit of O.E. poetry. Observe that it is not the _thought_ that is repeated, but rather the _idea_, the _concept_, God. See p. 124. [[Poetry: Structure]]

113.17: #wundra gehwæs#. See p. 140, note on #cēnra gehwylcum# [[_Beowulf_ 769]].]

6 Þā ārās hē frǫm þǣm slǣpe, ǫnd eal þā þe hē slǣpende 7 sǫng fæste in gemynde hæfde; ǫnd þǣm wordum sōna 8 mǫnig word in þæt ilce gemet Gode wyrðes sǫnges 9 tōgeþēodde. Þā cōm hē on morgenne tō þǣm tūngerēfan, 10 sē þe his ealdormǫn wæs: sægde him hwylce gife hē 11 onfēng; ǫnd hē hine sōna tō þǣre abbudissan gelǣdde, 12 ǫnd hire þæt cȳðde ǫnd sægde. Þā heht hēo gesǫmnian 13 ealle þā gelǣredestan męn ǫnd þā leorneras, ǫnd him 14 ǫndweardum hēt sęcgan þæt swefn, ǫnd þæt lēoð singan, 15 þæt ealra heora[7] dōme gecoren wǣre, hwæt oððe hwǫnan 16 þæt cumen wǣre. Þā wæs him eallum gesewen, swā swā 17 hit wæs, þæt him wǣre frǫm Drihtne sylfum heofonlīc

[[page 115]]

1 gifu forgifen. Þā ręhton hęo[4] him ǫnd sægdon sum hālig 2 spell ǫnd godcundre lāre word: bebudon him þā, gif hē 3 meahte, þæt hē in swīnsunge lēoþsǫnges þæt gehwyrfde. 4 Þā hē ðā hæfde þā wīsan onfǫngne, þā ēode hē hām tō 5 his hūse, ǫnd cwōm eft on morgenne, ǫnd þȳ bętstan 6 lēoðe geglęnged him āsǫng ǫnd āgeaf þæt him beboden 7 wæs.

[4] = hīe. [7] = hiera.

[Linenotes:

114.7-9: #ǫnd þǣm wordum ... tōgeþēodde#, _and to those words he soon joined, in the same meter, many (other) words of song worthy of God_. But the translator has not only blundered over Bede’s Latin (_eis mox plura in eundem modum verba Deo digna carminis adjunxit_), but sacrificed still more the idiom of O.E. The predicate should not come at the end; #in# should be followed by the dative; and for #Gode wyrðes sǫnges# the better O.E. would be #sǫnges Godes wyrðes#. When used with the dative #wyrð# (#weorð#) usually means _dear_ (= _of worth_) _to_.

114.16: #þā ... gesewen#. We should expect #frǫm him eallum#; but the translator has again closely followed the Latin (_visumque est omnibus_), as later (in the _Conversion of Edwin_) he renders _Talis mihi videtur_ by #þyslīc mē is gesewen#. _Talis_ (#þyslīc#) agreeing with a following _vita_ (#līf#). Ælfric, however, with no Latin before him, writes that John #wearð ðā him# [= #frǫm Drihtene#] #inweardlīce gelufod#. It would seem that in proportion as a past participle has the force of an adjective, the _to_ relation may supplant the _by_ relation; just as we say _unknown to_ instead of _unknown by_, _unknown_ being more adjectival than participial. #Gesewen#, therefore, may here be translated _visible_, _evident_, _patent_ (= #gesynelīc#, #sweotol#); and #gelufod#, _dear_ (= #weorð#, #lēof#).

A survival of adjectival #gesewen# is found in Wycliffe’s _New Testament_ (1 _Cor._ xv, 5-8): “He was _seyn to_ Cephas, and aftir these thingis _to_ enleuene; aftirward he was _seyn to_ mo than fyue hundrid britheren togidere ... aftirward he was _seyn to_ James, and aftirward _to_ alle the apostlis. And last of alle he was _seyn to_ me, as _to_ a deed borun child.” The construction is frequent in Chaucer.]

8 Ðā ongan sēo abbudisse clyppan ǫnd lufigean[8] þā Godes 9 gife in þǣm męn, ǫnd hēo hine þā mǫnade ǫnd lǣrde 10 þæt hē woruldhād forlēte ǫnd munuchād onfēnge: ǫnd 11 hē þæt wel þafode. Ǫnd hēo hine in þæt mynster onfēng 12 mid his gōdum, ǫnd hine geþēodde tō gesǫmnunge þāra 13 Godes þēowa, ǫnd heht hine lǣran þæt getæl þæs hālgan 14 stǣres ǫnd spelles. Ǫnd hē eal þā hē in gehȳrnesse 15 geleornian meahte, mid hine gemyndgade, ǫnd swā swā 16 clǣne nēten[9] eodorcende in þæt swēteste lēoð gehwyrfde. 17 Ǫnd his sǫng ǫnd his lēoð wǣron swā wynsumu tō gehȳranne, 18 þætte þā seolfan[10] his lārēowas æt his mūðe writon 19 ǫnd leornodon. Sǫng hē ǣrest be middangeardes gesceape, 20 ǫnd bī fruman mǫncynnes, ǫnd eal þæt stǣr Genesis (þæt 21 is sēo ǣreste Moyses bōc); ǫnd eft bī ūtgǫnge Israhēla 22 folces of Ǣgypta lǫnde, ǫnd bī ingǫnge þæs gehātlandes; 23 ǫnd bī ōðrum mǫnegum spellum þæs hālgan gewrites

[[page 116]]

1 canōnes bōca; ǫnd bī Crīstes męnniscnesse, ǫnd bī his 2 þrōwunge, ǫnd bī his ūpāstīgnesse in heofonas; ǫnd bī 3 þæs Hālgan Gāstes cyme, ǫnd þāra apostola lāre; ǫnd eft 4 bī þǣm dæge þæs tōweardan dōmes, ǫnd bī fyrhtu þæs 5 tintreglīcan wītes, ǫnd bī swētnesse þæs heofonlīcan rīces, 6 hē monig lēoð geworhte; ǫnd swelce[2] ēac ōðer mǫnig be 7 þǣm godcundan fręmsumnessum ǫnd dōmum hē geworhte. 8 In eallum þǣm hē geornlīce gēmde[11] þæt hē męn ātuge 9 frǫm synna lufan ǫnd māndǣda, ǫnd tō lufan ǫnd tō 10 geornfulnesse āwęhte gōdra dǣda, for þon hē wæs, sē 11 mǫn, swīþe ǣfęst ǫnd regollīcum þēodscipum ēaðmōdlīce 12 underþēoded; ǫnd wið þǣm þā ðe in ōðre wīsan dōn woldon, 13 hē wæs mid welme[12] micelre ęllenwōdnisse onbærned. 14 Ǫnd hē for ðon fægre ęnde his līf betȳnde ǫnd geęndade.

[2] = swilce. [8] = lufian. [9] = nīeten. [10] = selfan. [11] = gīemde. [12] = wielme.

[Linenotes:

115.9-10: #ǫnd hēo hine þā mǫnade ... munuchād onfēnge#. Hild’s advice has in it the suggestion of a personal experience, for she herself had lived half of her life (thirty-three years) “before,” says Bede, “she dedicated the remaining half to our Lord in a monastic life.”

116.6: #hē mǫnig lēoð geworhte#. The opinion is now gaining ground that of these “many poems” only the short hymn, already given, has come down to us. Of other poems claimed for Cædmon, the strongest arguments are advanced in favor of a part of the fragmentary poetical paraphrase of _Genesis_.]

V. ALFRED’S PREFACE TO THE PASTORAL CARE.

[Based on the Hatton MS. Of the year 597, the _Chronicle_ says: “In this year, Gregory the Pope sent into Britain Augustine with very many monks, who gospelled [preached] God’s word to the English folk.” Gregory I, surnamed “The Great,” has ever since been considered the apostle of English Christianity, and his _Pastoral Care_, which contains instruction in conduct and doctrine for all bishops, was a work that Alfred could not afford to leave untranslated. For this translation Alfred wrote a _Preface_, the historical value of which it would be hard to overrate. In it he describes vividly the intellectual ruin that the Danes had wrought, and develops at the same time his plan for repairing that ruin.

This _Preface_ and the _Battle of Ashdown_ (p. 99) show the great king in his twofold character of warrior and statesman, and justify the inscription on the base of the statue erected to him in 1877, at Wantage (Berkshire), his birth-place: “Ælfred found Learning dead, and he restored it; Education neglected, and he revived it; the laws powerless, and he gave them force; the Church debased, and he raised it; the Land ravaged by a fearful Enemy, from which he delivered it. Ælfred’s name will live as long as mankind shall respect the Past.”]

[[page 117]]

1 Ælfred kyning hāteð grētan Wærferð biscep[1] his wordum 2 luflīce ǫnd frēondlīce; ǫnd ðē cȳðan hāte ðæt mē cōm 3 swīðe oft on gemynd, hwelce[2] witan īu[3] wǣron giond[4] 4 Angelcynn, ǣgðer ge godcundra hāda ge woruldcundra; 5 ǫnd hū gesǣliglīca tīda ðā wǣron giond Angelcynn; ǫnd 6 hū ðā kyningas ðe ðone onwald hæfdon ðæs folces on 7 ðām dagum Gode ǫnd his ǣrendwrecum hērsumedon[5]; 8 ǫnd hū hīe ǣgðer ge hiora sibbe ge hiora siodo[6] ge hiora 9 onweald innanbordes gehīoldon,[4] ǫnd ēac ūt hiora ēðel 10 gerȳmdon; ǫnd hū him ðā spēow ǣgðer ge mid wīge ge 11 mid wīsdōme; ǫnd ēac ða godcundan hādas hū giorne 12 hīe wǣron ǣgðer ge ymb lāre ge ymb liornunga, ge ymb 13 ealle ðā ðīowotdōmas ðe hīe Gode dōn scoldon; ǫnd hū 14 man ūtanbordes wīsdōm ǫnd lāre hieder on lǫnd sōhte, 15 ǫnd hū wē hīe nū sceoldon ūte begietan, gif wē hīe habban 16 sceoldon. Swǣ[7] clǣne hīo wæs oðfeallenu on Angelcynne 17 ðæt swīðe fēawa wǣron behionan Humbre ðe hiora ðēninga 18 cūðen understǫndan on Ęnglisc oððe furðum ān ǣrendgewrit 19 of Lǣdene on Ęnglisc āręccean; ǫnd ic wēne ðætte 20 nōht mǫnige begiondan Humbre nǣren. Swǣ[7] fēawa 21 hiora wǣron ðæt ic furðum ānne ānlēpne[8] ne mæg geðencean

[[page 118]]

1 be sūðan Tęmese, ðā ðā ic tō rīce fēng. Gode ælmihtegum 2 sīe ðǫnc ðætte wē nū ǣnigne onstāl habbað 3 lārēowa. Ǫnd for ðon ic ðē bebīode ðæt ðū dō swǣ[7] ic 4 gelīefe ðæt ðū wille, ðæt ðū ðē ðissa woruldðinga tō ðǣm 5 geǣmetige, swǣ ðū oftost mæge, ðæt ðū ðone wīsdōm ðe 6 ðē God sealde ðǣr ðǣr ðū hiene befæstan mæge, befæste. 7 Geðęnc hwelc[9] wītu ūs ðā becōmon for ðisse worulde, ðā 8 ðā wē hit nōhwæðer nē selfe ne lufodon, nē ēac ōðrum 9 mǫnnum ne lēfdon[10]: ðone naman ānne wē lufodon ðætte 10 wē Crīstne wǣren, ǫnd swīðe fēawe ðā ðēawas.

[1] = bisceop. [2] = hwilce. [3] = gīu. [4] = For all words with _io_ (_īo_), consult Glossary under _eo_ (_ēo_). [5] = hīersumedon. [6] = sidu (siodu). [7] = swā. [8] = ānlīpigne. [9] = hwilc. [10] = līefdon.

[Linenotes:

117.1-2: #Ælfred kyning hāteð ... hāte#. Note the change from the formal and official third person (#hāteð#) to the more familiar first person (#hāte#). So Ælfric, in his _Preface to Genesis_, writes #Ælfric munuc grēt Æðelwærd ealdormann ēadmōdlīce. Þū bǣde mē, lēof, þæt ic#, etc.: _Ælfric, monk, greets Æthelweard, alderman, humbly. Thou, beloved, didst bid me that I_, etc.

118.5: Notice that #mæge# (l. 5) and #mæge# (l. 6) are not in the subjunctive because the sense requires it, but because they have been attracted by #gǣmetige# and #befæste#. #Sīen# (p. 119, l. 15) and #hæbben# (p. 119, l. 20) illustrate the same construction.

118.9-10: _We liked only the reputation of being Christians, very few_ (_of us_) _the Christian virtues_.]

11 Ðā ic ðā ðis eall gemunde, ðā gemunde ic ēac hū ic 12 geseah, ǣr ðǣm ðe hit eall forhęrgod wǣre ǫnd forbærned, 13 hū ðā ciricean giond eall Angelcynn stōdon 14 māðma ǫnd bōca gefylda, ǫnd ēac micel męnigeo[11] Godes 15 ðīowa; ǫnd ðā swīðe lȳtle fiorme ðāra bōca wiston, for 16 ðǣm ðe hīe hiora nānwuht[12] ongietan ne meahton, for 17 ðǣm ðe hīe nǣron on hiora āgen geðīode awritene. 18 Swelce[13] hīe cwǣden: “Ure ieldran, ðā ðe ðās stōwa ǣr 19 hīoldon, hīe lufodon wīsdōm, ǫnd ðurh ðone hīe begēaton 20 welan, ǫnd ūs lǣfdon. Hēr mǫn mæg gīet gesīon hiora 21 swæð, ac wē him ne cunnon æfter spyrigean,[14] ǫnd for 22 ðǣm wē habbað nū ǣgðer forlǣten ge ðone welan ge ðone 23 wīsdōm, for ðǣm ðe wē noldon tō ðǣm spore mid ūre 24 mōde onlūtan.”

[11] = męnigu. [12] = nānwiht. [13] = swilce. [14] = spyrian.

25 Ðā ic ðā ðis eall gemunde, ðā wundrade ic swīðe swīðe 26 ðāra gōdena wiotona[15] ðe gīu wǣron giond Angelcynn, ǫnd 27 ðā bēc ealla be fullan geliornod hæfdon, ðæt hīe hiora ðā

[[page 119]]

1 nǣnne dǣl noldon on hiora āgen geðīode węndan. Ac 2 ic ðā sōna eft mē selfum andwyrde, ǫnd cwæð: “Hīe ne 3 wēndon þætte ǣfre męnn sceolden swǣ[7] reccelēase weorðan, 4 ǫnd sīo lār swǣ oðfeallan; for ðǣre wilnunga hīe 5 hit forlēton, ǫnd woldon ðæt hēr ðȳ māra wīsdōm on 6 lǫnde wǣre ðȳ wē mā geðēoda cūðon.”

[7] = swā. [15] = witena.

7 Ðā gemunde ic hū sīo ǣ wæs ǣrest on Ebrēisc geðīode 8 funden, ǫnd eft, ðā hīe Crēacas geliornodon, ðā węndon 9 hīe hīe on hiora āgen geðīode ealle, ǫnd ēac ealle ōðre 10 bēc. Ǫnd eft Lǣdenware swǣ same, siððan hīe hīe geliornodon, 11 hīe hīe węndon ealla ðurh wīse wealhstōdas 12 on hiora āgen geðīode. Ǫnd ēac ealla ōðra Crīstena 13 ðīoda sumne dǣl hiora on hiora āgen geðīode węndon. 14 For ðȳ mē ðyncð bętre, gif īow swǣ ðyncð, ðæt wē ēac 15 suma bēc, ðā ðe nīedbeðearfosta sīen eallum mǫnnum 16 tō wiotonne,[16] ðæt wē ðā on ðæt geðīode węnden ðe wē 17 ealle gecnāwan mægen, ǫnd gedōn swǣ wē swīðe ēaðe 18 magon mid Godes fultume, gif wē ðā stilnesse habbað, 19 ðætte eall sīo gioguð ðe nū is on Angelcynne friora 20 mǫnna, ðāra ðe ðā spēda hæbben ðæt hīe ðǣm befēolan 21 mægen, sīen tō liornunga oðfæste, ðā hwīle ðe hīe tō

[[page 120]]

1 nānre ōðerre note ne mægen, oð ðone first ðe hīe wel 2 cunnen Ęnglisc gewrit ārǣdan: lǣre mǫn siððan furður 3 on Lǣdengeðīode ðā ðe mǫn furðor lǣran wille, ǫnd tō 4 hīerran hāde dōn wille. Ðā ic ðā gemunde hū sīo lār 5 Lǣdengeðīodes ǣr ðissum āfeallen wæs giond Angelcynn, 6 ǫnd ðeah mǫnige cūðon Ęnglisc gewrit ārǣdan, ðā 7 ongan ic ongemang oðrum mislīcum ǫnd manigfealdum 8 bisgum ðisses kynerīces ðā bōc węndan on Ęnglisc ðe is 9 genęmned on Lǣden “Pastoralis,” ǫnd on Ęnglisc “Hierdebōc,” 10 hwīlum word be worde, hwīlum andgit of andgiete, 11 swǣ swǣ ic hīe geliornode æt Plegmunde mīnum 12 ærcebiscepe, ǫnd æt Assere mīnum biscepe, ǫnd æt Grimbolde 13 mīnum mæsseprīoste, ǫnd æt Iōhanne mīnum mæsseprēoste. 14 Siððan ic hīe ðā geliornod hæfde, swǣ swǣ 15 ic hīe forstōd, ǫnd swǣ ic hīe andgitfullīcost āręccean 16 meahte, ic hīe on Ęnglisc āwęnde; ǫnd tō ǣlcum biscepstōle 17 on mīnum rīce wille āne onsęndan; ǫnd on ǣlcre 18 bið ān æstel, sē bið on fīftegum mancessa. Ǫnd ic bebīode 19 on Godes naman ðæt nān mǫn ðone æstel frǫm 20 ðǣre bēc ne dō, nē ðā bōc frǫm ðǣm mynstre; uncūð hū 21 lǫnge ðǣr swǣ gelǣrede biscepas sīen, swǣ swǣ nū, Gode 22 ðonc, wel hwǣr siendon. For ðȳ ic wolde ðætte hīe ealneg

[[page 121]]

1 æt ðǣre stōwe wǣren, būton sē biscep hīe mid him 2 habban wille, oððe hīo hwǣr tō lǣne sīe, oððe hwā ōðre 3 bī wrīte.

[16] = witanne.

[Linenotes:

119.14: Alfred is here addressing the bishops collectively, and hence uses the plural #īow# (= #ēow#), not #þē#.

119.16: #ðæt wē ðā#. These three words are not necessary to the sense. They constitute the figure known as epanalepsis, in which “the same word or phrase is repeated after one or more intervening words.” #Þā# is the pronominal substitute for #suma bēc#.

119.17: #Gedōn# is the first person plural subjunctive (from infinitive #gedōn#). It and #węnden# are in the same construction. Two things seem “better” to Alfred: (1) _that we translate_, etc., (2) _that we cause_, etc.

119.19-21: #sīo gioguð ... is ... hīe ... sīen#. Notice how the collective noun, #gioguð#, singular at first both in form and function, gradually loses its oneness before the close of the sentence is reached, and becomes plural. The construction is entirely legitimate in Mn.E. Spanish is the only modern language known to me that condemns such an idiom: “Spanish ideas of congruity do not permit a collective noun, though denoting a plurality, to be accompanied by a plural verb or adjective in the same clause” (Ramsey, _Text-Book of Modern Spanish_, § 1452).

120.2: #lǣre mǫn#. See § 105, 1.

120.11-13: That none of these advisers of the king, except Plegmond, a Mercian, were natives, bears out what Alfred says about the scarcity of learned men in England when he began to reign. Asser, to whose Latin _Life of Alfred_, in spite of its mutilations, we owe almost all of our knowledge of the king, came from St. David’s (in Wales), and was made Bishop of Sherborne.

121.1: Translate #ǣt ðǣre stōwe# by _each in its place_. The change from plural #hīe# (in #hīe ... wǣren#) to singular #hīe# (in the clauses that follow) will thus be prepared for.

121.2-3: #oððe hwā ōðre bī wrīte#, _or unless some one wish to copy a new one_ (_write thereby another_).]

POETRY.

INTRODUCTORY.

[Transcriber’s Note:

In Section II., Structure, the stress markers ´ and ` are intended to display above the macron – or breve ˘:

–́ × –̀

Some computers will instead show them after (to the right of) the macron. “Resolved stress” (two short syllables acting as one long) is shown with a double breve below the syllables:

˘́͜×

If your computer does not have this character, it will probably display a box or question mark between the two syllables.]

I. HISTORY.

(a) #Old English Poetry as a Whole.#

Northumbria was the home of Old English poetry. Beginning with Cædmon and his school A.D. 670, Northumbria maintained her poetical supremacy till A.D. 800, seven years before which date the ravages of the Danes had begun. When Alfred ascended the throne of Wessex (871), the Danes had destroyed the seats of learning throughout the whole of Northumbria. As Whitby had been “the cradle of English poetry,” Winchester (Alfred’s capital) became now the cradle of English prose; and the older poems that had survived the fire and sword of the Vikings were translated from the original Northumbrian dialect into the West Saxon dialect. It is, therefore, in the West Saxon dialect that these poems[1] have come down to us.

Old English poetry contains in all only about thirty thousand lines; but it includes epic, lyric, didactic, elegiac, and allegorical poems, together with war-ballads, paraphrases, riddles, and charms. Of the five elegiac poems (_Wanderer_, _Seafarer_, _Ruin_, _Wife’s Complaint_, and _Husband’s Message_), the _Wanderer_ is the most artistic, and best portrays the gloomy contrast between past happiness and present grief so characteristic of the Old English lyric.

Old English literature has no love poems. The central themes of its poets are battle and bereavement, with a certain grim resignation on the part of the hero to the issues of either. The movement of the thought is usually abrupt, there being a noticeable poverty of transitional particles, or connectives, “which,” says Ten Brink, “are the cement of sentence-structure.”

(b) #Beowulf.#

The greatest of all Old English poems is the epic, _Beowulf_.[2] It consists of more than three thousand lines, and probably assumed approximately its present form in Northumbria about A.D. 700. It is a crystallization of continental myths; and, though nothing is said of England, the story is an invaluable index to the social, political, and ethical ideals of our Germanic ancestors before and after they settled along the English coast. It is most poetical, and its testimony is historically most valuable, in the character-portraits that it contains. The fatalism that runs through it, instead of making the characters weak and less human, serves at times rather to dignify and elevate them. “Fate,” says Beowulf (l. 572), recounting his battle with the sea-monsters, “often saves an undoomed man _if his courage hold out_.”

“The ethical essence of this poetry,” says Ten Brink, “lies principally in the conception of manly virtue, undismayed courage, the stoical encounter with death, silent submission to fate, in the readiness to help others, in the clemency and liberality of the prince toward his thanes, and the self-sacrificing loyalty with which they reward him.”

NOTE 1.--Many different interpretations have been put upon the story of _Beowulf_ (for argument of story, see texts). Thus Müllenhoff sees in Grendel the giant-god of the storm-tossed equinoctial sea, while Beowulf is the Scandinavian god Freyr, who in the spring drives back the sea and restores the land. Laistner finds the prototype of Grendel in the noxious exhalations that rise from the Frisian coast-marshes during the summer months; Beowulf is the wind-hero, the autumnal storm-god, who dissipates the effluvia.

[Footnote 1: This does not, of course, include the few short poems in the _Chronicle_, or that portion of _Genesis_ (_Genesis B_) supposed to have been put directly into West Saxon from an Old Saxon original. There still remain in Northumbrian the version of _Cædmon’s Hymn_, fragments of the _Ruthwell Cross_, _Bede’s Death-Song_, and the _Leiden Riddle_.]

[Footnote 2: The word _bēowulf_, says Grimm, meant originally _bee-wolf_, or _bee-enemy_, one of the names of the woodpecker. Sweet thinks the bear was meant. But the word is almost certainly a compound of _Bēow_ (cf. O.E. #bēow# = grain), a Danish demigod, and _wulf_ used as a mere suffix.]

II. STRUCTURE.

(a) #Style.#

In the structure of Old English poetry the most characteristic feature is the constant repetition of the idea (sometimes of the thought) with a corresponding variation of phrase, or epithet. When, for example, the Queen passes into the banquet hall in _Beowulf_, she is designated at first by her name, #Wealhþēow#; she is then described in turn as #cwēn Hrōðgāres# (_Hrothgar’s queen_), #gold-hroden# (_the gold-adorned_), #frēolīc wīf# (_the noble woman_), #ides Helminga# (_the Helmings’ lady_), #bēag-hroden cwēn# (_the ring-adorned queen_), #mōde geþungen# (_the high-spirited_), and #gold-hroden frēolīcu folc-cwēn# (_the gold-adorned, noble folk-queen_).

And whenever the sea enters largely into the poet’s verse, not content with simple (uncompounded) words (such as #sǣ#, #lagu#, #holm#, #strēam#, #męre#, etc.), he will use numerous other equivalents (phrases or compounds), such as #waþema gebind# (_the commingling of waves_), #lagu-flōd# (_the sea-flood_), #lagu-strǣt# (_the sea-street_), #swan-rād# (_the swan-road_), etc. These compounds are usually nouns, or adjectives and participles used in a sense more appositive than attributive.

It is evident, therefore, that this abundant use of compounds, or periphrastic synonyms, grows out of the desire to repeat the idea in varying language. It is to be observed, also, that the Old English poets rarely make any studied attempt to balance phrase against phrase or clause against clause. Theirs is a repetition of idea, rather than a parallelism of structure.

NOTE 1.--It is impossible to tell how many of these synonymous expressions had already become stereotyped, and were used, like many of the epithets in the _Iliad_ and _Odyssey_, purely as padding. When, for example, the poet tells us that at the most critical moment Beowulf’s sword failed him, adding in the same breath, #īren ǣr-gōd# (_matchless blade_), we conclude that the bard is either nodding or parroting.

(b) #Meter.#

[Re-read § 10, (3).]

_Primary Stress._

Old English poetry is composed of certain rhythmically ordered combinations of accented and unaccented syllables. The accented syllable (the arsis) is usually long, and will be indicated by the macron with the acute accent over it (–́); when short, by the breve with the same accent (˘́). The unaccented syllable or syllables (the thesis) may be long or short, and will be indicated by the oblique cross (×).

_Secondary Stress._

A secondary accent, or stress, is usually put upon the second member of compound and derivative nouns, adjectives, and adverbs. This will be indicated by the macron with the grave accent, if the secondary stress falls on a long syllable (–̀); by the breve with the same accent, if the secondary stress falls on a short syllable (˘̀).

Nouns:

Hrōðgāres (–́–̀×), fēondgrāpum (–́–̀×), frēomǣgum (–́–̀×), Ēast-Dęna (–́˘̀×), Helminga (–́–̀×), Scyldinga (–́–̀×), ānhaga (–́˘̀×), Ecgþēowes (–́–̀×), sinc-fato (–́˘̀×).

Adjectives:[1]

ǣghwylcne (–́–̀×), þrīsthȳdig (–́–̀×), gold-hroden (–́˘̀×), drēorigne (–́–̀×), gyldenne (–́–̀×), ōðerne (–́–̀×), gǣstlīcum (–́–̀×), wynsume (–́˘̀×), ǣnigne (–́–̀×).

Adverbs:[2]

unsōfte (–́–̀×), heardlīce (–́–̀×), sęmninga (–́–̀×).

The Old English poets place also a secondary accent upon the ending of present participles (#-ende#), and upon the penultimate of weak verbs of the second class (§ 130), provided the root-syllable is long.[3]

Present participles:

slǣpendne (–́–̀×), wīs-hycgende (–́–́–̀×), flēotendra (–́–̀×), hrēosende (–́–̀×).

Weak verbs:

swynsode (–́˘̀×), þancode (–́˘̀×), wānigean (–́˘̀×), scēawian (–́˘̀×), scēawige (–́˘̀×), hlīfian (–́˘̀×).

[Footnote 1: It will be seen that the adjectives are chiefly derivatives in -ig, -en, -er, -līc, and -sum.]

[Footnote 2: Most of the adverbs belonging here end in #-līce#, #-unga#, and #-inga#, § 93, (1), (2): such words as #æt-gǽdere#, #on-gḗan#, #on-wég#, #tō-gḗanes#, #tō-míddes#, etc., are invariably accented as here indicated.]

[Footnote 3: It will save the student some trouble to remember that this means long by nature (#līcodon#), or long by position (#swynsode#), or long by resolution of stress (#maðelode#),--see next paragraph.]

_Resolved Stress._

A short accented syllable followed in the same word by an unaccented syllable (usually short also) is equivalent to one long accented syllable (˘́× = –́). This is known as a resolved stress, and will be indicated thus, ˘́͜×;

hæleða (˘́͜͜××), guman (˘́͜×), Gode (˘́͜×), sęle-ful (˘́͜××), ides (˘́͜×), fyrena (˘́͜××), maðelode (˘́͜×˘̀×), hogode (˘́͜××), mægen-ęllen (˘́͜×–̀×), hige-þihtigne (˘́͜×–́–̀×), Metudes (˘́͜××), lagulāde (˘́͜×–̀×), unlyfigendes (–́˘́͜×–̀×), biforan (×˘́͜×), forþolian (×˘́͜××), baðian (˘́͜××), worolde (˘́͜–×).

Resolution of stress may also attend secondary stresses:

sinc-fato (–́˘̀͜×), dryht-sęle (–́˘̀͜×), ferðloca (–́˘̀͜×), forðwege (–́˘̀͜×).

_The Normal Line._

Every normal line of Old English poetry has four primary accents, two in the first half-line and two in the second half-line. These half-lines are separated by the cesura and united by alliteration, the alliterative letter being found in the first stressed syllable of the second half-line. This syllable, therefore, gives the cue to the scansion of the whole line. It is also the only alliterating syllable in the second half-line. The first half-line, however, usually has two alliterating syllables, but frequently only one (the ratio being about three to two in the following selections). When the first half-line contains but one alliterating syllable, that syllable marks the first stress, rarely the second. The following lines are given in the order of their frequency:

(1) þǣr wæs _h_ǽleða _h_léahtor; _h_lýn swýnsode. (2) _m_ṓde geþúngen, _m_édo-ful ætbǽr. (3) sṓna þæt on_f_únde _f_ýrena hýrde.

Any initial vowel or diphthong may alliterate with any other initial vowel or diphthong; but a consonant requires the same consonant, except st, sp, and sc, each of which alliterates only with itself.

Remembering, now, that either half-line (especially the second) may begin with several unaccented syllables (these syllables being known in types A, D, and E as the _anacrusis_), but that neither half-line can end with more than one unaccented syllable, the student may begin at once to read and properly accentuate Old English poetry. It will be found that the alliterative principle does not operate mechanically, but that the poet employs it for the purpose of emphasizing the words that are really most important. Sound is made subservient to sense.

When, from the lack of alliteration, the student is in doubt as to what word to stress, let him first get the exact meaning of the line, and then put the emphasis on the word or words that seem to bear the chief burden of the poet’s thought.

NOTE 1.--A few lines, rare or abnormal in their alliteration or lack of alliteration, may here be noted. In the texts to be read, there is one line with no alliteration: _Wanderer_ 58; three of the type _a ··· b_ | _a ··· b_: _Beowulf_ 654, 830, 2746; one of the type _a ··· a_ | _b ··· a_: _Beowulf_ 2744; one of the type _a ··· a_ | _b ··· c_: _Beowulf_ 2718; and one of the type _a ··· b_ | _c ··· a_: _Beowulf_ 2738.

_The Five Types._

By an exhaustive comparative study of the metrical unit in Old English verse, the half-line, Professor Eduard Sievers,[4] of the University of Leipzig, has shown that there are only five types, or varieties, employed. These he classifies as follows, the perpendicular line serving to separate the so-called feet, or measures:

1. A –́ × | –́ ×

2. B × –́ | × –́

3. C × –́ | –́ ×

4. D { D^1 –́ | –́ –̀ × { D^2 –́ | –́ × –̀

5. E { E^1 –́ –̀ × | –́ { E^2 –́ × –̀ | –́

It will be seen (1) that each half-line contains two, and only two, feet; (2) that each foot contains one, and only one, primary stress; (3) that A is trochaic, B iambic; (4) that C is iambic-trochaic; (5) that D and E consist of the same feet but in inverse order.

[Footnote 4: Sievers’ two articles appeared in the _Beiträge zur Geschichte der deutschen Sprache und Literatur_, Vols. X (1885) and XII (1887). A brief summary, with slight modifications, is found in the same author’s _Altgermanische Metrik_, pp. 120-144 (1893).

Before attempting to employ Sievers’ types, the student would do well to read several pages of Old English poetry, taking care to accentuate according to the principles already laid down. In this way his ear will become accustomed to the rhythm of the line, and he will see more clearly that Sievers’ work was one primarily of systematization. Sievers himself says: “I had read Old English poetry for years exactly as I now scan it, and long before I had the slightest idea that what I did instinctively could be formulated into a system of set rules.” (_Altgermanische Metrik_, _Vorwort_, p. 10.)]

_The Five Types Illustrated._

[[Transcriber’s Note: In the printed book, all examples line up vertically at the main |.]]

[All the illustrations, as hitherto, are taken from the texts to be read. The figures prefixed indicate whether first or second half-line is cited. B = _Beowulf_; W = _Wanderer_.]

1. TYPE A, –́ × | –́ ×

Two or more unaccented syllables (instead of one) may intervene between the two stresses, but only one may follow the last stress. If the thesis in either foot is the second part of a compound it receives, of course, a secondary stress.

NOTE.--Rare forms of A are –́ –̀ × | –́ × (does not occur in texts), –́ –̀ × | –́ –̀ (occurs once, B. 781 (1)), and –́ × –̀ | –́ × (once, B. 2743 (1)).

[Footnote 5: The first perpendicular marks the limit of the anacrusis.]

2. TYPE B, × –́ | × –́

Two, but not more than two, unaccented syllables may intervene between the stresses. The type of B most frequently occurring is × × –́ | × –́.

(1) ǫnd þā frēolīc wīf, B. 616, × × –́ | × –́ (2) hē on lust geþeah, B. 619, × × –́ | × –́ (2) þā se æðeling gīong, B. 2716, × × ˘́͜× | × –́ (2) seah on ęnta geweorc, B. 2718, × × –́ | × × –́ (1) ofer flōda genipu, B. 2809, × × –́ | × × ˘́͜× (1) forþam mē wītan ne þearf, B. 2742, × × × –́ | × × –́ (2) þaes þe hire se willa gelamp, B. 627, × × × × × –́ | × × –́ (1) forþon ne mæg weorþan wīs, W. 64, × × × × –́ | × –́ (1) Nǣfre ic ǣnegum [= ǣn’gum] męn, B. 656, × × × –́ | × –́

NOTE.--In the last half-line Sievers substitutes the older form #ǣngum#, and supposes elision of the e in #Nǣfre# (= #Nǣfr-ic#: ××–́ | ×–́).

3. TYPE C, × –́ | –́ ×

The conditions of this type are usually satisfied by compound and derivative words, and the second stress (not so strong as the first) is frequently on a short syllable. The two arses rarely alliterate. As in B, two unaccented syllables in the first thesis are more common than one.

4. TYPE D, { D^1 –́ | –́ –̀ × { D^2 –́ | –́ × –̀

Both types of D may take one unaccented syllable between the two primary stresses (–́ × | –́ –̀ ×, –́ × | –́ × –̀). The secondary stress in D^1 falls usually on the second syllable of a compound or derivative word, and this syllable (as in C) is frequently short.

(a) D^1 –́ | –́ –̀ ×

NOTE.--There is one instance in the texts (B. 613, (1)) of apparent –́ × × | –́ ˘̀ ×: #word wǣron wynsume#. (The triple alliteration has no significance. The sense, besides, precludes our stressing #wǣron#.) The difficulty is avoided by bringing the line under the A type: –́ × × | –́ ˘́͜×.

(b) D^2 –́ | –́ × –̀

Very rarely is the thesis in the second foot expanded.

(2) þegn ungemete till, B. 2722, –́ | –́ × × × –̀ (1) hrūsan heolster biwrāh, W. 23, –́ × | –́ × × –̀

5. TYPE E, {E^1 –́ –̀ × | –́ {E^2 –́ × –̀ | –́

The secondary stress in E^1 falls frequently on a short syllable, as in D^1.

(a) E^1 –́ –̀ × | –́

As in D^2, the thesis in the first foot is very rarely expanded.

(1) wīn-ærnes geweald, B. 655, –́ –̀ × × | –́ (1) Hafa nū ǫnd geheald, B. 659, ˘́͜× –̀ × × | –́ (1) searo-þǫncum besmiðod, B. 776, ˘́͜× –̀ × × | ˘́͜×

NOTE.--Our ignorance of Old English sentence-stress makes it impossible for us to draw a hard-and-fast line in all cases between D^2 and E^1. For example, in these half-lines (already cited),

wyn eal gedrēas feor oft gemǫn Forð nēar ætstōp

if we throw a strong stress on the adverbs that precede their verbs, the type is D^2. Lessen the stress on the adverbs and increase it on the verbs, and we have E^1. The position of the adverbs furnishes no clue; for the order of words in Old English was governed not only by considerations of relative emphasis, but by syntactic and euphonic considerations as well.

(_b_) E^2 –́ × –̀ | –́

This is the rarest of all types. It does not occur in the texts, there being but one instance of this type (l. 2437 (2)), and that doubtful, in the whole of _Beowulf_.

_Abnormal Lines._

The lines that fall under none of the five types enumerated are comparatively few. They may be divided into two classes, (1) hypermetrical lines, and (2) defective lines.

(1) HYPERMETRICAL LINES.

Each hypermetrical half-line has usually three stresses, thus giving six stresses to the whole line instead of two. These lines occur chiefly in groups, and mark increased range and dignity in the thought. Whether the half-line be first or second, it is usually of the A type without anacrusis. To this type belong the last five lines of the _Wanderer_. Lines 92 and 93 are also unusually long, but not hypermetrical. The first half-line of 65 is hypermetrical, a fusion of A and C, consisting of (–́×××˘́͜– | –́×).

(2) DEFECTIVE LINES.

The only defective lines in the texts are B. 748 and 2715 (the second half-line in each). As they stand, these half-lines would have to be scanned thus:

rǣhte ongēan –́ × | × –́ bealo-nīð wēoll ˘́͜× –̀ | –́

Sievers emends as follows:

rǣhte tōgēanes –́ × × | –́ × = A bealo-nīðe wēoll ˘́͜× –́ × | –́ = E^1

These defective half-lines are made up of syntactic combinations found on almost every page of Old English prose. That they occur so rarely in poetry is strong presumptive evidence, if further evidence were needed, in favor of the adequacy of Sievers’ five-fold classification.

NOTE.--All the lines that could possibly occasion any difficulty to the student have been purposely cited as illustrations under the different types. If these are mastered, the student will find it an easy matter to scan the lines that remain.

SELECTIONS FOR READING.

VI. EXTRACTS FROM BEOWULF.

THE BANQUET IN HEOROT. [Lines 612-662.]

[The Heyne-Socin text has been closely followed. I have attempted no original emendations, but have deviated from the Heyne-Socin edition in a few cases where the Grein-Wülker text seemed to give the better reading.

The argument preceding the first selection is as follows: Hrothgar, king of the Danes, or Scyldings, elated by prosperity, builds a magnificent hall in which to feast his retainers; but a monster, Grendel by name, issues from his fen-haunts, and night after night carries off thane after thane from the banqueting hall. For twelve years these ravages continue. At last Beowulf, nephew of Hygelac, king of the Geats (a people of South Sweden), sails with fourteen chosen companions to Dane-land, and offers his services to the aged Hrothgar. “Leave me alone in the hall to-night,” says Beowulf. Hrothgar accepts Beowulf’s proffered aid, and before the dread hour of visitation comes, the time is spent in wassail. The banquet scene follows.]

Þǣr wæs hæleþa hleahtor, hlyn swynsode, word wǣron wynsume. Ēode Wealhþēow forð, cwēn Hrōðgāres, cynna gemyndig; grētte gold-hroden guman on healle, [615] ǫnd þā frēolīc wīf ful gesealde ǣrest Ēast-Dęna ēþel-wearde, bæd hine blīðne æt þǣre bēor-þęge, lēodum lēofne; hē on lust geþeah symbel ǫnd sęle-ful, sige-rōf kyning. [620] Ymb-ēode þā ides Helminga duguðe ǫnd geogoðe dǣl ǣghwylcne, sinc-fato sealde, oð þæt sǣl ālamp þæt hīo[1] Bēowulfe, bēag-hroden cwēn, mōde geþungen, medo[2]-ful ætbær; [625] grētte Gēata lēod, Gode þancode wīs-fæst wordum, þæs þe hire se willa gelamp, þæt hēo on ǣnigne eorl gelȳfde fyrena frōfre. Hē þæt ful geþeah, wæl-rēow wiga, æt Wealhþēon, [630] ǫnd þā gyddode gūðe gefȳsed; Bēowulf maðelode, bearn Ecgþēowes: “Ic þæt hogode, þā ic on holm gestāh, sǣ-bāt gesæt mid mīnra sęcga gedriht, þæt ic ānunga ēowra lēoda [635] willan geworhte, oððe on wæl crunge fēond-grāpum fæst. Ic gefręmman sceal eorlīc ęllen, oððe ęnde-dæg on þisse meodu[2]-healle mīnne gebīdan.” Þām wīfe þā word wel līcodon, [640] gilp-cwide Gēates; ēode gold-hroden frēolicu folc-cwēn tō hire frēan sittan. Þā wæs eft swā ǣr inne on healle þrȳð-word sprecen,[3] þēod on sǣlum, sige-folca swēg, oþ þæt sęmninga [645] sunu Healfdęnes sēcean wolde ǣfen-ræste; wiste þǣm āhlǣcan[4] tō þǣm hēah-sęle hilde geþinged, siððan hīe sunnan lēoht gesēon _ne_ meahton oððe nīpende niht ofer ealle, [650] scadu-helma gesceapu scrīðan cwōman,[5] wan under wolcnum. Werod eall ārās; grētte þā _giddum_ guma ōðerne Hrōðgār Bēowulf, ǫnd him hǣl ābēad, wīn-ærnes geweald, ǫnd þæt word ācwæð: [655] “Nǣfre ic ǣnegum[6] męn ǣr ālȳfde, siððan ic hǫnd ǫnd rǫnd hębban mihte, ðrȳþ-ærn Dęna būton þē nū þā. Hafa nū ǫnd geheald hūsa sēlest, gemyne mǣrþo,[7] mægen-ęllen cȳð, [660] waca wið wrāðum. Ne bið þē wilna gād, gif þū þæt ęllen-weorc aldre[8] gedīgest.”

[1] = hēo. [2] = medu-. [3] = gesprecen. [4] = āglǣcan. [5] = cwōmon. [6] = ǣnigum. [7] = mǣrþe (acc. sing.). [8] = ealdre (instr. sing.).

[Linenotes:

623: #sinc-fato sealde#. Banning (_Die epischen Formeln im Beowulf_) shows that the usual translation, _gave costly gifts_, must be given up; or, at least, that the _costly gifts_ are nothing more than _beakers of mead_. The expression is an epic formula for _passing the cup_.

638-39: #ęnde-ðæg ... mīnne#. This unnatural separation of noun and possessive is frequent in O.E. poetry, but almost unknown in prose.

641-42: #ēode ... sittan#. The poet might have employed #tō sittanne# (§ 108, (1)); but in poetry the infinitive is often used for the gerund. Alfred himself uses the infinitive or the gerund to express purpose after #gān#, #gǫngan#, #cuman#, and #sęndan#.

647-51: #wiste ... cwōman#. A difficult passage, even with Thorpe’s inserted #ne#; but there is no need of putting a period after #geþinged#, or of translating #oððe# by _and_: _He (Hrothgar) knew that battle was in store_ (#geþinged#) _for the monster in the high hall, after_ [= _as soon as_] _they could no longer see the sun’s light, or_ [= _that is_] _after night came darkening over all, and shadowy figures stalking_. The subject of #cwōman# [= #cwōmon#] is #niht# and #gesceapu#.

The student will note that the infinitive (#scrīðan#) is here employed as a present participle after a verb of motion (#cwōman#). This construction with #cuman# is frequent in prose and poetry. The infinitive expresses the kind of motion: #ic cōm drīfan# = _I came driving_.]

THE FIGHT BETWEEN BEOWULF AND GRENDEL. [Lines 740-837.]

[The warriors all retire to rest except Beowulf. Grendel stealthily enters the hall. From his eyes gleams “a luster unlovely, likest to fire.” The combat begins at once.]

Ne þæt se āglǣca yldan þōhte, [740] ac hē gefēng hraðe forman sīðe slǣpendne rinc, slāt unwearnum, bāt bān-locan, blōd ēdrum dranc, syn-snǣdum swealh; sōna hæfde unlyfigendes eal gefeormod [745] fēt ǫnd folma. Forð nēar ætstōp, nam þā mid handa hige-þihtigne rinc on ræste; rǣhte ongēan fēond mid folme; hē onfēng hraþe inwit-þancum ǫnd wið earm gesæt. [750] Sōna þæt onfunde fyrena hyrde, þæt hē ne mētte middan-geardes, eorðan scēatta, on ęlran męn mund-gripe māran; hē on mōde wearð forht, on ferhðe; nō þȳ ǣr fram meahte. [755] Hyge wæs him hin-fūs, wolde on heolster flēon, sēcan dēofla gedræg; ne wæs his drohtoð þǣr, swylce hē on ealder[1]-dagum ǣr gemētte. Gemunde þā se gōda mǣg Higelāces ǣfen-sprǣce, ūp-lang āstōd [760] ǫnd him fæste wiðfēng; fingras burston; eoten wæs ūt-weard; eorl furþur stōp. Mynte se mǣra, hwǣr hē meahte swā, wīdre gewindan ǫnd on weg þanon flēon on fęn-hopu; wiste his fingra geweald [765] on grames grāpum. Þæt wæs gēocor sīð, þæt se hearm-scaþa tō Heorute[2] ātēah. Dryht-sęle dynede; Dęnum eallum wearð ceaster-būendum, cēnra gehwylcum, eorlum ealu-scerwen. Yrre wǣron bēgen [770] rēþe rēn-weardas. Ręced hlynsode; þā wæs wundor micel, þæt se wīn-sęle wiðhæfde heaþo-dēorum, þæt hē on hrūsan ne fēol, fǣger fold-bold; ac hē þæs fæste wæs innan ǫnd ūtan īren-bęndum [775] searo-þǫncum besmiðod. Þǣr fram sylle ābēag medu-bęnc mǫnig, mīne gefrǣge, golde geregnad, þǣr þā graman wunnon; þæs ne wēndon ǣr witan Scyldinga, þæt hit ā mid gemete manna ǣnig, [780] betlīc ǫnd bān-fāg, tōbrecan meahte, listum tōlūcan, nymþe līges fæðm swulge on swaþule. Swēg ūp āstāg nīwe geneahhe; Norð-Dęnum stōd atelīc ęgesa, ānra gehwylcum, [785] þāra þe of wealle wōp gehȳrdon, gryre-lēoð galan Godes ǫndsacan, sige-lēasne sang, sār wānigean hęlle hæfton.[3] Hēold hine fæste, sē þe manna wæs mægene stręngest [790] on þǣm dæge þysses līfes. Nolde eorla hlēo ǣnige þinga þone cwealm-cuman cwicne forlǣtan, nē his līf-dagas lēoda ǣnigum nytte tealde. Þǣr genehost brǣgd [795] eorl Bēowulfes ealde lāfe, wolde frēa-drihtnes feorh ealgian, mǣres þēodnes, ðǣr hīe meahton swā. Hīe ðæt ne wiston, þā hīe gewin drugon, heard-hicgende hilde-męcgas, [800] ǫnd on healfa gehwone hēawan þōhton, sāwle sēcan: þone syn-scaðan ǣnig ofer eorðan īrenna cyst, gūþ-billa nān, grētan nolde; ac hē sige-wǣpnum forsworen hæfde, [805] ęcga gehwylcre. Scolde his aldor[4]-gedāl on ðǣm dæge þysses līfes earmlīc wurðan[5] ǫnd se ęllor-gāst on fēonda geweald feor sīðian. Þā þæt onfunde, sē þe fela ǣror [810] mōdes myrðe manna cynne fyrene gefręmede (hē _wǣs_ fāg wið God), þæt him se līc-hǫma lǣstan nolde, ac hine se mōdega[6] mǣg Hygelāces hæfde be hǫnda; wæs gehwæþer ōðrum [815] lifigende lāð. Līc-sār gebād atol ǣglǣca[7]; him on eaxle wearð syn-dolh sweotol; seonowe onsprungon; burston bān-locan. Bēowulfe wearð gūð-hrēð gyfeðe. Scolde Gręndel þǫnan [820] feorh-sēoc flēon under fęn-hleoðu,[8] sēcean wyn-lēas wīc; wiste þē geornor, þæt his aldres[9] wæs ęnde gegǫngen, dōgera dæg-rīm. Dęnum eallum wearð æfter þām wæl-rǣse willa gelumpen. [825] Hæfde þā gefǣlsod, sē þe ǣr feorran cōm, snotor ǫnd swȳð-ferhð, sęle Hrōðgāres, genęred wið nīðe. Niht-weorce gefeh, ęllen-mǣrþum; hæfde Ēast-Dęnum Gēat-męcga lēod gilp gelǣsted; [830] swylce oncȳððe ealle gebētte, inwid-sorge, þe hīe ǣr drugon ǫnd for þrēa-nȳdum þolian scoldon, torn unlȳtel. Þæt wæs tācen sweotol, syððan hilde-dēor hǫnd ālęgde, [835] earm ǫnd eaxle (þǣr wæs eal geador Gręndles grāpe) under gēapne hrōf.

[1] = ealdor-. [2] = Heorote. [3] = hæftan. [4] = ealdor-. [5] = weorðan. [6] = mōdiga. [7] = āglǣca. [8] = -hliðu. [9] = ealdres.

[Linenotes:

740: #þæt#, the direct object of #yldan#, refers to the contest about to ensue. Beowulf, in the preceding lines, was wondering how it would result.

746: #ætstōp#. The subject of this verb and of #nam# is Grendel; the subject of the three succeeding verbs (#rǣhte#, #onfēng#, #gesæt#) is Beowulf.

751-52: The O.E. poets are fond of securing emphasis or of stimulating interest by indirect methods of statement, by suggesting more than they affirm. This device often appears in their use of negatives (#ne#, l. 13; p. 140, l. 3; #nō#, p. 140, l. 1 [[lines 752, 757, 755]]), and in the unexpected prominence that they give to some minor detail usually suppressed because understood; as where the narrator, wishing to describe the terror produced by Grendel’s midnight visits to Heorot, says (ll. 138-139), “Then was it easy to find one who elsewhere, more commodiously, sought rest for himself.” It is hard to believe that the poet saw nothing humorous in this point of view.

755: #nō ... meahte#, _none the sooner could he away_. The omission of a verb of motion after the auxiliaries #magan, mōtan, sculan#, and #willan# is very frequent. _Cf._ Beowulf’s last utterance, p. 147, l. 17 [[line 2817]].

768: The lines that immediately follow constitute a fine bit of description by indication of effects. The two contestants are withdrawn from our sight; but we hear the sound of the fray crashing through the massive old hall, which trembles as in a blast; we see the terror depicted on the faces of the Danes as they listen to the strange sounds that issue from their former banqueting hall; by these sounds we, too, measure the progress and alternations of the combat. At last we hear only the “terror-lay” of Grendel, “lay of the beaten,” and know that Beowulf has made good his promise at the banquet (#gilp gelǣsted#).

769: #cēnra gehwylcum#. The indefinite pronouns (§ 77) may be used as adjectives, agreeing in case with their nouns; but they frequently, as here, take a partitive genitive: #ānra gehwylcum#, _to each one_ (= _to each of ones_); #ǣnige# (instrumental) #þinga#, _for any thing_ (= _for any of things_); #on healfa gehwone#, _into halves_ (= _into each of halves_); #ealra dōgra gehwām#, _every day_ (= _on each of all days_); #ūhtna gehwylce#, _every morning_ (= _on each of mornings_).

780: Notice that #hit#, the object of #tōbrecan#, stands for #wīn-sęle#, which is masculine. See p. 39, Note 2 [[§ 55, 2]]. #Manna# is genitive after #gemete#, not after #ǣnig#.

787-89: #gryre-lēoð ... hæfton# [= #hæftan#]. Note that verbs of hearing and seeing, as in Mn.E., may be followed by the infinitive. They heard _God’s adversary sing_ (#galan#) ... _hell’s captive bewail_ (#wānigean#). Had the present participle been used, the effect would have been, as in Mn.E., to emphasize the agent (the subject of the infinitive) rather than the action (the infinitive itself).

795-96: #þǣr ... lāfe#. Beowulf’s followers now seem to have seized their swords and come to his aid, not knowing that Grendel, having forsworn war-weapons himself, is proof against the best of swords. _Then many an earl of Beowulf’s_ (= _an earl of B. very often_) _brandished his sword._ That no definite earl is meant is shown by the succeeding #hīe meahton# instead of #hē meahte#. See p. 110, Note. [[Linenote 110.5-6]

799: _They did not know this_ (#ðæt#), _while they were fighting_; but the first #Hīe# refers to the warriors who proffered help; the second #hīe#, to the combatants, Beowulf and Grendel. In apposition with #ðǣt#, stands the whole clause, #þone synscaðan# (object of #grētan#) #... nolde#. The second, or conjunctional, #ðæt# is here omitted before #þone#. See p. 112, note on ll. 18-19.

837: #grāpe# = genitive singular, feminine, after #eal#.]

BEOWULF FATALLY WOUNDED. [Lines 2712-2752.]

[Hrothgar, in his gratitude for the great victory, lavishes gifts upon Beowulf; but Grendel’s mother must be reckoned with. Beowulf finds her at the sea-bottom, and after a desperate struggle slays her. Hrothgar again pours treasures into Beowulf’s lap. Beowulf, having now accomplished his mission, returns to Sweden. After a reign of fifty years, he goes forth to meet a fire-spewing dragon that is ravaging his kingdom. In the struggle Beowulf is fatally wounded. Wiglaf, a loyal thane, is with him.]

Þā sīo[1] wund ongǫn, þe him se eorð-draca ǣr geworhte, swēlan ǫnd swellan. Hē þǣt sōna onfand, þǣt him on brēostum bealo-nīð wēoll [2715] āttor on innan. Þā se æðeling gīong,[2] þæt hē bī wealle, wīs-hycgende, gesæt on sesse; seah on ęnta geweorc, hū þā stān-bogan stapulum fæste ēce eorð-ręced innan healde. [2720] Hyne þā mid handa heoro-drēorigne, þēoden mǣrne, þegn ungemete till, wine-dryhten his wætere gelafede, hilde-sædne, ǫnd his helm onspēon. Bīowulf[3] maðelode; hē ofer bęnne spræc, [2725] wunde wæl-blēate; wisse hē gearwe, þæt hē dæg-hwīla gedrogen hæfde eorðan wynne; þā wæs eall sceacen dōgor-gerīmes, dēað ungemete nēah: “Nū ic suna mīnum syllan wolde [2730] gūð-gewǣdu, þǣr mē gifeðe swā ǣnig yrfe-weard æfter wurde līce gelęnge. Ic ðās lēode hēold fīftig wintra; næs se folc-cyning ymbe-sittendra ænig þāra, [2735] þe mec gūð-winum grētan dorste, ęgesan ðēon. Ic on earde bād mǣl-gesceafta, hēold mīn tela, nē sōhte searo-nīðas, nē mē swōr fela āða on unriht. Ic ðæs ealles mæg, [2740] feorh-bęnnum sēoc, gefēan habban; for-þām mē wītan ne ðearf Waldend[4] fīra morðor-bealo[5] māga, þonne mīn sceaceð līf of līce. Nū ðū lungre geong[6] hord scēawian under hārne stān, [2745] Wīglāf lēofa, nū se wyrm ligeð, swefeð sāre wund, since berēafod. Bīo[7] nū on ofoste, þæt ic ǣr-welan, gold-ǣht ongite, gearo scēawige swegle searo-gimmas, þæt ic ðȳ sēft mæge [2750] æfter māððum-welan mīn ālǣtan līf ǫnd lēod-scipe, þone ic lǫnge hēold.”

[Linenotes:

2716: #se æðeling# is Beowulf.

2718: #ęnta geweorc# is a stereotyped phrase for anything that occasions wonder by its size or strangeness.

2720: #healde#. Heyne, following Ettmüller, reads #hēoldon#, thus arbitrarily changing mood, tense, and number of the original. Either mood, indicative or subjunctive, would be legitimate. As to the tense, the narrator is identifying himself in time with the hero, whose wonder was “how the stone-arches ... _sustain_ the ever-during earth-hall”: the construction is a form of _oratio recta_, a sort of _miratio recta_. The singular #healde#, instead of #healden#, has many parallels in the dependent clauses of _Beowulf_, most of these being relative clauses introduced by #þāra þe# (= _of those that ..._ + a singular predicate). In the present instance, the predicate has doubtless been influenced by the proximity of #eorð-ręced#, a _quasi_-subject; and we have no more right to alter to #healden# or #hēoldon# than we have to change Shakespeare’s _gives_ to _give_ in

“Words to the heat of deeds too cold breath _gives_.” (_Macbeth_, II, i, 61.)

2722: The #þegn ungemete till# is Wiglaf, the bravest of Beowulf’s retainers.

2725: #hē ofer bęnne spræc#. The editors and translators of _Beowulf_ invariably render #ofer# in this passage by _about_; but Beowulf says not a word about his wound. The context seems to me to show plainly that #ofer# (cf. Latin _supra_) denotes here opposition = _in spite of_. We read in _Genesis_, l. 594, that Eve took the forbidden fruit #ofer Drihtenes word#. Beowulf fears (l. 2331) that he may have ruled unjustly = #ofer ealde riht#; and he goes forth (l. 2409) #ofer willan# to confront the dragon.

2731-33: #þǣr mē ... gelęnge#, _if so be that_ (#þǣr ... swā#) _any heir had afterwards been given me_ (#mē gifeðe ... æfter wurde#) _belonging to my body_.

2744-45: #geong# [= #gǫng#] #... scēawian#. See note on #ēode ... sittan#, p. 137, ll. 19-20 [[lines 641-42]]. In Mn.E. _Go see, Go fetch_, etc., is the second verb imperative (coördinate with the first), or subjunctive (_that you may see_), or infinitive without _to_?

2751-52: #mīn ... līf#. See note on #ęnde-dæg ... mīnne#, p. 137, ll. 16-17 [[lines 638-39]].]

[1] = sēo. [2] = gēong. [3] = Bēowulf. [4] = Wealdend. [5] = morðor-bealu. [6] = gǫng (gang). [7] = Bēo.

BEOWULF’S LAST WORDS. [Lines 2793-2821.]

[Wiglaf brings the jewels, the tokens of Beowulf’s triumph. Beowulf, rejoicing to see them, reviews his career, and gives advice and final directions to Wiglaf.]

_Bīowulf[1] maðelode_, gǫmel on giohðe (gold scēawode): “Ic þāra frætwa Frēan ealles ðanc, [2795] Wuldur-cyninge, wordum sęcge ęcum Dryhtne, þe ic hēr on starie, þæs þe ic mōste mīnum lēodum ǣr swylt-dæge swylc gestrȳnan. Nū ic on māðma hord mīne bebohte [2800] frōde feorh-lęge, fręmmað gē nū lēoda þearfe; ne mæg ic hēr lęng wesan. Hātað heaðo-mǣre hlǣw gewyrcean, beorhtne æfter bǣle æt brimes nosan; sē scel[2] tō gemyndum mīnum lēodum [2805] hēah hlīfian on Hrǫnes næsse, þæt hit sǣ-līðend syððan hātan[3] Bīowulfes[1] biorh[1] þā þe brentingas ofer flōda genipu feorran drīfað.” Dyde him of healse hring gyldenne [2810] þīoden[1] þrīst-hȳdig; þegne gesealde, geongum gār-wigan, gold-fāhne helm, bēah ǫnd byrnan, hēt hyne brūcan well. “Þū eart ęnde-lāf ūsses cynnes, Wǣgmundinga; ealle wyrd forswēop [2815] mīne māgas tō metod-sceafte, eorlas on ęlne; ic him æfter sceal.” Þæt wæs þām gǫmelan gingeste word brēost-gehygdum, ǣr hē bǣl cure, hāte heaðo-wylmas; him of hreðre gewāt [2820] sāwol sēcean sōð-fæstra dōm.

[1] īo, io = ēo, eo. [2] = sceal. [3] = hāten.

[Linenotes:

2795-99: The expression #sęcgan þanc# takes the same construction as #þancian#; i.e., the dative of the person (#Frēan#) and the genitive (a genitive of cause) of the thing (#þāra frætwa#). Cf. note on #biddan#, p. 45 [[§ 65, 3]]. The antecedent of #þe# is #frætwa#. For the position of #on#, see § 94, (5). The clause introduced by #þæs þe# (_because_) is parallel in construction with #frætwa#, both being causal modifiers of #sęcge þanc#. The Christian coloring in these lines betrays the influence of priestly transcribers.

2800: _Now that I, in exchange for_ (#on#) _a hoard of treasures, have bartered_ (#bebohte#) _the laying down_ (#-lęge# > #licgan#) _of my old life._ The ethical codes of the early Germanic races make frequent mention of blood-payments, or life-barters. There seems to be here a suggestion of the “wergild.”

2801: #fręmmað gē#. The plural imperative (as also in #Hātað#) shows that Beowulf is here speaking not so much to Wiglaf in particular as, through Wiglaf, to his retainers in general,--to his _comitatus_.

2806: The desire for conspicuous burial places finds frequent expression in early literatures. The tomb of Achilles was situated “high on a jutting headland over wide Hellespont that it might be seen from off the sea.” Elpenor asks Ulysses to bury him in the same way. Æneas places the ashes of Misenus beneath a high mound on a headland of the sea.

2807: #hit = hlǣw#, which is masculine. See p. 39, Note 2 [[§ 55, 2]].

2810-11: #him ... þīoden#. The reference in both cases is to Beowulf, who is disarming himself (#do-of# > _doff_) for the last time; #þegne# = _to Wiglaf_.

Note, where the personal element is strong, the use of the dative instead of the more colorless possessive; #him of healse#, not #of his healse#.

2817: #ic ... sceal#. See note on #nō ... meahte#, p. 140, l. 1 [[line 755]].

2820: #him of hreðre#. Cf. note on #him ... þīoden#, p. 147, ll. 10-11 [[lines 2810-11]].

2820-21: For construction of #gewāt ... sēcean#, see note on #ēode ... sittan#, p. 137, ll. 19-20 [[lines 641-42]].]

VII. THE WANDERER.

[Exeter MS. “The epic character of the ancient lyric appears especially in this: that the song is less the utterance of a momentary feeling than the portrayal of a lasting state, perhaps the reflection of an entire life, generally that of one isolated, or bereft by death or exile of protectors and friends.” (Ten Brink, _Early Eng. Lit._, I.) I adopt Brooke’s threefold division (_Early Eng. Lit._, p. 356): “It opens with a Christian prologue, and closes with a Christian epilogue, but the whole body of the poem was written, it seems to me, by a person who thought more of the goddess Wyrd than of God, whose life and way of thinking were uninfluenced by any distinctive Christian doctrine.”

The author is unknown.]

PROLOGUE.

Oft him ānhaga āre gebīdeð, Metudes[1] miltse, þēah þe hē mōdcearig geond lagulāde lǫnge sceolde hrēran mid hǫndum hrīmcealde sǣ, wadan wræclǣstas: wyrd bið ful ārǣd! [5] Swā cwæð eardstapa earfeþa[2] gemyndig, wrāþra wælsleahta, winemǣga hryres:

PLAINT OF THE WANDERER.

“Oft ic sceolde āna ūhtna gehwylce mīne ceare cwīþan; nis nū cwicra nān, þe ic him mōdsefan mīnne durre [10] sweotule[3] āsęcgan. Ic tō sōþe wāt þæt biþ in eorle indryhten þēaw, þæt hē his ferðlocan fæste binde, healde his hordcofan, hycge swā hē wille; ne mæg wērig mōd wyrde wiðstǫndan [15] nē sē hrēo hyge helpe gefręmman: for ðon dōmgeorne drēorigne oft in hyra brēostcofan bindað fæste. Swā ic mōdsefan mīnne sceolde oft earmcearig ēðle bidǣled, [20] frēomǣgum feor feterum sǣlan, siþþan gēara iū goldwine mīnne hrūsan heolster biwrāh, and ic hēan þǫnan wōd wintercearig ofer waþema gebind, sōhte sęle drēorig sinces bryttan, [25] hwǣr ic feor oþþe nēah findan meahte þone þe in meoduhealle[4] miltse wisse oþþe mec frēondlēasne frēfran wolde, węnian mid wynnum. Wāt sē þe cunnað hū slīþen bið sorg tō gefēran [30] þām þe him lȳt hafað lēofra geholena: warað hine wræclāst, nāles wunden gold, ferðloca frēorig, nālæs foldan blǣd; gemǫn hē sęlesęcgas and sincþęge, hū hine on geoguðe his goldwine [35] węnede tō wiste: wyn eal gedrēas! For þon wāt sē þe sceal his winedryhtnes lēofes lārcwidum lǫnge forþolian, ðonne sorg and slǣp sǫmod ætgædre earmne ānhagan oft gebindað: [40] þinceð him on mōde þæt hē his mǫndryhten clyppe and cysse, and on cnēo lęcge hǫnda and hēafod, swā hē hwīlum ǣr in gēardagum giefstōles brēac; ðonne onwæcneð eft winelēas guma, [45] gesihð him biforan fealwe wǣgas, baþian brimfuglas, brǣdan feþra, hrēosan hrīm and snāw hagle gemęnged. Þonne bēoð þȳ hęfigran heortan bęnne, sāre æfter swǣsne; sorg bið genīwad; [50] þonne māga gemynd mōd geondhweorfeð, grēteð glīwstafum, georne geondscēawað. Sęcga geseldan swimmað eft on weg; flēotendra ferð[5] nō þǣr fela bringeð cūðra cwidegiedda; cearo[6] bið genīwad [55] þām þe sęndan sceal swīþe geneahhe ofer waþema gebind wērigne sefan. For þon ic geþęncan ne mæg geond þās woruld for hwan mōdsefa mīn ne gesweorce, þonne ic eorla līf eal geondþęnce, [60] hū hī fǣrlīce flęt ofgēafon, mōdge maguþegnas. Swā þēs middangeard ealra dōgra gehwām drēoseð and fealleþ; for þon ne mæg weorþan wīs wer, ǣr hē āge wintra dǣl in woruldrīce. Wita sceal geþyldig, [65] ne sceal nō tō hātheort nē tō hrædwyrde, nē tō wāc wiga nē tō wanhȳdig, nē tō forht nē tō fægen nē tō feohgīfre, nē nǣfre gielpes tō georn, ǣr hē geare cunne. Beorn sceal gebīdan, þonne hē bēot spriceð, [70] oþ þæt collenferð cunne gearwe hwider hreþra gehygd hweorfan wille. Ongietan sceal glēaw hæle hū gǣstlīc bið, þonne eall þisse worulde wela wēste stǫndeð, swā nū missenlīce geond þisne middangeard [75] winde biwāune[7] weallas stǫndaþ, hrīme bihrorene,[8] hryðge þā ederas. Wōriað þā wīnsalo,[9] waldend licgað drēame bidrorene[10]; duguð eal gecrǫng wlǫnc bī wealle: sume wīg fornōm, [80] fęrede in forðwege; sumne fugel[11] oþbær ofer hēanne holm; sumne sē hāra wulf dēaðe gedǣlde; sumne drēorighlēor in eorðscræfe eorl gehȳdde: ȳþde swā þisne eardgeard ælda Scyppend, [85] oþ þæt burgwara breahtma lēase eald ęnta geweorc īdlu stōdon. Sē þonne þisne wealsteal wīse geþōhte, and þis deorce līf dēope geondþęnceð, frōd in ferðe[12] feor oft gemǫn [90] wælsleahta worn, and þās word ācwið: ‘Hwǣr cwōm mearg? hwǣr cwōm mago[13]? hwǣr cwōm māþþumgyfa? hwǣr cwōm symbla gesetu? hwǣr sindon sęledrēamas? Ēalā beorht bune! ēalā byrnwiga! ēalā þēodnes þrym! hū sēo þrāg gewāt, [95] genāp under nihthelm, swā hēo nō wǣre! Stǫndeð nū on lāste lēofre duguþe weal wundrum hēah, wyrmlīcum fāh: eorlas fornōmon asca þrȳþe, wǣpen wælgīfru, wyrd sēo mǣre; [100] and þās stānhleoþu[14] stormas cnyssað; hrīð hrēosende hrūsan bindeð, wintres wōma, þonne wǫn cymeð, nīpeð nihtscūa, norþan onsęndeð hrēo hæglfare hæleþum on andan. [105] Eall is earfoðlīc eorþan rīce, onwęndeð wyrda gesceaft weoruld under heofonum: hēr bið feoh lǣne, hēr bið frēond lǣne, hēr bið mǫn lǣne, hēr bið mǣg lǣne; eal þis eorþan gesteal īdel weorþeð!’” [110]

EPILOGUE.

Swā cwæð snottor on mōde, gesæt him sundor æt rune. Til biþ sē þe his trēowe gehealdeð; ne sceal nǣfre his torn tō rycene beorn of his brēostum ācȳþan, nemþe hē ǣr þā bōte cunne; eorl mid ęlne gefręmman. Wel bið þām þe him āre sēceð, frōfre tō Fæder on heofonum, þǣr ūs eal sēo fæstnung stǫndeð. [115]

[1] = Metodes. [2] = earfoþa. [3] = sweotole. [4] = medu-. [5] = ferhð. [6] = cearu. [7] See bewāwan. [8] See behrēosan. [9] = wīnsalu. [10] See bedrēosan. [11] = fugol. [12] = ferhðe. [13] = magu. [14] = -hliðu.

[Linenotes:

7: The MS. reading is #hryre# (nominative), which is meaningless.

8: For #ūhtna gehwylce#, see note on #cēnra gehwylcum#, p. 140 [[_Beowulf_ 769]].

10: #þe ... him#. See § 75 (4). Cf. _Merchant of Venice_, II, v, 50-51.

27: For #mine# (MS. #in#), which does not satisfy metrical requirements, I adopt Kluge’s plausible substitution of #miltse#; #miltse witan# = _to show_ (_know, feel_), _pity_. The #myne wisse# of _Beowulf_ (l. 169) is metrically admissible.

37: The object of #wāt# is #þinceð him on mōde#; but the construction is unusual, inasmuch as both #þæt’s# (#þæt# pronominal before #wāt# and #þæt# conjunctional before #þinceð#) are omitted. See p. 112, ll. 18-19.

41: #þinceð him on mōde# (see note on #him ... þīoden#, p. 147 [[_Beowulf_ 2810-11]]). “No more sympathetic picture has been drawn by an Anglo-Saxon poet than where the wanderer in exile falls asleep at his oar and dreams again of his dead lord and the old hall and revelry and joy and gifts,--then wakes to look once more upon the waste of ocean, snow and hail falling all around him, and sea-birds dipping in the spray.” (Gummere, _Germanic Origins_, p. 221.)

53-55: #Sęcga ... cwidegiedda# = _But these comrades of warriors_ [= those seen in vision] _again swim away_ [= _fade away_]; _the ghost of these fleeting ones brings not there many familiar words_; i.e. he sees in dream and vision the old familiar faces, but no voice is heard: they bring neither greetings to him nor tidings of themselves.

65: #Wita sceal geþyldig#. Either #bēon# (#wesan#) is here to be understood after #sceal#, or #sceal# alone means _ought to be_. Neither construction is to be found in Alfredian prose, though the omission of a verb of motion after #sculan# is common in all periods of Old English. See note on #nō ... meahte#, p. 140 [[_Beowulf_ 755]].

75: #swā nū#. “The Old English lyrical feeling,” says Ten Brink, citing the lines that immediately follow #swā nū#, “is fond of the image of physical destruction”; but I do not think these lines have a merely figurative import. The reference is to a period of real devastation, antedating the Danish incursions. “We might fairly find such a time in that parenthesis of bad government and of national tumult which filled the years between the death of Aldfrith in 705 and the renewed peace of Northumbria under Ceolwulf in the years that followed 729.” (Brooke, _Early Eng. Lit._, p. 355.)

93: #cwōm ... gesetu#. Ettmüller reads #cwōmon#; but see p. 107, note on #wæs ... þā īgland# [[linenote 107.14-15]]. The occurrence of #hwǣr cwōm# three times in the preceding line tends also to hold #cwōm# in the singular when its plural subject follows. Note the influence of a somewhat similar structural parallelism in _seas hides_ of these lines (_Winter’s Tale_, IV, iv, 500-502):

“Not for ... all the _sun sees_ or The close _earth wombs_ or the profound _seas hides_ In unknown fathoms, will I break my oath.”

111: #gesæt ... rūne#, _sat apart to himself in silent meditation_.

114: #eorl ... gefręmman#. Supply #sceal# after #eorl#.]

I. GLOSSARY.

OLD ENGLISH--MODERN ENGLISH.

[The order of words is strictly alphabetical, except that ð follows t. The combination æ follows ad.

Gender is indicated by the abbreviations, m. (= masculine), f. (= feminine), n. (= neuter). The usual abbreviations are employed for the cases, nom., gen., dat., acc., and instr. Other abbreviations are sing. (= singular), pl. (= plural), ind. (= indicative mood), sub. (= subjunctive mood), pres. (= present tense), pret. (= preterit tense), prep. (= preposition), adj. (= adjective), adv. (= adverb), part. (= participle), conj. (= conjunction), pron. (= pronoun), intrans. (= intransitive), trans. (= transitive).

Figures not preceded by § refer to page and line of the texts.]

[[Transcriber’s Note: References to verse selections (pages 136-153) are followed by the actual line number in [[double brackets]].]

#A.#

ā, _ever, always, aye_. abbudisse, f., _abbess_ [Lat. abbatissa]. ābēodan (§ 109), _bid, offer_; him hǣl ābēad 138, 9 [[_Beowulf_ 654]] = _bade him hail, wished him health_. ābrecan (§ 120, Note 2), _break down, destroy_. ābūgan (§ 109, Note 1), _give way, start_ [bow away]. ac, conj., _but_. ācweðan (§ 115), _say, speak_. ācȳðan (§ 126), _reveal, proclaim_ [cūð]. ād, m., _funeral pile_. adesa, m., _adze, hatchet_. ǣ (ǣw), f., _law_. ǣdre (ēdre), f., _stream, canal, vein_; blōd ēdrum dranc 139, 4 [[_Beowulf_ 743]] = _drank blood in streams_ (instr.). ǣfæstnis, f., _piety_. ǣfen-ræst, f., _evening rest_. ǣfen-sprǣc, f., _evening speech_. ǣfęst (ǣwfęst), _law-abiding, pious_. ǣfęstnis, see ǣfæstnis. ǣfre, _ever, always_. ǣfter, prep. (§ 94, (1)), _after_; ǣfter ðǣm, _after that, thereafter_; æfter ðǣm ðe, conj., _after_. æfter, adv., _after, afterwards_. ǣghwā (§ 77, Note), _each, every_. ǣghwilc (§ 77, Note), _each, any_. ǣglǣca, see āglǣca. ǣgðer (ǣghwæðer, āðer) (§ 77, Note), _each, either_; ǣgðer ... ōðer ... ōðer, _either ... or ... or_; ǣgðer ge ... ge (§ 95, (2)), _both ... and_; ǣgðer ge ... ge ... ge, _both ... and ... and_. ǣht, f., _property, possession_ [āgan]. ǣlc (§ 77), _each_. ælde (ielde) (§ 47), m. pl., _men_; gen. pl., ælda. ælmihtig, _almighty_. ǣmetta, m., _leisure_ [_empti_-ness]. ǣnig (§ 77), _any_; ǣnige ðinga 141, 22 [[_Beowulf_ 792]] = _for anything_. (See 140, 15 [[_Beowulf_ 769]], Note.) ǣr, adv., _before, formerly, sooner_; nō þȳ ǣr 140, 1 [[_Beowulf_ 755]] = _none the sooner_; ǣror, comparative, _before, formerly_; ǣrest, superlative, _first_. ǣr, conj. (§ 105, 2), _ere, before_ = ǣr ðǣm ðe. ǣr, prep, with dat., _before_ (time); ǣr ðǣm ðe, conj. (§ 105, 2), _before_. ærcebisceop, m., _archbishop_ [Lat. archiepiscopus]. ǣrendgewrit, n., _message, letter_. ǣrendwreca (-raca), m., _messenger_. ǣrest, adj. (§ 96, (4)), _first_. ærnan (§ 127), _ride, gallop_ [iernan]. ǣrra, adj. (§ 96, (4)), _former_. ǣrwela, m., _ancient wealth_. æsc, m., _ash, spear_; gen. pl., asca. Æscesdūn, f., _Ashdown_ (in Berkshire). æstel, m., _book-mark_ [Lat. hastula]. æt (§ 94, (1)), _at, in_; with leornian, _to learn_, geðicgan, _to receive_, and other verbs of similar import, æt = _from_: 115, 18; 137, 8 [[_Beowulf_ 630]], etc. ætberan (§ 114), _bear to, hand_. ætgæd(e)re, adv., _together_. ætsteppan (§ 116), _step up, advance_; pret. sing., ætstōp. æðele, _noble, excellent_. æðeling, m., _a noble, prince_. Æðelwulfing, m., _son of Ethelwulf_. Æðered, m., _Ethelred_. āfeallan (§ 117), _fall_. āfierran (§ 127), _remove_ [feor]. āgan (§ 136), _to own, possess_. āgen, adj.-part., _own_; dat. sing., āgnum [āgan]. āgiefan (§ 115), _give back_. āglǣca (ǣglǣca), m., _monster, champion_. āhton, see āgan. ālǣtan (§ 117), _let go, leave_. aldor, see ealdor. ālęcgan (§ 125, Note), _lay down_ [licgan]; past part., ālēd. Ālīesend, m., _Redeemer_ [ālīesan = _release, ransom_]. ālimpan (§ 110), _befall, occur_. ālȳfan (§ 126), _entrust, permit_. ambor, m., _measure_; gen. pl., ambra (§ 27, (4)). ambyre, _favorable_. ān (§ 89), _one_; āna, _alone, only_; ānra gehwylcum 141, 15 [[_Beowulf_ 785]] = _to each one_. (See 140, 15, Note. [[_Beowulf_ 769]]) anda, m., _zeal, injury, indignation_; hæleðum on andan 153, 6 [[_Wanderer_ 105]] = _harmful to men_. andēfn, f., _proportion, amount_. andgiet (-git), n., _sense, meaning_. andgitfullīce, _intelligibly_; -gitfullīcost, _superlative_. andswaru, f., _answer_. andwyrdan (§ 127), _to answer_; pret., andwyrde. Angel, n., _Anglen_ (in Denmark); dat. sing., Angle (§ 27 (4)). Angelcynn, n., _English kin, English people, England_. ānhaga (-hoga), m., _a solitary, wanderer_ [ān + hogian, _to meditate_]. ānlīpig, _single, individual_. ānunga (§ 93, (2)), _once for all_ [ān]. apostol, m., _apostle_ [Gr. ἀπόστολος]. ār, f., _honor, property, favor_; āre gebīdeð 148, 3 [[_Wanderer_ 1]] = _waits for divine favor_ (gen.). ārǣd, adj., _inexorable_. ārǣdan (§ 126), _read_. āręcc(e)an (§ 128), _translate, expound_. ārfæstnis, f., _virtue_. ārīsan (§ 102), _arise_. asca, see aesc. āsęcgan (§ 132), _say, relate_. āsęttan (§ 127), _set, place_. āsingan (§ 110), _sing_. āspęndan (§ 127), _spend, expend_. āstīgan (§ 102), _ascend, arise_. āstǫndan (§ 116), _stand up_. ātēah, see ātēon. atelīc, _horrible, dire_. ātēon (§ 118), _draw, draw away, take_ (as a journey). atol, _horrible, dire_. āttor, n., _poison_. ātuge, see ātēon. āð, m., _oath_. āðer, see ǣgðer. āwęccan (§ 128), _awake, arouse_; pret. sing., āweahte, āwęhte. aweg, _away_. āwęndan (§ 127), _turn, translate_. āwrītan (§ 102), _write, compose_. āwyrcan (§ 128), _work, do, perform_.

#B.#

Bāchsęcg, m., _Bagsac_. bæcbord, n., _larboard, left side of a ship_. bǣl, n., _funeral fire, funeral pile_. bān, n., _bone_. bān-fāg, _adorned with bones_ or _antlers_. bān-loca, m., _flesh_ [bone-locker]. Basengas, m. pl., _Basing_ (in Hantshire). be (bī) (§ 94, (1)), _by, about, concerning, near, along, according to_; be norðan þǣm wēstenne (§ 94, (4)), _north of the waste (desert)_; be fullan, _fully, perfectly_. bēag, see būgan. bēag-hroden, _ring-adorned_. bēah (bēag), m., _ring, bracelet, collar_ [būgan]. bealo-nīð, m., _dire hatred, poison, venom_. bearn, n., _child, son_ [bairn]. bebēodan (§ 109), _command, bid, entrust_ (with dat.). bebīo-, see bebēo-. bebohte, see bebycgan. bebycgan (§ 128), _sell_. bēc, see bōc. becuman (§ 114), _come, arrive, befall_. bedǣlan (§ 126), _separate, deprive_. bedrēosan (§ 109), _deprive_; past part. pl., bedrorene (bidrorene) [dross, dreary]. befǣstan (§ 127), _fasten, implant_. befēolan (§ 110), _apply one’s self_; ðāra ðe ðā spēda hæbben ðǣt hīe ðǣm befēolan mægen 119, 20 = _of those who have the means by which they may apply themselves to it_. beforan, prep. with dat., _before_. bēgen (declined like twēgen, § 89), _both_. begeondan (begiondan), prep. with dat., _beyond_. begietan (§ 115), _get, obtain, find_. beginnan (§ 110), _begin_. beheonan (behionan), prep. with dat., _on this side of_. behreōsan (§ 109), _fall upon, cover_; past part. pl., behrorene (bihrorene). belimpan (§ 110), _pertain, belong_. beniman (§ 114), _take, derive_. bęnn, f., _wound_ [bana = _murderer_]. bēon (bīon) (§ 134), _be, consist_. beorh (beorg, biorh), m., _mound_ [barrow]. beorht, _bright, glorious_. Beormas, m. pl., _Permians_. beorn, m., _man, hero, chief_. bēor-þęgu, f., _beer-drinking_ [þicgan = _receive_]. bēot, n., _boast_. beran (§ 114), _bear_. berēafian (§ 130), _bereave_; since berēafod 145, 22 [[_Beowulf_ 2747]] = _bereft of treasure_. beren, adj., _of a bear, bear_. berstan (§ 110), _burst, crack_. besmiðian (§ 130), _make hard_ (as at the forge of a smith). bęt, see wel (§ 97, (2)). bētan (§ 126), _make good, requite_; past part. pl., gebētte. bętera (bętra), see gōd (§ 96, (3)). betlīc, _excellent_. bętsta, see gōd (§ 96, (3)). betuh (betux) (§ 94, (1)), _between_. betwēonan (§ 94, (1)), _between_. betȳnan (§ 126), _close, end_ [tūn = _enclosure_]. bewāwan (§ 117), _blow upon_; past part. pl., bewāune (biwāune, bewāwene). bewrēon (§ 118, 1), _enwrap_; pret. 3d sing., bewrāh (biwrāh). bī, see be. bi-, see be-. bīdan (§ 102), _bide, await, expect, endure_ (with gen.). biddan (§ 115, Note 2), _bid, pray, request_ (§ 65, Note 3); bæd hine blīðne 136, 7 [[_Beowulf_ 618]] = _bade him be blithe_. bindan (§ 110), _bind_. bīo, see bēo (imperative sing.). bisceop (biscep), m., _bishop_ [Lat. episcopus]. bisceop-stōl, m., _episcopal seat, bishopric_. bisigu, f., _business, occupation_; dat. pl., bisgum. bītan (§ 102), _bite, cut_. biwrāh, see bewrēon. blǣd, m., _glory, prosperity_ [blāwan = _blow, inflate_]. Blēcinga-ēg, f., _Blekingen_. bliss, f., _bliss_ [blīðe]. blīðe, _blithe, happy_. blōd, n., _blood_. bōc (§ 68, (1), Note 1), f., _book_. bōcere, m., _scribe_ [bōc]. bǫna (bana), m., _murderer_ [bane]. bōt, f., _boot, remedy, help, compensation_. brād (§ 96, (1)), _broad_. brǣdan (§ 126), _extend, spread_ [brād]. brǣdra, see brād. brægd, see bregdan. brēac, see brūcan. breahtm, m., _noise, revelry_; burgwara breahtma lēase 152, 10 [[_Wanderer_ 86]] = _bereft of the revelries of citizens_. bregdan (§ 110), _brandish, draw_ [braid]; pret. ind. 3d sing., brægd. brenting, m., _high ship_. brēost, n., _breast_ (the pl. has the same meaning as the sing.). brēost-cofa, m., _breast-chamber, heart, mind_. brēost-gehygd, n., _breast-thought, thought of the heart, emotion_. brim, n., _sea, ocean_. brimfugol, m., _sea-fowl_. bringan (§ 128), _bring_. brōhte, brōhton, see bringan. brōðor (brōður) (§ 68, (2)), m., _brother_. brūcan (§ 109, Note 1), _use, enjoy_ (§ 62, Note 1; but Alfred frequently employs the acc. with brūcan). brycg, f., _bridge_. brȳcð, see brūcan. brytta, m., _distributor, dispenser_ [brēotan = _break in pieces_]. būan (§ 126, Note 2), _dwell, cultivate_ [bower]. būde, see būan. bufan, prep. with dat. and acc., _above_. būgan (§ 109, Note 1), _bow, bend, turn_. bune, f., _cup_. burg (burh) (§ 68, (1), Note), f., _city, borough_; dat. sing., byrig. Burgenda, m. gen. pl., _of the Burgundians_; Burgenda land, _Bornholm_. burgware (§ 47), m. pl., _burghers, citizens_. burh, see burg. būtan (būton), prep. (§ 94, (1)), _without, except, except for, but_. būtan (būton), conj., _except that, unless_. būtū, _both_ (= _both_--_two_. The word is compounded of the combined neuters of bēgen and twēgen, but is m. and f. as well as n.). bȳn (§ 126, Note 2), _cultivated_. byrde, adj., _of high rank, aristocratic_. byrig, see burg. byrne, f., _byrnie, corselet, coat of mail_. byrnwiga, m., _byrnie-warrior, mailed soldier_. byrð, see beran.

#C.#

canōn, m., _sacred canon, Bible_ [Lat. canon, Gr. κανών]. cearu (cearo), f., _care_. ceaster-būend, m., _castle-dweller_. cēne, _keen, bold, brave_. cēosan (§ 109), _choose, accept, encounter_. cild, n., _child_. cirice, f., _church_; nom. pl., ciricean. cirr (cierr), m., _turn, time, occasion_ [char, chore, ajar = on char, on the turn]. cirran (§ 127), _turn_. clǣne, _clean, pure_. clǣne, adv., _entirely _ [“clean out of the way,” Shaks.]. clūdig, _rocky_ [having boulders or masses like _clouds_]. clyppan (§ 127), _embrace, accept_ [clip = clasp for letters, papers, etc.]. cnapa, m., _boy_ [knave]. cnēo (cnēow), n., _knee_; acc. pl., cnēo. cniht, m., _knight, warrior_. cnyssan (§ 125), _beat_. collenferð (-ferhð), _proud-minded, fierce_. costnung, f., _temptation_. Crēcas (Crēacas), m. pl., _Greeks_. cringan (§ 110), _cringe, fall_. Crīst, m., _Christ_. Crīsten, _Christian_; nom. pl. m., Crīstene, Crīstne. cuma, m., _new-comer, stranger_. cuman (§ 114), _come_. (See p. 138, Note on ll. 2-6.) cunnan (§ 137), _know, can, understand_. cunnian (§ 130), _make trial of, experience_ [cunnan]. cure, see cēosan. cūð, _well-known, familiar_ [past part. of cunnan: cf. uncouth]. cūðe, cūðen, cūðon, see cunnan. cwǣden, cwǣdon, see cweðan. cwalu, f., _death, murder_ [cwelan]. cwealm-cuma, m., _murderous comer_. cwelan (§ 114), _die_ [to quail]. cwēn, f., _queen_. Cwēnas, m. pl., _a Finnish tribe_. cweðan (§ 115), _say, speak_ [quoth, bequeath]. cwic, _living, alive_ [quicksilver; the quick and the dead]. cwidegiedd, n., _word, utterance_ [cweðan and gieddian, both meaning _to speak_]. cwīðan (§ 126), _bewail_ (trans.). cwōm, see cuman. cyle (ciele), m., _cold_ [chill]; cyle gewyrcan 110, 7 = _produce cold, freeze_. cyme, m., _coming_ [cuman]. cyn(n), n., _kin, race_. cyn(n), adj. (used only in pl.), _fitting things, etiquette, proprieties, courtesies_; cynna gemyndig 136, 3 [[_Beowulf_ 614]] = _mindful of courtesies_. cynerīce, n., _kingdom_. cyning, m., _king_. cyssan (§ 125), _kiss_. cyst, f., _the choice, the pick, the best_ [cēosan]. cȳðan (§ 126), _make known, display_, [cūð]; 2d sing. imperative, cȳð.

#D.#

dǣd, f., _deed_. dæg, m., _day_. dæg-hwīl, f., _day-while, day_; hē dæg-hwīla gedrogen hæfde eorðan wynne 145, 2 [[_Beowulf_ 2727]] = _he had spent his days of earth’s joy_. dæg-rīm, n., number of days [day-rime]; dōgera daeg-rīm 143, 7 [[_Beowulf_ 824]] = _the number of his days_. dæl, n., _dale_. dǣl, m., _part, deal, division_. dēad, _dead_. dēað, m., _death_. dēman (§ 126), _deem, judge_. Dęnamearc, see Dęnemearc. Dęne (§ 47), m. pl., _Danes_. Dęnemearc (Dęnemearce), f., _Denmark_; dat. sing., Dęnemearce (strong), Dęnemearcan (weak). Dęnisc, _Danish_; ðā Dęniscan, _the Danes_. dēofol, m., n., _devil_; gen. sing., dēofles (§ 27, (4)). dēope, _deeply, profoundly_ [dēop]. dēor, n., _wild animal_ [deer]. deorc, _dark, gloomy_. dōgor, n., _day_; gen. pl., dōgora, dōgera, dōgra. dōgor-gerīm, n., _number of days, lifetime_. dōm, m., _doom, judgment, glory_. dōmgeorn, adj., _eager for glory_ [_doom-yearning_]. dōn (§ 135), _do, cause, place, promote, remove_. dorste, dorston, see durran. drēam, m., _joy, mirth_ [dream]. drēogan (§ 109), _endure, enjoy, spend_ [Scotch dree]. drēorig, _dreary, sad_. drēorighlēor, adj., _with sad face_ [hlēor = _cheek, face, leer_]. drēosan (§ 109), _fall, perish_ [dross]. drīfan (§ 102), _drive_. drihten, see dryhten. drincan (§ 110), _drink_. drohtoð (-að), m., _mode of living, occupation_ [drēogan]. drugon, see drēogan. dryhten (drihten), m., _lord, Lord_; dat. sing., dryhtne. dryht-sęle, m., _lordly hall_. duguð, f., _warrior-band, host, retainers_ [doughtiness]. In duguð and geogoð, the higher (older) and lower (younger) ranks are represented, the distinction corresponding roughly to the mediæval distinction between knights and squires. durran (§ 137), _dare_. duru, f., _door_. dyde, see dōn. dynnan (§ 125), resound [din]. dȳre (dīere, dēore, dīore), _dear, costly_.

#E.#

ēa, f., _river_; gen. sing., ēas; dat. and acc. sing., ēa. ēac, _also, likewise_ [a nickname = an eek-name. See § 65, Note 2]; ēac swilce (swelce) 112, 3 = _also_. ēaca, m., _addition_ [ēac]; tō ēacan = _in addition to_ (§ 94, (4)). ēage, n., _eye_. eahta, _eight_. ēalā, _oh!_ _alas!_ ealað, see ealu. eald (§ 96, (2)), _old_. ealdor (aldor), n., _life_; gif ðū ðæt ęllenweorc aldre gedīgest 138, 17 [[_Beowulf_ 662]] = _if thou survivest that feat with thy life_ (instr.). ealdor-dæg (aldor-, ealder-), m., _day of life_. ealdor-gedāl (aldor-), n., _death_ [life-deal]. ealdormǫn, m., _alderman, chief, magistrate_. ealgian, (§ 130), _protect, defend_. eall (eal), _all_; ealne weg, _all the way_ (§ 98, (1)); ealneg (< ealne weg), _always_; ealles (§ 98, (3)), adv., _altogether, entirely_. Eall (eal) is frequently used with partitive gen. = _all of_: 143, 19 [[_Beowulf_ 836]]; 145, 3 [[_Beowulf_ 2728]]. ealu (ealo) (§ 68), n., _ale_; gen. sing., ealað. ealu-scerwen, f., _mortal panic_ [ale-spilling]. eard, m., _country, home_ [eorðe]. eardgeard, m. _earth_ [earth-yard]. eardian (§ 130), _dwell_ [eard]. eardstapa, m., _wanderer_ [earth-stepper]. ēare, n., _ear_. earfoð (earfeð), n. _hardship, toil_; gen. pl., earfeða. earfoðlīc, adj., _full of hardship, arduous_. earm, m., _arm_. earm, adj., _poor, wretched_. earmcearig, _wretched, miserable_. earmlīc, _wretched, miserable_. earnung, f., _merit_ [earning]. ēast, _east_. ēastan (§ 93, (5)), _from the east_. Ēast-Dęne (§ 47), _East-Danes_. ēasteweard, _eastward_. ēastrihte (ēastryhte) (§ 93, (6)), _eastward_. Ēastron, pl., _Easter_. ēaðe, _easily_. ēaðmōdlīce, _humbly_. eaxl, f., _shoulder_ [axle]. Ebrēisc, adj., _Hebrew_. ēce, _eternal, everlasting_. ęcg, f., _sword_ [edge]. edor, m., _enclosure, dwelling_; nom. pl., ederas. ēdrum, see ǣdre. efne, adv., _just, only_ [evenly]. eft, adv., _again, afterwards_ [aft]. ęgesa, m., _fear, terror_ [awe]. ęllen, n., _strength, courage_; mid ęlne = _boldly_; on ęlne 147, 17 [[_Beowulf_ 2817]] = _mightily, suddenly_, or _in their (earls’) strength (prime)_. ęllen-mǣrðu, f. _fame for strength, feat of strength_. ęllen-weorc, n., _feat of strength_. ęllenwōdnis, f., _zeal, fervor_. ęllor-gāst, m., _inhuman monster_ [alien ghost]. ęln, f., _ell_ [el-bow]. ęlne, _see_ ęllen. ęlra, adj. comparative, _another_ [*ęle cognate with Lat. alius]; on ęlran męn 139, 14 [[_Beowulf_ 753]] = _in another man_. emnlong (-lang), _equally long_; on emnlange = _along_ (§ 94, (4)). ęnde, m., _end_. ęndebyrdnes, f., _order_. ęnde-dæg, m., _end-day, day of death_. ęnde-lāf, f., _last remnant_ [end-leaving]. ęngel, m., _angel_ [Lat. angelus]. Ęnglafeld (§ 51), m., _Englefield_ (in Berkshire). Ęngle (§ 47), m. pl., _Angles_. Ęnglisc, adj., _English_; on Ęnglisc 117, 18 and 19 = _in English, into English_. Ęngliscgereord, n., _English language_. ęnt, m., _giant_. ēode, see gān. eodorcan (§ 130), _ruminate_. eorl, m., _earl, warrior, chieftain_. eorlīc, _earl-like, noble_. eorð-draca, m., dragon [earth-drake]. eorðe, f., _earth_. eorð-ręced, n., _earth-hall_. eorðscræf, n., _earth-cave, grave_. eoten, m., _giant, monster_. ēow, see ðū. Ēowland, n., _Öland_ (an island in the Baltic Sea). ęrian (§ 125), _plow_ [to ear]. Estland, n., _land of the Estas_ (on the eastern coast of the Baltic Sea). Estmęre, m., _Frische Haff_. Estum, dat. pl., _the Estas_. etan (§ 115), _eat_ [ort]. ęttan (§ 127), _graze_ [etan]. ēðel, m., _territory, native land_ [allodial]. ēðel-weard, m., _guardian of his country_.

#F.#

fæc, n., _interval, space_. fæder (§ 68, (2)), m., _father_. fægen, _fain, glad, exultant_. fæger (fǣger), _fair, beautiful_. fǣlsian (§ 130), _cleanse_. fǣrlīce, _suddenly_ [fǣr = _fear_]. fæst, _fast, held fast_. fæste, adv., _fast, firmly_. fæstnung, f., _security, safety_. fæt, n., _vessel_ [wine-fat, vat]. fǣtels, m., _vessel_; acc. pl., fǣtels. fæðm, m., _embrace, bosom_ [fathom = the space _embraced_ by the extended arms]. fāg (fāh), _hostile_; hē wæs fāg wið God 142, 18 [[_Beowulf_ 812]] = _he was hostile to God_. fāh (fāg), _variegated, ornamented_. Falster, _Falster_ (island in the Baltic Sea). fandian (§ 130), _try, investigate_ [findan]. faran (§ 116), _go_ [fare]. feallan (§ 117), _fall, flow_. fealu, _fallow, pale, dark_; nom. pl. m., fealwe. fēawe (fēa, fēawa), pl., _few_. fela (indeclinable), _much, many_ (with gen.). feld (§ 51), m., _field_. fell (fel), n., _fell, skin, hide_. fēng, see fōn. fęn-hlið, n., _fen-slope_. fęn-hop, n., _fen-retreat_. feoh, n., _cattle, property_ [fee]; gen. and dat. sing., fēos, fēo. feohgīfre, _greedy of property, avaricious_. feohtan (§ 110), _fight_. fēol, see feallan. fēond (§ 68, (3)), m., _enemy, fiend_. fēond-grāp, f., _fiend-grip_. feor (§ 96, (4)), adj., _far, far from_ (with dat.). feor, adv., _far, far back_ (time). feorh, m., n., _life_. feorh-bęnn, f., _life-wound, mortal wound_. feorh-lęgu, f., _laying down of life_. (See p. 146, Note on l. 13. [[_Beowulf_ 2800]]) feorh-sēoc, _life-sick, mortally wounded_. feorm (fiorm), f., _use, benefit_ (_food, provisions_) [farm]. feormian (§ 130), _eat, devour_. feorran, _from afar_. fēowertig, _forty_; gen., fēowertiges (§ 91, Note 1). ferhð (ferð), m., _heart, mind, spirit_. fęrian (§ 125), _carry, transport_ [to ferry]; fęrede in forðwege 152, 5 [[_Wanderer_ 81]] = _carried away_. fers, n., _verse_ [Lat. versus]. fersc, _fresh_. ferðloca (ferhð-), m., _heart, mind, spirit_ [heart-locker]. fēt, see fōt. fetor, f., _fetter_ [fōt]; instr. pl., feterum. feðer, f., _feather_; acc. pl., feðra. fierd, f., _English army_ [faran]. fīf, _five_. fīftīene, _fifteen_. fīftig, _fifty_; gen. sing., fīftiges (§ 91, Note 1); dat. pl., fīftegum (§ 91, Note 3). findan (§ 110), _find_. finger, m., _finger_. Finnas, m. pl., _Fins_. fiorm, see feorm. fīras, m. pl., _men_ [feorh]; gen. pl., fīra; dat. pl., fīrum. firrest (fierrest), see feor (§ 96, (4)). first, m., _time, period_. fiscað (fiscnað), m., _fishing_. fiscere, m., _fisherman_. fiscnað, see fiscað. flēon (§ 118, II.), _flee_. flēotan (§ 109), _float_. flęt, n., _floor of the hall_. flōd, m., _flood, wave_. folc, n., _folk, people_. folc-cwēn, f., _folk-queen_. folc-cyning, m., _folk-king_. folcgefeoht, n., _folk-fight, battle, general engagement_. fold-bold, n., _earth-building, hall_. folde, f., _earth, land, country_ [feld]. folm, f., _hand_ [fēlan = _feel_]. fōn (§ 118), _seize, capture, take_ [fang]; tō rīce fōn = _come to (ascend) the throne_. for (§ 94, (1)), _for, on account of_; for ðǣm (ðe), for ðon (ðe), _because_; for ðon, for ðȳ, for ðǣm (for-ðām), _therefore_. fōr, see faran. forbærnan (§ 127), _burn thoroughly_ [for is intensive, like Lat. per]. forgiefan (-gifan) (§ 115), _give, grant_. forhęrgian (§ 130), _harry, lay waste_. forhogdnis, f., _contempt_. forht, _fearful, afraid_. forhwæga, _about, at least_. forlǣtan (§ 117), _abandon, leave_. forlēt, forlēton, see forlǣtan. forma, _first_; forman sīðe, _the first time_ (instr.). forniman (§ 114), _take off, destroy_. forspęndan (§ 127), _spend, squander_. forstǫndan (-standan) (§ 116), _understand_. forswāpan (§ 117), _sweep away_; pret. 3d sing. indic., forswēop. forswęrian (§ 116), _forswear_ (with dat.); past part., forsworen. forð, _forth, forward_. forðolian (§ 130), _miss, go without_ (with dat.) [not to _thole_ or experience]. forðweg, m., _way forth_; in forðwege, _away_. fōt (§ 68, (1)), m. _foot_. Frǣna, m., _Frene_. frætwe, f. pl., _fretted armor, jewels_ [fret]. fram, see frǫm. frēa, m., _lord, Lord_. frēa-drihten, m., _lord, master_. frēfran (§ 130), _console, cheer_ [frōfor]. fręmde, _strange, foreign_; ðā fręmdan, _the strangers_. fręmman (§ 125), _accomplish, perform, support_ [to frame]. fręmsumnes (-nis), f., _kindness, benefit_. frēo (frīo), _free_; gen. pl., frēora (frīora). frēodōm, m., _freedom_. frēolīc, _noble_ [free-like]. frēomǣg, m., _free kinsman_. frēond (§ 68, (3)), m., _friend_. frēondlēas, _friendless_. frēondlīce, _in a friendly manner_. frēorig, _cold, chill_ [frēoran]. frīora, see frēo. frið, m., n., _peace, security_ [bel-_fry_]. frōd, _old, sage, prudent_. frōfor, f., _comfort, consolation, alleviation_; fyrena frōfre 137, 7 [[_Beowulf_ 629]] = _as an alleviation of outrages_ (dat.). frǫm (fram) (§ 94, (1)), _from, by_. frǫm, adv., _away, forth_. fruma, m., _origin, beginning_ [frǫm]. frumsceaft, f., _creation_. fugela, see fugol. fugelere, m., _fowler_. fugol (fugel), m., _fowl, bird_; gen. pl., fugela. ful, n., _cup, beaker_. fūl, _foul_. fūlian (§ 130), _grow foul, decompose_. full (ful), adj., _full_ (with gen.); be fullan, _fully, perfectly_. full (ful) adv., _fully, very_. fultum, m., _help_. furðor (furður), adv., _further_. furðum, adv., _even_. fylð, see feallan. fyren (firen), f., _crime, violence, outrage_. fyrhtu, f., _fright, terror_; dat. sing., fyrhtu. fyrst, adj., superlative, _first, chief_. fȳsan (§ 126), _make ready, prepare_ [fūs = _ready_]; gūðe gefȳsed 137, 9 [[_Beowulf_ 631]] = _ready for battle_.

#G.#

gād, n., _lack_. gǣst, see gāst. gafol, n., _tax, tribute_. galan (§ 116), _sing_ [nightingale]. gālnes, f., _lust, impurity_. gān (§ 134), _go_. gār, m., _spear_ [gore, gar-fish]. gār-wiga, m., _spear-warrior_. gāst (gǣst), m., _spirit, ghost_. gāstlīc (gǣstlīc), _ghastly, terrible_. ge, _and_; see ǣgðer. gē, _ye_; see ðū. geador, _together_. geǣmetigian (§ 130), _disengage from_ (with acc. of person and gen. of thing) [empty]. geærnan (§ 127), _gain by running_ [iernan]. gēap, _spacious_. gēar, n., _year_; gen. pl., gēara, is used adverbially = _of yore, formerly_. gēardæg, m., _day of yore_. geare (gearo, gearwe), _readily, well, clearly_ [yarely]. Gēat, m., _a Geat, the Geat_ (i.e. Beowulf). Gēatas, m. pl., _the Geats_ (a people of South Sweden). Gēat-mecgas, m. pl., _Geat men_ (= the fourteen who accompanied Beowulf to Heorot). gebēorscipe, m., _banquet, entertainment_. gebētan (§ 126), _make amends for_ [bōt]. gebīdan (§ 102), _wait, bide one’s time_ (intrans.); _endure, experience_ (trans., with acc.). gebind, n., _commingling_. gebindan (§ 110), _bind_. gebrēowan (§ 109), _brew_. gebrowen, see gebrēowan. gebūd, gebūn, see būan (§ 126, Note 2). gebyrd, n., _rank, social distinction_. gecēosan (§ 109), _choose, decide_. gecnāwan (§ 117), _know, understand_. gecoren, see gecēosan. gecringan (§ 110), _fall, die_ [cringe]. gedǣlan (§ 126), _deal out, give_; dēaðe gedǣlde 152, 7 [[_Wanderer_ 83]] = _apportioned to death_ (dat.), or, _tore (?) in death_ (instr.). gedafenian (§ 130), _become, befit, suit_ (impersonal, usually with dat., but with acc. 112, 10). gedīgan (§ 126), _endure, survive_. gedōn (§ 135), _do, cause, effect_. gedræg, n., _company_. gedrēosan (§ 109), _fall, fail_. gedriht (gedryht), n., _band, troop_. gedrogen, see drēogan. gedrync, n., _drinking_. geęndian (§ 130), _end, finish_. gefaran (§ 116), _go, die_. gefēa, m., joy. gefeaht, see gefeohtan. gefeh, see gefēon. gefēng, see gefōn. gefeoht, n., _fight, battle_. gefeohtan (§ 110), _fight_. gefēon (§ 118, v.), _rejoice at_ (with dat.); pret. 3d sing., gefeah, gefeh. gefēra, m., _companion, comrade_ [co-farer]. geflīeman (§ 126), _put to flight_ [flēon]. gefohten, see gefeohtan. gefōn (§ 118, vii.), _seize_. gefōr, see gefaran. gefrǣge, n., _hearsay, report_; mīne gefrǣge (instr.) 141, 7 [[_Beowulf_ 777]] = _as I have heard say, according to my information_. gefręmman (§ 125), _perform, accomplish, effect_. gefultumian (§ 130), _help_ [fultum]. gefylce, n., _troop, division_ [folc]; dat. pl., gefylcum, gefylcium. gefyllan (§ 127), _fill_ (with gen.); past part. pl., f., gefylda. geglęngan (§ 127), _adorn_. gehātland, n., _promised land_ [gehātan = _to promise_]. gehealdan (§ 117), _hold, maintain_. gehīeran (gehȳran) (§ 126), _hear_. gehīersumnes, f., _obedience_. gehola, m., _protector_ [helan]. gehwā (§ 77, Note), _each_; on healfa gehwone 142, 7 [[_Beowulf_ 801]] (see Note 140, 15 [[_Beowulf_ 769]]. Observe that the pron. may, as here, be masc. and the gen. fem.). gehwæðer (§ 77, Note), _each, either, both_. gehwylc (gehwilc) (§ 77, Note), _each_ (with gen. pl. See Note 140, 15 [[_Beowulf_ 769]]). gehwyrfan (§ 127), _convert, change_. gehȳdan (§ 126), _hide, conceal, consign_. gehygd, f., n., _thought, purpose_. gehȳran, see gehīeran. gehȳrnes, f., _hearing_; eal ðā hē in gehȳrnesse geleornian meahte 115, 14 = _all things that he could learn by hearing_. gelǣdan (§ 126), _lead_. gelǣred, part.-adj., _learned_; superlative, gelǣredest. gelafian (§ 130), _lave_. gelęnge, _along of, belonging to_ (with dat.). geleornian (-liornian) (§ 130), _learn_. gelīce, _likewise_; _in like manner to_ (with dat.). gelīefan (gelȳfan) (§ 126), _believe_; ðæt hēo on ǣnigne eorl gelȳfde 137, 6 [[_Beowulf_ 628]] = _that she believed in any earl_. gelimpan (§ 110), _happen, be fulfilled_. gelimplīc, _proper, fitting_. gelȳfan, see gelīefan. gelȳfed, _weak, infirm_ [left (hand)]. gēmde, see gīeman. gemet, n., _meter, measure, ability_. gemētan (§ 126), _meet_. gemǫn, see gemunan. gemunan (§ 136), _remember_; indic. pres. 1st and 3d sing., gemǫn; pret. sing., gemunde. gemynd, n., _memory, memorial_; tō gemyndum 147, 5 [[_Beowulf_ 2805]] = _as a memorial_. gemyndgian (-mynian) (§ 130), _remember_; mid hine gemyndgade 115, 15 = _he treasured in his memory_; gemyne mǣrðo 138, 15 [[_Beowulf_ 660]] = _be mindful of glory_ (imperative 2d sing.). gemyndig, _mindful of_ (with gen.). genāp, see genīpan. geneahhe, _enough, often_; genehost, superlative, _very often_. genip, n., _mist, darkness_. genīpan (§ 102), _grow dark_. genīwian (§ 130), _renew_. genōh, _enough_. genumen, see niman. geoc, n., _yoke_. gēocor, _dire, sad_. geogoð, f., _youth, young people, young warriors_. (See duguð.) geond (giond) (§ 94, (2)), _throughout_ [yond]. geondhweorfan (§ 110), _pass over, traverse, recall_; ðonne māga gemynd mōd geondhweorfeð 150, 15 [[_Wanderer_ 51]] = _then his mind recalls the memory of kinsmen_. geondscēawian (§ 130), survey, review; georne geondscēawað 150, 16 [[_Wanderer_ 52]] = _eagerly surveys them_. geondðęnc(e)an (§ 128), _think over, consider_. geong (§ 96, (2)), _young_; giengest, (gingest), superlative, _youngest, latest, last_. geong = gǫng, see gǫngan (imperative 2d sing.). gēong (gīong), see gǫngan (pret. 3d sing.). georn (giorn), _eager, desirous, zealous, sure_ [yearn]. georne, _eagerly, certainly_; wiste ðē geornor 143, 5 [[_Beowulf_ 822]] = _knew the more certainly_. geornfulnes, f., _eagerness, zeal_. geornlīce, _eagerly, attentively_. geornor, see georne. geręcednes, f., _narration_ [ręccan]. gerisenlīc, _suitable, becoming_. gerȳman (§ 126), _extend_, (trans.) [rūm]. gesǣliglīc, _happy, blessed_ [silly]. gesamnode, see gesǫmnian. gesceaft, f., _creature, creation, destiny_ [scieppan]. gesceap, n., _shape, creation, destiny_ [scieppan]. gescieldan (§ 127), _shield, defend_. gesealde, see gesęllan. geseglian (§ 130), _sail_. geselda, m., _comrade_. gesęllan (§ 128), _give_. gesēon (gesīon) (§ 118), _see_, observe; pres. indic. 3d sing., gesihð. geset, n., _habitation, seat_. gesęttan (§ 127), _set, place, establish_. gesewen, see sēon, gesēon (past part.). gesewenlīc, _seen, visible_ [seen-like]. gesiglan (§ 127), _sail_. gesihð, see gesēon. gesittan (§ 115, Note 2), _sit_ (trans., as _to sit a horse, to sit a boat_, etc.); _sit, sit down_ (intrans.). geslægen, see slēan (§ 118). gesǫmnian (§ 130), _assemble, collect_. gesǫmnung, f., _collection, assembly_. gestāh, see gestīgan. gestaðelian (§ 130), _establish, restore_ [standan]. gesteal, n., _establishment, foundation_ [stall]. gestīgan (§ 102), _ascend, go_ [stile, stirrup, sty (= a _rising_ on the eye)]. gestrangian (§ 130), _strengthen_. gestrēon, n., _property_. gestrȳnan (§ 126), _obtain, acquire_ [gestrēon]. gesweorcan (§ 110), _grow dark, become sad_; For ðon ic geðęncan ne mæg geond ðās woruld for hwan mōdsefa mīn ne gesweorce 151, 3-4 [[lines 58-59]] = _Therefore in this world I may not understand wherefore my mind does not grow “black as night.”_ (Brooke.) geswīcan (§ 102), _cease, cease from_ (with gen.). getæl, n., _something told, narrative_. getruma, m., _troop, division_. geðanc, m., n., _thought_. geðeah, see geðicgan. geðęnc(e)an (§ 128), _think, remember, understand, consider_. geðēodan (§ 126), _join_. geðēode (-ðīode), n., _language, tribe_. geðēodnis, f., _association_; but in 112, 2 this word is used to render the Lat. _appetitus_ = _desire_. geðicg(e)an (§ 115, Note 2), _take, receive_; pret. indic. 3d sing., geðeah. geðungen, part.-adj., _distinguished, excellent_ [ðēon, _to thrive_]. geðyldig, _patient_ [ðolian]. geweald (gewald), n., _control, possession, power_ [wield]. geweorc, n., _work, labor_. geweorðian (§ 130), _honor_ [to attribute _worth_ to]. gewīcian (§ 130), _dwell_. gewin(n), n., _strife, struggle_. gewindan (§ 110), _flee_ [wend]. gewissian (§ 130), _guide, direct_. gewītan (§ 102), _go, depart_. geworht, see gewyrcan. gewrit, n., _writing, Scripture_. gewunian (§ 130), _be accustomed, be wont_. gewyrc(e)an (§ 128), _work, create, make, produce_. gid(d), n., _word, speech_. giefan (§ 115), _give_. giefstōl, m., _gift-stool, throne_. giefu (gifu), f., _gift_. gielp (gilp), m., n., _boast_ [yelp]. gīeman (gēman) (§ 126), _endeavor, strive_. gīet (gīt, gȳt), _yet, still_. gif (gyf), _if_ [not related to _give_]. gifeðe (gyfeðe), _given, granted_. gilp, see gielp. gilp-cwide, m., _boasting speech_ [_yelp_-speech]. gingest, see geong (adj.). giohðo (gehðu), f., _care, sorrow, grief_. giū (iū), _formerly, of old_. glæd (glǣd), _glad_. glēaw, _wise, prudent_. glīwstæf, m., _glee, joy_; instr. pl. (used adverbially), glīwstafum 150, 16 [[_Wanderer_ 52]] = _joyfully_. God, m., _God_. gōd (§ 96, (3)), _good_; mid his gōdum 115, 12 = _with his possessions (goods)_. godcund, _divine_ [God]. godcundlīce, _divinely_. gold, n., _gold_. gold-ǣht, f., _gold treasure_. gold-fāh, _gold-adorned_. gold-hroden, part.-adj., _gold-adorned_. goldwine, m., _prince, giver of gold, lord_ [gold-friend]. gomel (gomol), _old, old man_. gǫngan (gangan) (§ 117), _go_ [gang]; imperative 2d sing., geong; pret. sing., gēong, gīong, gēng; past part., gegǫngen, gegangen. The most commonly used pret. is ēode, which belongs to gān (§ 134). Gotland, n., _Jutland_ (in _Ohthere’s Second Voyage_), _Gothland_ (in _Wulfstan’s Voyage_). gram, _grim, angry, fierce, the angry one_. grāp, f., _grasp, clutch, claw_. grētan (§ 126), _greet, attack, touch_. grōwan (§ 117, (2)), _grow_. gryre-lēoð, n., _terrible song_ [grisly lay]. guma, m., _man, hero_ [groom; see § 65, Note 1]. gūð, f., _war, battle_. gūð-bill, n., _sword_ [war-bill]. gūð-gewǣde, n., _armor_ [war-weeds]. gūð-hrēð, f., _war-fame_. gūð-wine, m., _sword_ [war-friend]. gyddian (§ 130), _speak formally_, chant [giddy; the original meaning of _giddy_ was _mirthful_, as when one sings]. gyf, see gif. gyfeðe, see gifeðe. gyldan (gieldan) (§ 110), _pay_; indic. 3d sing., gylt. gylden, _golden_ [gold].

#H.#

habban (§ 133), _have_. hād, m., _order, rank, office, degree_ [-hood, -head]. hæfta, m., _captive_. hægel (hagol), m., _hail_; instr. sing., hagle. hæglfaru, f., _hail-storm_ [hail-faring]. hæle, see hæleð. hǣl, f., _hail, health, good luck_. hæleð (hæle), m., _hero, warrior_. hǣt, see hātan. hǣðen, _heathen_. Hǣðum (æt Hǣðum), _Haddeby_ (= _Schleswig_). hāl, _hale, whole_. hālettan (§ 127), _greet, salute_ [to hail]. Halfdęne, _Halfdane_ (proper name). hālga, m., _saint_. Hālgoland, _Halgoland_ (in ancient Norway). hālig, _holy_. hālignes, f., _holiness_. hām, m., _home_; dat. sing., hāme, hām (p. 104, Note); used adverbially in hām ēode 112, 18 = _went home_. hand, see hǫnd. hār, _hoary, gray_. hāt, _hot_. hātan (§ 117, Note 2), _call, name, command_; pret. sing., heht, hēt. hātheort, _hot-hearted_. hātte, see hātan. hē, hēo, hit (§ 53), _he, she, it_. hēafod, n., _head_. hēah (§ 96, (2)), _high_; acc. sing, m., hēanne. hēah-sęle, m., _high hall_. hēahðungen, _highly prosperous, aristocratic_ [hēah + past part. of ðēon (§ 118)]. healdan (§ 117), _hold, govern, possess_; 144, 9 [[_Beowulf_ 2720]] = _hold up, sustain_. healf, adj., _half_. healf, f., _half, side, shore_. heall, f., _hall_. heals, m., _neck_. hēan, _abject, miserable_. hēanne, see hēah. heard, _hard_. heard-hicgende, _brave-minded_ [hard-thinking]. hearm-scaða, m., _harmful foe_ [harm-scather]. hearpe, f., _harp_. heaðo-dēor, _battle-brave_. heaðo-mǣre, _famous in battle_. heaðo-wylm, m., _flame-surge, surging of fire_ [battle-welling]. hēawan (§ 117), _hew, cut_. hębban, hōf, hōfon, gehafen (§ 117), _heave, lift, raise_. hęfig, _heavy, oppressive_. heht, see hātan. helan (§ 114), _conceal_. hęll, f., _hell_. helm, m., _helmet_. Helmingas, m. pl., _Helmings_ (Wealtheow, Hrothgar’s queen, is a Helming). help, f., _help_. helpan (§ 110), _help_ (with dat.). heofon, m., _heaven_. heofonlīc, _heavenly_. heofonrīce, n., _kingdom of heaven_. hēold, see healdan. heolstor (-ster), n., _darkness, concealment, cover_ [holster]. heora (hiera), see hē. heord, f., care, guardianship [hoard]. heoro-drēorig, _bloody_ [sword-dreary]. Heorot, _Heorot, Hart_ (the famous hall which Hrothgar built). heorte, f., _heart_. hēr, _here, hither_; in the _Chronicle_ the meaning frequently is _at this date, in this year_: 99, 1. hęre, m., _Danish army_. hęrenis, f., _praise_. hęrgian (§ 130), _raid, harry, ravage_ [hęre]. hęrgung, f., _harrying, plundering_. hęrian (hęrigean) (§ 125), _praise_. hērsumedon, see hīersumian. hēt, see hātan. hider (hieder), _hither_. hiera, see hē. hīeran (hȳran) (§ 126), _hear, belong_. hierde, m., _shepherd, instigator_ [keeper of a _herd_]. hierdebōc, f., _pastoral treatise_ [shepherd-book, a translation of Lat. _Cura Pastoralis_]. hīerra, see hēah. hīersumian (hȳr-, hēr-) (§ 130), _obey_ (with dat.). hige (hyge), m., _mind, heart_. hige-ðihtig, _bold-hearted_. hild, f., _battle_. hilde-dēor, _battle-brave_. hilde-mecg, m., _warrior_. hilde-sæd, _battle-sated_. hin-fūs, _eager to be gone_ [hence-ready]. hira, see hē. hlǣw (hlāw), m., _mound, burial mound_ [Lud_low_ and other place-names, _low_ meaning _hill_]. hlāford, m., _lord, master_ [loaf-ward?]. hleahtor, m., _laughter_. hlēo, m., _refuge, protector_ [lee]. hlīfian (§ 130), _rise, tower_. hlyn, m., _din, noise_. hlynsian (§ 130), _resound_. hof, n., _court, abode_. hogode, see hycgan. holm, m., _sea, ocean_. hǫnd (hand), f., _hand_; on gehwæðre hǫnd, _on both sides_. hord, m., n., _hoard, treasure_. hordcofa, m., _breast, heart_ [hoard-chamber] hors, n., _horse_. horshwæl, m., _walrus_. hrædwyrde, _hasty of speech_ [hræd = _quick_]. hrægel, n., _garment_; dat. sing., hrægle. hrān, m., _reindeer_. hraðe, _quickly, soon_ [_rath_-er]. hrēo (hrēoh), _rough, cruel, sad_. hrēosan (§ 109), _fall_. hrēran (§ 126), _stir_. hreðer, m., n., _breast, purpose_; dat. sing., hreðre. hrīm, m., _rime, hoarfrost_. hrīmceald, _rime-cold_. hring, m., _ring, ring-mail_. hrīð, f. (?), _snow-storm_. hrōf, m., _roof_. Hrones næss, literally _Whale’s Ness, whale’s promontory_; see næss. hrūse, f., _earth_ [hrēosan: deposit]. hryre, m., _fall, death_ [hrēosan]. hrȳðer, n., _cattle_ [rinder-pest]. hryðig, _ruined_ (?), _storm-beaten_; nom. pl. m., hryðge. hū, _how_. Humbre, f., _river Humber_. hund, _hundred_. hunig, n., _honey_. hunta, m., _hunter_. huntoð (-tað), m., _hunting_. hūru, adv., _about_. hūs, n., _house_. hwā, hwæt (§ 74), _who?_ _what?_ swā hwæt swā (§ 77, Note), _whatsoever_; indefinite, _any one, anything_; for hwan (instr.), _wherefore_. hwæl, m., _whale_. hwælhunta, m., _whale-hunter_. hwælhuntað, m., _whale-fishing_. hwǣr, _where?_ hwǣr ... swā, _wheresoever_; wel hwǣr, _nearly everywhere_. hwæthwugu, _something_. hwæðer, _whether, which of two?_ hwæðre, _however, nevertheless_. hwēne, see hwōn. hweorfan (§ 110), _turn, go_. hwider, _whither_. hwīl, f., _while, time_; ealle ðā hwīle ðe, _all the while that_; hwīlum (instr. pl.), _sometimes_. hwilc (hwylc, hwelc) (§ 74, Note 1), _which?_ _what?_ hwōn, n., _a trifle_; hwēne (instr. sing.), _somewhat, a little_. hwǫnan, _when_. hȳ, see hīe. hycgan (§ 132), _think, resolve_; pret. 3d sing., hogode. hȳd, f., _hide, skin_. hyge, see hige. hyra (hiera), see hē. hȳran, see hīeran. hyrde, see hierde. hys (his), see hē. hyt (hit), see hē.

#I.#

ic (§ 72), _I_. īdel, _idle, useless, desolate_. ides, f., _woman, lady_. ieldra, adj., see eald. ieldra, m., _an elder, parent, ancestor_. iernan (yrnan) (§ 112), _run_. īglǫnd (īgland), n., _island_. ilca (ylca), _the same_ [of that ilk]. Ilfing, _the Elbing_. in, _in, into_ (with dat. and acc.); in on, _in on, to, toward_. inbryrdnis (-nes), f., _inspiration, ardor_. indryhten, _very noble_. ingǫng, m., _entrance_. innan, adv., _within, inside_; on innan, _within_. innanbordes, adv.-gen., _within borders, at home_. inne, adv., _within, inside_. intinga, m., _cause, sake_. inweardlīce, _inwardly, fervently_. inwid-sorg (inwit-sorh), f., _sorrow caused by an enemy_. inwit-ðanc, m., _hostile intent_. Īraland, n., _Ireland_ (but in _Ohthere’s Second Voyage, Iceland_ is probably meant). īren, n., _iron, sword_; gen. pl., īrenna, īrena. īren-bęnd, m., f., _iron-band_. īu, see gīu.

#K.#

kynerīce, see cynerīce. kyning, see cyning. kyrtel, m., _kirtle, coat_.

#L.#

Lǣden, _Latin_. Lǣdengeðēode (-ðīode), n., _Latin language_. Lǣdenware (§ 47), m. pl., _Latin people, Romans_. lǣfan (§ 126), _leave_. lǣge, see licgan. Lǣland, n., _Laaland_ (in Denmark). lǣn, n., _loan_; tō lǣne 121, 2 = _as a loan_. lǣne, adj., _as a loan, transitory, perishable_. lǣran (§ 126), _teach, advise, exhort_ [lār]. lǣssa, lǣsta, see lȳtel. lǣstan (§ 127), _last, hold out_ (intrans.); _perform, achieve_ (trans.). lǣtan (§ 117), _let, leave_. lāf, f., _something left, remnant, heirloom_ (often a _sword_); tō lāfe, _as a remnant, remaining_. lagulād, f., _sea_ [lake-way, lād = _leading, direction, way_]. land, see lǫnd. lang, see lǫng. Langaland, n., _Langeland_ (in Denmark). lār, f., _lore, teaching_. lārcwide, m., _precept, instruction_, [cwide < cweðan]. lārēow, m., _teacher_ [lār + ðēow]. lāst, m., _track, footprint_ [shoemaker’s last]; on lāst(e), _in the track of, behind_ (with dat.). lāð, _loathsome, hateful_. lēas, _loose, free from, bereft of_ (with gen.). lēasung, f., _leasing, deception, falsehood_. lęcgan (§ 125, Note), _lay_. lēfdon, see līefan. leger, n., _lying in, illness_ [licgan]. lęng, see lǫnge. lęngra, see lǫng. lēod, m., _prince, chief_. lēod, f., _people, nation_ (the plural has the same meaning). lēod-scipe, m., _nation_ [people-ship]. lēof, _dear_ [lief]. leoht, adj., _light_. lēoht, n., _light, brightness_. leornere, m., _learner, disciple_. leornian (§ 130), _learn_. leornung (liornung), f., _learning_. lēoð, n., _song_ [lay?]. lēoðcræft, m., _poetic skill_ [lay-craft]. lēoðsǫng, n., _song, poem_. lēt, see lǣtan. libban (§ 133), _live_; pres. part., lifigende, _living, alive_. līc, n., _body, corpse_ [lich-gate, Lichfield]. licgan (§ 115, Note 2), _lie, extend, flow, lie dead_; 3d sing. indic. pres., ligeð, līð. līchama (-hǫma), m., _body_ [body-covering]. līcian (§ 130), _please_ (with dat.) [like]. līc-sār, n., _body-sore, wound in the body_. līefan (lēfan) (§ 126), _permit, allow_ (with dat.) [grant _leave_ to]. līf, n., _life_. līf-dagas, m. pl., _life-days_. lifigende, see libban. līg, m., _flame, fire_. ligeð, see licgan. lim, n., _limb_. list, f., _cunning_; dat. pl., listum, is used adverbially = _cunningly_. līð, see licgan. lof, m., _praise, glory_. lǫnd (land), n., _land, country_. lǫng (lang) (§ 96, (2)), _long_. lǫnge (lange) (§ 97, (2)), _long_; lǫnge on dæg, _late in the day_. lufan, see lufu. lufian (lufigean) (§ 131), _love_. luflīce, _lovingly_. lufu, f., _love_; dat. sing. (weak), lufan. lungre, _quickly_. lust, m., _joy_ [lust]; on lust, _joyfully_. lȳt, indeclinable, _little, few_ (with partitive gen.). lȳtel (lītel) (§ 96, (2)), _little, small_.

#M.#

mā, see micle (§ 97, (2)). mæg, see magan. mǣg, m., _kinsman_; nom. pl., māgas (§ 27, (2)). mægen n., _strength, power_ [might and _main_]. mægen-ęllen, n., _main strength, mighty courage_. mǣgð, f., _tribe_. mægðhād, m., _maidenhood, virginity_. mǣl-gesceaft, f., _appointed time_ [mǣl = _meal, time_]. mǣran (§ 126), _make famous, honor_. mǣre, _famous, glorious, notorious_. mǣrðo (mǣrðo, mǣrð), f., _glory, fame_. mæsseprēost, m., _mass-priest_. mǣst, see micel. magan (§ 137), _be able, may_. māgas, see mǣg. magu (mago), m., _son, man_. maguðegn, m., _vassal, retainer_. man(n), see mǫn(n). mancus, m., _mancus, half-crown_; gen. pl., mancessa. māndǣd, f., _evil deed_. manig, see mǫnig. manigfeald, see mǫnigfeald. māra, see micel. maðelian (§ 130), _harangue, speak_. māðum (māððum), m., _gift, treasure, jewel_; gen. pl., māðma. māððumgyfa, m., _treasure-giver, lord_. māððum-wela, m., _wealth of treasure_. mē, see ic. meaht, f., _might, power_. meahte, see magan. mearc, f., _boundary, limit_ [mark, march]. mearg (mearh), m., _horse_; nom. pl., mēaras. mearð, m., _marten_. mec, see ic. medmicel, _moderately large, short, brief_. medu (medo), m., _mead_. medu-bęnc, f., _mead-bench_. medu-ful, n., _mead-cup_. medu-heall, f., _mead-hall_. męn, see mǫn(n). męngan (§ 127), _mingle, mix_. męnigu (męnigeo), f., _multitude_ [many]. męnniscnes, f., _humanity, incarnation_ [man]. meolc, f., _milk_. Mēore, _Möre_ (in Sweden). męre, m., _lake, mere, sea_ [mermaid]. Meretūn, m., _Merton_ (in Surrey). mētan (§ 126), _meet, find_. Metod (Meotod, Metud), m., _Creator, God_. metod-sceaft, f., _appointed doom, eternity_. micel (§ 96, (3)), _great, mighty, strong, large_ [mickle]; māra, _more, stronger, larger_. micle (micele), _greatly, much_. miclum, (§ 93, (4)), _greatly_. mid, _with, amid, among_ (with dat. and acc.). middangeard, m., _earth, world_ [middle-yard]. middeweard, _midward, toward the middle_. Mierce, m. pl., _Mercians_. mihte, see _magan_. mīl, f., _mile_ [Lat. mille]. mildheortnes, f., _mild-heartedness, mercy_. milts, f., _mildness, mercy_. mīn (§ 76), _my, mine_. mislīc, _various_. missenlīc, _various_. mōd, n., _mood, mind, courage_. mōdcearig, _sorrowful of mind_. mōdega, mōdga, see mōdig. mōdgeðanc, m., _purpose of mind_. mōdig, _moody, brave, proud_. mōdor, f., _mother_. mōdsefa, m., _mind, heart_. mǫn(n) (man, mann) (§ 68; § 70, Note), m., _man, one, person, they_. mōna, m., _moon_. mōnað (§ 68, (1), Note), m., _month_ [mōna]; dat. sing., mōnðe. mǫn(n)cynn, n., _mankind_. mǫndryhten, m., _liege lord_. mǫnian (manian) (§ 130), _admonish_. mǫnig (manig, mǫneg, mænig), _many_. mǫnigfeald (manig-), _manifold, various_. mōnðe, see mōnað. mōr, m., _moor_. morgen, m., _morning_; dat. sing., morgen(n)e. morðor-bealu (-bealo), n., _murder_ [murder-bale]; see ðurfan. mōste, see mōtan. mōtan (§ 137), _may, be permitted, must_. mund-gripe, m., _hand-grip_. munuc, m., _monk_ [Lat. monachus]. munuchād, m., _monkhood, monastic rank_. mūð, m., _mouth_. myntan (§ 127), _be minded, intend_; pret. indic. 3d sing., mynte. mynster, n., _monastery_ [Lat. monasterium]; dat. sing., mynstre. mȳre, f., _mare_ [mearh]. myrð, f., _joy, mirth_; mōdes myrðe 142, 17 [[_Beowulf_ 811]] = _with joy of heart_.

#N.#

nā (nō), _not_ [ne ā = _n-ever_]; nā ne, _not, not at all_. nabban (p. 32, Note), _not to have_. nǣdre, f., _serpent, adder_. næfde, see nabban. nǣfre, _never_. nǣnig (§ 77), _no one, no, none_. nǣre, nǣren, nǣron, see § 40, Note 2. næs = ne wæs, see § 40, Note 2. næss, m., _ness, headland_. nāht, see nōht. nālæs (nāles), _not at all_ [nā ealles]. nam, see niman. nama, see nǫma. nāmon, see niman. nān, _not one, no, none_ [ne ān]. nānwuht, n., _nothing_ [no whit]. ne, _not_. nē, _nor_; nē ... nē, _neither ... nor_. nēah (§ 96, (4)), _near_. nēah, adv., _nigh, near, nearly, almost_; comparative, nēar, _nearer_. neaht, see niht. nēalēcan (-lǣcan) (§ 126), _draw near to, approach_ (with dat.). nēar, see nēah, adv. nēat, n., _neat, cattle_. nęmnan (§ 127), _name_. nemðe, (nymðe), _except, unless_. nęrian (§ 125), _save, preserve_. nēten, see nīeten. nīedbeðearf, _needful, necessary_. nīehst, see nēah (§ 96, (4)). nīeten (nēten), n., _neat, beast, cattle_. nigontīene, _nineteen_. niht (neaht) (§ 68, (1), Note), _night_. nihthelm, m., _night-helm, shade of night_. nihtscūa, m., _shadow of night_. niht-weorc, n., _night-work_. niman (§ 114), _take, gain_ [nimble, numb]. nīpan (§ 102), _grow dark, darken_. nis, see § 40, Note 2. nīð, m., _malice, violence_. nīwe, _new, novel, startling_. nō, see nā. nōht (nāht, nā-wiht), n., _not a whit, naught, nothing_; _not, not at all_. nōhwæðer (nāhwæðer), _neither_; nōhwæðer nē ... ne ... nē ... ne 118, 8 = _neither ... nor_. nolde, noldon = ne wolde, ne woldon, see willan. nǫma (nama), m., _name_. norð (§ 97, (1)), _north, in the north, northwards_. norðan (§ 93, (5)), _from the north_; be norðan, see § 94, (4). Norð-Dęne, m. pl., _North-Danes_. norðeweard, _northward_. Norðhymbre, m. pl., _Northumbrians_. Norðmanna, see Norðmǫn. Norðmęn, see Norðmǫn. norðmest, see norð. Norðmǫn (-man) (§ 68, (1)), _Norwegian_. norðor, see norð. norðryhte, _northward_. norðweard, _northward_. Norðweg, _Norway_. nose, f., _cape, naze_ [ness, nose]. notu, f., _office, employment_. nū, _now_; _now that, seeing that_; nū ðā 138, 13 [[_Beowulf_ 658]] = _now then_. nȳhst (nīehst), see nēah. nymðe, see nemðe. nysse, see nytan. nyste, see nytan. nyt(t), _useful, profitable_. nytan (nitan < ne witan, § 136), _not to know_; 3d sing. pret., nysse, nyste.

#O.#

of (§ 94, (1)), _of, from, concerning_. ofer (§ 94, (2)), _over, across, after, in spite of_ (see 144, 14 [[_Beowulf_ 2725]]); ofer eorðan 142, 9 [[_Beowulf_ 803]] = _on earth_. ofer, adv., _over, across_. oferfēran (§ 126), _go over, traverse_. oferfrēosan (§ 109), _freeze over_. oferfroren, see oferfrēosan. ofgiefan (§ 115), _give up, relinquish_. ofost, f., _haste_. ofslægen, see ofslēan. ofslēan (§ 118), _slay off, slay_. ofslōge, see ofslēan. oft, _oft, often_; superlative, oftost. on (§ 94, (3)), _in, into, on, against, to, among, during_; on fīf oððe syx 109, 6 = _into five or six parts_; on weg 140, 10 [[_Beowulf_ 764]] = _away_; on innan 144, 5 [[_Beowulf_ 2716]] = _within_; on unriht 145, 15 [[_Beowulf_ 2740]] = _falsely_. onbærnan (§ 126), _kindle, inspire_. oncȳðð, f., _distress, suffering_. ǫnd (and), _and_. ǫndsaca, m., _adversary_. ǫndswarian (§ 130), _answer_. ǫndweard, adj., _present_. onfēng, see onfōn. onfeohtan (§ 110), _fight_. onfindan (§ 110), _find out, discover_; pret. indic. 3d sing., onfunde. onfōn (§ 118), _receive, seize violently_. onfunde, see onfindan. ongēan, prep., _against, towards_ (with dat. and acc.). ongēan, adv., _just across, opposite_. Ǫngelcynn (Angel-), n., _Angle kin, English people, England_. Ǫngelðēod (Angel-), f., _the English people or nation_. ongemang (-mǫng), _among_ (with dat.). ongietan (-gitan) (§ 115), _perceive, see, understand_. onginnan (§ 110), _begin, attempt_. onlūtan (§ 109), _bow, incline_ (intrans.) [lout = a stooper]. onrīdan (§ 102), _ride against, make a raid on_. onsęndan (§ 127), _send_. onslǣpan (onslēpan) (§ 126), _fall asleep, sleep_. onspǫnnan (§ 117), _loosen_ [unspan]; pret. 3d sing. indic., onspēon. onspringan (§ 110), _spring apart, unspring_. onstāl, m., _institution, supply_. onstęllan (§ 128), _establish_; pret. 3d sing. indic., onstealde. onwæcnan (§ 127), _awake_ (intrans.). onweald (-wald), m., _power, authority_ [wield]. onwęndan (§ 127), _change, overturn_ [to wind]. ōr, n., _beginning_. oð (§ 94, (2)), _until, as far as_ (of time and place); oð ðæt, oð ðe, _until_. oðberan (§ 114), _bear away_. ōðer, _other, second_; ōðer ... ōðer, _the one ... the other_. oðfæstan (§ 127), _set to_ (a task). oðfeallan (§ 117) _fall off, decline_. oððe, _or_; oððe ... oððe, _either ... or_.

#P.#

plega, m., _play, festivity_. port, m., _port_ [Lat. portus].

#R.#

rād, f., _raid_. rǣcan (§ 126), _reach_; pret. 3d sing., rǣhte. ræst, see ręst. Rēadingas, m. pl., _Reading_ (in Berkshire). ręccan (§ 128), _narrate, tell_; pret. pl. indic., ręhton, reahton. ręccelēas, _reckless, careless_. ręced, n., _house, hall_. regnian (rēnian) (§ 130), _adorn, prepare_; past part., geregnad. regollīc (-lec), _according to rule, regular_. rēn-weard, m., _mighty warden, guard, champion_. ręst (ræst), f., _rest, resting-place, bed_. rēðe, _fierce, furious_. rīce, _rich, powerful, aristocratic_. rīce, n., _realm, kingdom_ [bishopric]. rīcsian (§ 130), _rule_. rīdan (§ 102), _ride_. rīman (§ 126), _count_ [rime]. rinc, m., _man, warrior_. rōd, f., _rood, cross_; rōde tācen, _sign of the cross_. Rōmware, m. pl., _Romans_. rǫnd (rand), m., _shield_. rūn, f., _rune, secret meditation_ [to round = to whisper]. rycene (ricene), _quickly, rashly_. ryhtnorðanwind, m., _straight north-wind_.

#S.#

sǣ, f., _sea_. sǣ-bāt, m., _sea-boat_. sǣd, n., _seed_. sǣde, see sęcgan. sǣl, m., f., _time, happiness_ [sil-ly]; on sǣlum 137, 22 [[_Beowulf_ 644]] = _joyous, merry_. sǣlan (§ 126), _bind_. sǣ-līðend (§ 68, (3)), m., _seafarer_ (nom. and acc. pl. same as nom. and acc. sing.). sam ... sam, _whether ... or_. same, _similarly_; swā same, _just the same, in like manner_. samod, see sǫmod. sanct, m., f., _saint_ [Lat. sanctus]; gen. sing., sanctæ, f., sancti, m. sang, see sǫng. sār, f., n., _sore, pain, wound_. sār, adj., _sore, grievous_. sāre, _sorely_. sāwan (§ 117,) _sow_. sāwol, f., _soul_; oblique cases, sing., sāwle (§ 39, Note). scacan (sceacan) (§ 116), _shake, go, depart_; past part., scacen, sceacen. scadu-helm, m., _cover of night, shadow-covering_ [shadow-helm]; scadu-helma gesceapu, see Note on 138, 2-6 [[lines 647-51]]. sceal, see sculan. scēap, n., _sheep_. scēat, m., _corner, region, quarter_ [sheet]; eorðan scēatta 139, 14 [[_Beowulf_ 753]] = _in the regions of earth_ (gen. used as locative). scēawi(g)an (§ 130), _view, see_ [shew]. scēawung, f., _seeing_. sceolde, see sculan. scēop (scōp), see scieppan. scēowyrhta, m., _shoe-maker_. scęððan (§ 116), _injure, scathe_ (with dat.). scieppan (§ 116), _create_. Scieppend, m., _Creator_. scīnan (§ 102), _shine_. scip (scyp), n., _ship_. scipen, n., _stall_. sciprāp, m., _ship-rope, cable_. scīr, f., _shire, district_. Sciringeshēal, m., _Sciringesheal_ (in Norway). scolde, see sculan. scǫmu, f., _shame, dishonor_. Scōnēg, f., _Skaane_ (southern district of the Scandinavian peninsula). scopgereord, n., _poetic language_. scrīðan (§ 102), _stride, stalk_. sculan (§ 136; § 137, Note 2), _shall, have to, ought_. Scyldingas, m. pl., _Scyldings, Danes_. scyp, see scip. Scyppend, see Scieppend. sē, sēo, ðæt (§ 28; § 28, Note 3), _the_; _that_; _he, she, it_; _who, which, that_; ðæs, _from then, afterwards, therefore_; ðæs ðe (p. 110, l. 2), _with what_; ðȳ ... ðæt (p. 110, ll. 7-8), _for this reason ... because_; tō ðǣm ... swā, _to such an extent ... as_; ðy (ðē), _the_ (adverbial, with comparatives); ðȳ ... ðȳ, _the ... the_. seah, see sēon. sealde, see sęllan. searo-gimm, m., _artistic gem, jewel_. searo-nīð, m., _cunning hatred, plot_. searo-ðǫnc, m., _cunning thought, device_. Seaxe, m. pl., _Saxons, Saxony_. sēc(e)an (§ 128), _to seek, visit, meet_. sęcg, m., _man, warrior_. sęcgan (§ 132), _say, tell_. sefa, m., _mind, spirit_. sēfte, _more easily_ (comparative of sōfte). segel, m., n., _sail_; dat. sing. = segle. seglian (§ 130), _sail_. sęle, m., _hall_. sęledrēam, m., _hall joy, festivity_. sęle-ful, n., _hall cup_. sęlesęcg, m., _hall warrior, retainer_. sēlest, _best_ (no positive). self (sylf), _self, himself_ (declined as strong or weak adjective). sęllan (syllan) (§ 128), _give_ [sell, han(d)sel]. sęmninga, _forthwith, straightway_. sęndan (§ 127), _send_. sēo, see sē. sēoc, _sick_. seofon (syfan), _seven_. seolh, m., _seal_; gen. sing. = sēoles (§ 27, (3)). sēon (§ 118), _see, look_. seonu, f., _sinew_; nom. pl., seonowe. sess, m., _seat_. sibb, f., _friendship, peace_ [gos_sip_]. sidu (siodu), m., _custom, morality, good conduct_. sīe, see bēon. siex, _six_; syxa (siexa) sum, see sum. siextig, _sixty_. sige, m., _victory_. sige-folc, n., _victorious people_. sige-lēas, _victory-less, of defeat_. sige-rōf, victory-famed, _victorious_. sige-wǣpen, n., _victory-weapon_. siglan (§ 127), _sail_. Sillende, _Zealand_. sinc, n., _treasure, prize_. sinc-fǣt, n., see 137, 1 [[_Beowulf_ 623]] [treasure-vat]. sinc-ðęgu, f., _receiving of treasure_ [ðicgan]. sind, sint, sindon, see bēon. singan (§ 110), _sing_. sittan (§ 115, Note 2), _sit, take position_. sīð, m., _journey, time_; forman sīðe 139, 2 [[_Beowulf_ 741]] = _the first time_ (instr. sing.). sīðian (§ 130), _journey_. siððan, _after that, afterwards, after_. slǣp, m., _sleep_. slǣpan (§ 117), _sleep_. slēan (§ 118), _slay_ [slow-worm]. slītan (§ 102), _slit, tear to pieces_. slīðen, _savage, perilous_. smæl, _narrow_. smalost, see smæl. snāw, m., _snow_. snot(t)or, _wise, prudent_. sōhte, see sēcan. sǫmod (samod), _together_. sōna, _soon_. sǫng, m., n., _song, poem_. sǫngcræft, m., _art of song and poetry_. sorg (sorh), f., _sorrow_. sōð, _true_. sōð, n., _truth_; tō sōðe, _for a truth, truly, verily_. sōð-fæst, _truthful, just_. sōðlīce, _truly_. spēd, f., _possessions, success, riches_ [speed]. spēdig, _rich, prosperous_. spell, n., _story, tale_ [gospel]. spēow, see spōwan. spere, n., _spear_. spor, n., _track, footprint_. spōwan (§ 117), _succeed_ (impersonal with dat.). sprǣc, f., _speech, language_. sprecan (§ 115), _speak_. spyrian (spyrigean) (§ 130), _follow_ (intrans.) [spor]. stæf, _staff, rod_; pl. = _literature, learning_. stælhrān, m., _decoy-reindeer_. stælwierðe, _serviceable_ (see p. 56, Note 2). stǣr, n., _story, narrative_ [Lat. historia]. stæð, n., _shore_. stān, m., _stone, rock_. stān-boga, m., _stone-arch_ [stone-bow]. standan, see stǫndan. stānhlið (-hleoð), n., _stone-cliff_. stapol, m., _column_ [staple]. starian (§ 125), _stare, gaze_. stęde, m., _place_. stelan (§ 114), _steal_. stęnt, see stǫndan. stēorbord, n., _starboard, right side of a ship_. stęppan (§ 116), _step, advance_; pret. indic. 3d sing., stōp. stilnes, f., _stillness, quiet_. stǫndan (§ 116), _stand_. stōp, see stęppan. storm, m., _storm_. stōw, f., _place_ [stow, and in names of places]. strang, see strǫng. stręngest, see strǫng. strǫng (§ 96, (2)), _strong_. styccemǣlum, _here and there_. sum (§ 91, Note 2), _some, certain, a certain one_; hē syxa sum 104, 25 = _he with five others_. sumera, see sumor. sumor, m., _summer_; dat. sing. = sumera. sumorlida, m., _summer-army_. sundor, _apart_. sunne, f., _sun_. sunu, m., _son_. sūð, _south, southwards_. sūðan (§ 93, (5)), _from the south_; be sūðan, _south of_ (§ 94, (4)). sūðeweard, _southward_. sūðryhte, _southward_. swā (swǣ), _so, as, how, as if_; swā swā, _just as, as far as_; swā ... swā, _the ... the, as ... as_; swā hwæt swā, _whatsoever_ (§ 77, Note). swǣs, _beloved, own_. swæð, n., _track, footprint_ [swath]. swaðul, m.? n.?, _smoke_. swealh, see swelgan. swefan (§ 115), _sleep, sleep the sleep of death_. swefn, n., _sleep, dream_. swēg, m., _sound, noise_. swegle, _bright, clear_. swēlan (§ 126), _burn_ [sweal]. swelgan (§ 110), _swallow_; pret. indic. 3d sing., swealh; subj., swulge. swellan (§ 110), _swell_. Swēoland, n., _Sweden_. Swēom, m., dat. pl., _the Swedes_. sweotol, _clear_. sweotole, _clearly_. swęrian (§ 116), _swear_. swēte, _sweet_. swētnes (-nis), f., _sweetness_. swift (swyft), _swift_. swilc (swylc) (§ 77), _such_. swilce, _in such manner, as, likewise_; _as if, as though_ (with subj.). swimman (§ 110), _swim_. swīn (swȳn), n., _swine, hog_. swīnsung, f., _melody, harmony_. swīðe (swȳðe), _very, exceedingly, greatly_. swīðost, _chiefly, almost_. swōr, see swęrian. swulge, see swelgan. swuster (§ 68, (2)), f., _sister_. swylce (swelce), see swilce. swȳn, see swīn. swynsian (§ 130), _resound_. swȳðe, see swīðe. swȳð-ferhð, _strong-souled_. sylf, see self. syll, f., _sill, floor_. syllan, see sęllan. symbel, n., _feast, banquet_. symle, _always_. synd, see bēon. syn-dolh, n., _ceaseless wound, incurable wound_. syndriglīce, _specially_. synn, f., _sin_. syn-scaða, m., _ceaseless scather, perpetual foe_. syn-snǣd, f., _huge bit_ [ceaseless bit]. syððan, see siððan. syx, see siex. syxtig, see siextig.

#T.#

tācen, n., _sign, token_; dat. sing., tācne (§ 33, Note). tǣcan (§ 128), _teach_. tam, _tame_. tela, _properly, well_ [til]. tęllan (§ 128), _count, deem_ [tell]; pret. 3d sing., tealde. Tęmes, f., _the Thames_. tēon, _arrange, create_; pret. sing., tēode. Terfinna, m., gen. pl., _the Terfins_. tēð, see tōð. tīd, f., _tide, time, hour_. tīen (tȳn), _ten_. til(l), _good_. tīma, m., _time_. tintreglīc, _full of torment_. tō (§ 94, (1)), _to, for, according to, as_; tō hrōfe 114, 2 = _for (as) a roof_ [cf. Biblical _to wife_, modern _to boot_]. tō, adv., _too_. tōbrecan (p. 81, Note 2), _break to pieces, knock about_. tōdǣlan (§ 126), _divide_. tōemnes (tō emnes) (§ 94, (4)), _along, alongside_. tōforan (§ 94, (1)), _before_. tōgeðēodan (§ 126), _join_. tōhopa, m., _hope_. tōlicgan (§ 115, Note 2), _separate, lie between_; 3d sing, indic. = tōlīð. tōlīð, see tōlicgan. tolūcan (§ 109, Note 1), _destroy_ [the prefix tō reverses the meaning of lūcan, _to lock_]. torn, m., _anger, insult_. tōð (§ 68, (1)), m., _tooth_. tōweard (§ 94, (1)), _toward_. tōweard, adj., _approaching, future_. trēow, f., _pledge, troth_. trēownes, f., _trust_. Trūsō, _Drausen_ (a city on the Drausensea). tūn, m., _town, village_. tunge, f., _tongue_. tūngerēfa, m., _bailiff_ [town-reeve; so sheriff = shire-reeve]. tungol, n., _star_. twā, see twēgen. twēgen, (§ 89), _two, twain_. twēntig, _twenty_. tȳn, see tīen.

#Ð.#

ðā, _then, when_; ðā ... ðā, _when ... then_; ðā ðā, _then when_ = _when_. ðā, see sē. ðǣr, _there, where_; ðǣr ðǣr, _there where_ = _where_; ðǣr ... swā 142, 4 [[_Beowulf_ 798]] = _wheresoever_; 145, 6 [[_Beowulf_ 2731]] = _if so be that_. ðæs, _afterwards, therefore, thus, because_; see sē. ðæt (ðætte = ðæt ðe), _that, so that_. ðafian (§ 130), _consent to_. ðanc, see ðǫnc. ðancian (ðǫncian) (§ 130), _thank_. ðanon, see ðǫnan. ðās, see ðēs. ðē, see sē (instr. sing.) and ðū. ðe (§ 75), _who, whom, which, that_. ðēah, _though, although_; ðēah ðe, _though, although_. ðearf, see ðurfan. ðearf, f., _need, benefit_. ðēaw, m., _habit, custom_ [thews]. ðegn (ðegen), m., _servant, thane, warrior_. ðęnc(e)an (§ 128), _think, intend_. ðening (-ung), f., _service_; the pl. may mean _book of service_ (117, 17). ðēod, f., _people, nation_. ðēoden, m., _prince, lord_. ðēodscipe, m., _discipline_. ðēon (ðȳwan) (§ 126), _oppress_ [ðēow]. ðēow, m., _servant_. ðēowa, m., _servant_. ðēowotdōm (ðīowot-), m., _service_. ðēs (§ 73), _this_. ðider, _thither_. ðiderweard, _thitherward_. ðīn (§ 76), _thine_. ðing, n., _thing_; ǣnige ðinga, see 140, 15 [[_Beowulf_ 769]], Note. ðingan (§ 127), _arrange, appoint_. ðis, see ðēs. ðissum, see ðēs. ðōhte, ðōhton, see ðęncean. ðolian (§ 130), _endure_ [thole]. ðǫnan, _thence_. ðǫnc, m., _thanks_. ðone, see sē. ðonne, _than, then, when_; ðonne ... ðonne, _when ... then_. ðrāg, f., _time_. ðrēa-nȳd, f., _compulsion, oppression, misery_ [throe-need]. ðrēora, see ðrīe. ðridda, _third_. ðrie (ðrȳ) (§ 89), _three_. ðrīm, see ðrīe. ðrīst-hȳdig, _bold-minded_. ðrītig, _thirty_. ðrōwung, f., _suffering_. ðrȳ, see ðrīe. ðrym(m), m., _renown, glory, strength_. ðrȳð, f., _power, multitude_ (pl. used in sense of sing.); asca ðrȳðe 152, 23 [[_Wanderer_ 99]] = _the might of spears_. ðrȳð-ærn, n., _mighty house, noble hall_. ðrȳð-word, n., _mighty word, excellent discourse_. ðū (§ 72), _thou_. ðūhte, see ðyncan. ðurfan (§ 136), _need_; pres. indic. 3d sing., ðearf; pret. 3d sing., ðorfte; for-ðām mē wītan ne ðearf Waldend fīra morðor-bealo māga 145, 17 [[_Beowulf_ 2742]] = _therefore the Ruler of men need not charge me with the murder of kinsmen_. ðurh (§ 94, (2)), _through_. ðus, _thus_. ðūsend, _thousand_. ðȳ, see sē. ðyder, see ðider. ðyncan (§ 128), _seem, appear_ (impersonal); mē ðyncð, _methinks, it seems to me_; him ðūhte, _it seemed to him_.

#U.#

ūhta, m., _dawn_; gen. pl., ūhtna. unbeboht, _unsold_ [bebycgan = _to sell_]. uncūð, _unknown, uncertain_ [uncouth]. under, _under_ (with dat. and acc.). understǫndan (§ 116), _understand_. underðēodan (-ðīedan) (§ 126), _subject to_; past part. underðēoded = _subjected to, obedient to_ (with dat.). unforbærned, _unburned_. unfrið, m., _hostility_. ungefōge, _excessively_. ungemete, _immeasurably, very_. ungesewenlīc, _invisible_ [past part. of sēon + līc]. unlyfigend, _dead, dead man_ [unliving]. unlȳtel, _no little, great_. unriht, n., _wrong_; on unriht, see on. unrihtwīsnes, f., _unrighteousness_. unspēdig, _poor_. unwearnum, _unawares_. ūp (ūpp), _up_. ūpāstīgnes, f., _ascension_ [stīgan]. ūp-lang, _upright_. ūre (§ 76), _our_. usses = gen. sing. neut. of ūser, see ic. ūt, _out, outside_. ūtan, _from without, outside_. ūtanbordes, _abroad_. ūtgǫng, m., _exodus_. uton, _let us_ (with infin.) [literally _let us go_ with infin. of purpose (see 137, 19-20, Note [[lines 641-42]]); uton = wuton, corrupted form of 1st pl. subj. of wītan, _to go_]. ūt-weard, _outward bound, moving outwards_.

#W.#

wāc, _weak, insignificant_. wacian (§ 130), _watch, be on guard_; imperative sing., waca. wadan (§ 116), _go, tread_ [wade]. wǣg, m., _wave_. Wǣgmundigas, m. _Wægmundings_ (family to which Beowulf and Wiglaf belonged). wæl, n., _slaughter, the slain_. wæl-blēat, _deadly_ [slaughter-pitiful]. wælgīfre, _greedy for slaughter_. wæl-rǣs, m., _mortal combat_ [slaughter-race]. wæl-rēow, _fierce in strife_. wælsliht (-sleaht), m., _slaughter_. wælstōw, f., _battle-field_ [slaughter-place]; wælstōwe gewald, _possession of the battle-field_. wǣpen, n., _weapon_. wǣre, see bēon. wæs, see bēon. wæter, n., _water_. waldend, see _wealdend_. wan (wǫn), _wan, dark_. wanhȳdig, _heedless, rash_. wānigean (wānian) (§ 130), _bewail, lament_ (trans.) [whine]. warian (§ 130), _attend, accompany_. wāt, see witan. waðum, m., _wave_; gen. pl., waðema. weal(l), m., _wall, rampart_. wealdend (§ 68, (3)), _wielder, ruler, lord_. wealh, m., _foreigner, Welshman_. wealhstōd, m., _interpreter, translator_. weallan (§ 117), _well up, boil, be agitated_; pret. 3d. sing. indic., wēoll. wealsteal(l), m., _wall-place, foundation_. weard, m., _ward, keeper_. wearð, see weorðan. weaxan (§ 117), _wax, grow_. weg, m., _way_; hys weges, see § 93, (3); on weg, see on. wel(l), _well, readily_. wela, m., _weal, prosperity, riches_. welm, see wielm. wēnan (§ 126), _ween, think, expect_. węndan (§ 127), _change, translate_ [wend, windan]. węnian (§ 130), _entertain_; węnian mid wynnum 149, 20 [[_Wanderer_ 29]] = _entertain joyfully_; węnede tō wiste 149, 27 [[_Wanderer_ 36]] = _feasted_ (trans.). Weonodland (Weonoðland), n., _Wendland_. weorc, n., _work, deed_. weorold (weoruld), see woruld. weorpan (§ 110), _throw_. weorðan (§ 110), _be, become_. wer, m., _man_ [werwulf]. wērig, _weary, dejected_. werod, n., _army, band_. wesan, see bēon. Wesseaxe, m. pl., _West Saxons_; gen. pl. = Wesseaxna. west, _west, westward_. westanwind, m., _west wind_. wēste, _waste_. wēsten, n., _waste, desert_. Westsǣ, f., _West Sea_ (west of Norway). Westseaxe, m. pl., _West Saxons, Wessex_. wīc, n., _dwelling_ [bailiwick]. wīcian (§ 130), _stop, lodge, sojourn_ [wīc]. wīdre, adv., _farther, more widely_ (comparative of wīde). wīdsǣ, f., _open sea_. wielm (welm), m., _welling, surging flood_ [weallan]. wīf, n., _wife, woman_. wīg, m., n., _war, battle_. wiga, m., _warrior_. wild, _wild_. wildor, n., _wild beast, reindeer_; dat. pl. = wildrum (§ 33, Note). willa, m., _will, pleasure_; gen. pl., wilna (138, 16 [[_Beowulf_ 661]]). willan (§ 134; § 137, Note 3), _will, intend, desire_. wilnung, f., _wish, desire_; for ðǣre wilnunga 119, 4 = _purposely_. Wiltūn, m., _Wilton_ (in Wiltshire). wīn, n., _wine_. wīn-ærn, n., _wine-hall_. Wīnburne, f., _Wimborne_ (in Dorsetshire). wind, m., _wind_. wine, m., _friend_. Winedas, m. pl., _the Wends, the Wend country_. wine-dryhten, m., _friendly lord_. winelēas, _friendless_. winemǣg, m., _friendly kinsman_. wīngeard, m., _vineyard_. winnan (§ 110), _strive, fight_ [win]. wīnsæl, n., _wine-hall_. wīn-sęle, m., _wine-hall_. winter, m., _winter_; dat. sing. = wintra. wintercearig, _winter-sad, winter-worn_. wīs, _wise_. wīsdōm, m., _wisdom_. wīse, _wisely_. wīse, f., _manner, matter, affair_ [in this wise]. wīs-fæst, _wise_ [wise-fast; cf. shame-faced = shamefast]. wīs-hycgende, _wise-thinking_. Wīsle, f., _the Vistula_. Wīslemūða, m., _the mouth of the Vistula_. wisse, see witan. wist, f., _food, feast_. wita, m., _wise man, councillor_. witan (§ 136), _know, show, experience_. wītan (§ 102), _reproach, blame_ (with acc. of thing, dat. of person). wīte, n., _punishment_. Wītland, n., _Witland_ (in Prussia). wið (§ 94, (3)), _against, toward, with_; wið ēastan and wið ūpp on emnlange ðǣm bȳnum lande, _toward the east, and upwards along the cultivated land_; wið earm gesæt 139, 11 [[_Beowulf_ 750]] = _supported himself on his arm_; genęred wið nīðe (dat.) 143, 11 [[_Beowulf_ 828]] = _had preserved it from (against) violence_. wiðerwinna, m., _adversary_. wiðfōn (§ 118), _grapple with_ (with dat.). wiðhabban (§ 133), _withstand, resist_ (with dat.). wiðstǫndan (§ 116), _withstand, resist_ (with dat.). wlǫnc, _proud_. wōd, see wadan. wolcen, n., _cloud_ [welkin]; dat. pl., wolcnum. wolde, see willan. wōma, m., _noise, alarm, terror_. wǫn, see wan. wōp, n., _weeping_. word, n., _word_. wōrian (§ 130), _totter, crumble_. worn, m., _large number, multitude_. woruld, f., _world_; tō worulde būtan ǣghwilcum ęnde 102, 18 = _world without end_. woruldcund, _worldly, secular_. woruldhād, m., _secular life_ [world-hood]. woruldrīce, n., _world-kingdom, world_. woruldðing, n., _worldly affair_. wræclāst, m., _track or path of an exile_. wrāð, _wroth, angry_; _foe, enemy_. wrītan (§ 102), _write_. wucu, f., _week_. wudu, m., _wood, forest_. wuldor, n., _glory_. Wuldorfæder (§ 68, (2)), m., _Father of glory_; gen. sing., Wuldorfæder. Wuldur-cyning, m., _King of glory_. wulf, m., _wolf_. wund, f., _wound_. wund, _wounded_. wunden, _twisted, woven, convolute_ (past part. of windan). wundor, n., _wonder, marvel_. wundrian (§ 130), _wonder at_ (with gen.). wurdon, see weorðan. wurðan, see weorðan. wylf, f., _she wolf_. wyllað, see willan. wyn-lēas, _joyless_. wynn, f., _joy, delight_. wynsum, _winsome, delightful_. wyrc(e)an (§ 128), _work, make, compose_. wyrd, f., _weird, fate, destiny_. wyrhta, m., _worker, creator_ [-wright]. wyrm, m., _worm, dragon, serpent_. wyrmlīca, m., _serpentine ornamentation_. wyrð (weorð), _worthy_; see 114, 7-9, Note.

#Y.#

ylca, see ilca. yldan (§ 127), _delay, postpone_ [eald]. yldu, f., _age_ [eld]. ymbe (ymb) (§ 94, (2)), _about, around, concerning_ [_um_while]; ðæs ymb iii niht 99, 2 = _about three nights afterwards_. ymb-ēode, see ymb-gān. ymbe-sittend, _one who sits (dwells) round about another, neighbor_. ymb-gān (§ 134), _go about, go around, circle_ (with acc.). yrfe-weard, m., _heir_. yrnan, see iernan. yrre, _ireful, angry_. yteren, _of an otter_ [_otor_]. ȳðan (§ 126), _lay waste_ (as by a deluge) [ȳð = _wave_].

II. GLOSSARY.

MODERN ENGLISH--OLD ENGLISH.

#A.#

a, _ān_ (§ 77). abide, _bīdan_ (§ 102), _ābīdan_. about, _be_ (§ 94, (1)), _ymbe_ (§ 94, (2)); to write about, _wrītan be_; to speak about (= of), _sprecan ymbe_; about two days afterwards, _ðæs ymbe twēgen dagas_. adder, _nǣdre_ (§ 64). afterwards, _ðæs_ (§ 93, (3)). against, _wið_ (§ 94, (3)), _on_ (§ 94, (3)). Alfred, _Ælfred_ (§ 26). all, _eall_ (§ 80). also, _ēac_. although, _ðēah_ (§ 105, 2). always, _ā_; _ealne weg_ (§ 98, (1)). am, _eom_ (§ 40). an, see a. and, _ǫnd_ (_and_). angel, ęngel (§ 26). animal, _dēor_ (§ 32). are, _sind, sint, sindon_ (§ 40). army, _werod_ (§ 32); Danish army, _hęre_ (§ 26); English army, _fierd_ (§ 38). art, _eart_ (§ 40). Ashdown, _Æscesdūn_ (§ 38). ask, _biddan_ (§ 65, Note 3; § 115, Note 2). away, _aweg_.

#B.#

battle-field, _wælstōw_ (§ 38). be, _bēon_ (§ 40); not to be, see § 40, Note 2. bear, _beran_ (§ 114). because, _for ðǣm (ðe), for ðon (ðe)_. become, _weorðan_ (§ 110). before (temporal conjunction), _ǣr, ǣr ðǣm ðe_ (§ 105, 2). begin, _onginnan_ (§ 107, (1); § 110). belong to, _belimpan tō_ + dative (§ 110). best, see good. better, see good. bind, _bindan_ (§ 110). bird, _fugol_ (§ 26). bite, _bītan_ (§ 102). body, _līc_ (§ 32). bone, _bān_ (§ 32). book, _bōc_ (§ 68). both ... and, _ǣgðer ge ... ge_. boundary, _mearc_ (§ 38). boy, _cnapa_ (§ 64). break, _brēotan_ (§ 109), _brecan, ābrecan_ (§ 114). brother, _brōðor_ (§ 68, (2)). but, _ac_. by, _frǫm_ (_fram_) (§ 94, (1); § 141, Note 1).

#C.#

Cædmon, _Cædmǫn_ (§ 68, (1)). call, _hātan_ (§ 117, (1)). cease, cease from, _geswīcan_ (§ 102). child, _bearn_ (§ 32). choose, _cēosan_ (§ 109). Christ, _Crīst_ (§ 26). church, _cirice_ (§ 64). come, _cuman_ (§ 114). comfort, _frōfor_ (§ 38). companion, _gefēra_ (§ 64). consolation, _frōfor_ (§ 38). create, _gescieppan_ (§ 116).

#D.#

Danes, _Dęne_ (§ 47). day, _dæg_ (§ 26). dead, _dēad_ (§ 80). dear (= beloved), _lēof_ (§ 80). deed, _dǣd_ (§ 38). die, _cwelan_ (§ 114). division (of troops), _gefylce_ (§ 32), _getruma_ (§ 64). do, _dōn_ (§ 134). door, _dor_ (§ 32), _duru_ (§ 52). drink, _drincan_ (§ 110). during, _on_ (§ 94, (3)). See also § 98. dwell in, _būan on_ (§ 126, Note 2).

#E.#

earl, _eorl_ (§ 26). endure, _drēogan_ (§ 109). England, _Ęnglalǫnd_ (§ 32). enjoy, _brūcan_ (§ 62, Note 1; § 109, Note 1). every, _ǣlc_ (§ 77). eye, _ēage_ (§ 64).

#F.#

father, _fæder_ (§ 68, (2)). field, _feld_ (§ 51). fight, _feohtan, gefeohtan_ (§ 110). find, _findan_ (§ 110). finger, _finger_ (§ 26). fire, _fȳr_ (§ 32). fisherman, _fiscere_ (§ 26). foreigner, _wealh_ (§ 26). freedom, _frēodōm_ (§ 26). friend, _wine_ (§ 45), _frēond_ (§ 68, (3)). friendship, _frēondscipe_ (§ 45). full, _full_ (with genitive) (§ 80).

#G.#

gain the victory, _sige habban, sige niman_. gift, _giefu_ (§ 38). give, _giefan_ (with dative of indirect object) (§ 115). glad, _glæd_ (§ 81). glove, _glōf_ (§ 38). go, _gān_ (§ 134), _faran_ (§ 116). God, _God_ (§ 26). good, _gōd_ (§ 80).

#H.#

Halgoland, _Hālgoland_ (§ 32). hall, _heall_ (§ 38). hand, _hǫnd_ (§ 52). hard, _heard_ (§ 80). have, _habban_ (§ 34); not to have, _nabban_ (p. 32, Note). he, _hē_ (§ 53). head, _hēafod_ (§ 32). hear, _hīeran_ (§ 126). heaven, _heofon_ (§ 26). help, _helpan_ (with dative) (§ 110). herdsman, _hierde_ (§ 26). here, _hēr_. hither, _hider_. hold, _healdan_ (§ 117, (2)). holy, _hālig_ (§ 82). horse, _mearh_ (§ 26), _hors_ (§ 32). house, _hūs_ (§ 32).

#I.#

I, _ic_ (§ 72). in, _on_ (§ 94, (3)). indeed, _sōðlīce_. injure, _scęððan_ (with dative) (§ 116). it, _hit_ (§ 53).

#K.#

king, _cyning_ (§ 26). kingdom, _rīce_ (§ 32), _cynerīce_ (§ 32).

#L.#

land, _lǫnd_ (§ 32). language, _sprǣc_ (§ 38), _geðēode_ (§ 32). large, _micel_ (§ 82). leisure, _ǣmetta_ (§ 64). let us, _uton_ (with infinitive). limb, _lim_ (§ 32). little, _lytel_ (§ 82). live in, _būan on_ (§ 126, Note 2). lord, _hlāford_ (§ 26). love, _lufian_ (§ 131). love (noun), _lufu_ (§ 38).

#M.#

make, _wyrcan_ (§ 128). man, _sęcg_ (§ 26), _mǫn_ (§ 68, (1)). many, _mǫnig_ (§ 82). mare, _mȳre_ (§ 64). mead, _medu_ (§ 51). Mercians, _Mierce_ (§ 47). milk, _meolc_ (§ 38). month, _mōnað_ (§ 68, (1), Note 1). mouth, _mūð_ (§ 26). much, _micel_ (§ 96, (3)), _micle_ (§ 97, (2)). murderer, _bǫna_ (§ 64). my, _mīn_ (§ 76).

#N.#

natives, _lǫndlēode_ (§ 47). nephew, _nefa_ (§ 64). new, _nīwe_ (§ 82). Northumbrians, _Norðymbre_ (§ 47). not, _ne_.

#O.#

of, see about. on, _on_ (§ 94, (3)), _ofer_ (§ 94, (2)). one, _ān_ (§ 89); the one ... the other, _ōðer ... ōðer_. other, _ōðer_ (§ 77). our, _ūre_ (§ 76). ox, _oxa_ (§ 64).

#P.#

place, _stōw_ (§ 38). plundering, _hęrgung_ (§ 38). poor, _earm_ (§ 80), _unspēdig_ (§ 82). prosperous, _spēdig_ (§ 82).

#Q.#

queen, _cwēn_ (§ 49).

#R.#

reindeer, _hrān_ (§ 26). remain, _bīdan_ (§ 102), _ābīdan_. retain possession of the battle-field, _āgan wælstōwe gewald_. rich, _rīce_ (§ 82), _spēdig_ (§ 82). ride, _rīdan_ (§ 102).

#S.#

say, _cweðan_ (§ 115), _sęcgan_ (§ 133). scribe, _bōcere_ (§ 26). seal, _seolh_ (§ 26). see, _sēon_ (§ 118), _gesēon_. serpent, _nǣdre_ (§ 64). servant, _ðēowa_ (§ 64), _ðegn_ (§ 26). shall, _sculan_ (§ 136; § 137, Note 2). she, _hēo_ (§ 53). shepherd, _hierde_ (§ 26). ship, _scip_ (§ 32). shire, _scīr_ (§ 38). shoemaker, _scēowyrhta_ (§ 64). side, on both sides, _on gehwæðre hǫnd_. six, _siex_ (§ 90). slaughter, _wæl_ (§ 32), _wælsliht_ (§ 45). small, _lȳtel_ (§ 82). son, _sunu_ (§ 51). soul, _sāwol_ (§ 38). speak, _sprecan_ (§ 115). spear, _gār_ (§ 26), _spere_ (§ 32). stand, _stǫndan_ (§ 116). stone, _stān_ (§ 26). stranger, _wealh_ (§ 26), _cuma_ (§ 64). suffer, _drēogan_ (§ 109). sun, _sunne_ (§ 64). swift, _swift_ (§ 80).

#T.#

take, _niman_ (§ 110). than, _ðonne_ (§ 96, (6)). thane, _ðegn_ (§ 26). that (conjunction), _ðæt_. that (demonstrative), _sē, sēo, ðæt_ (§ 28). that (relative), _ðe_ (§ 75). the, _se, sēo, ðæt_ (§ 28). then, _ðā, ðonne_. these, see this. they, _hīe_ (§ 53). thing, _ðing_ (§ 32). thirty, _ðrītig_. this, _ðēs, ðēos, ðis_ (§ 73). those, see that (demonstrative). thou, _ðū_ (§ 72). though, _ðēah_ (§ 105, 2). three, _ðrīe_ (§ 89). throne, ascend the throne, _tō rīce fōn_. throw, _weorpan_ (§ 110). to, _tō_ (§ 94, (1)). tongue, _tunge_ (§ 64). track, _spor_ (§ 32). true, _sōð_ (§ 80). truly, _sōðlīce_. two, _twēgen_ (§ 89).

#V.#

very, _swīðe_. vessel, _fæt_ (§ 32). victory, _sige_ (§ 45).

#W.#

wall, _weall_ (§ 26). warrior, _sęcg_ (§ 26), _eorl_ (§ 26). way, _weg_ (§ 26). weapon, _wǣpen_ (§ 32). well, _wel_ (§ 97, (2)). Welshman, _Wealh_ (§ 26). went, see go. westward, _west, westrihte_. whale, _hwæl_ (§ 26). what? _hwæt_ (§ 74). when, _ðā, ðonne_. where? _hwǣr_. which, _ðe_ (§ 75). who? _hwā_ (§ 74). who (relative), _ðe_ (§ 75). whosoever, _swā hwā swā_ (§ 77, Note). will, _willan_ (§ 134; § 137, Note 3). Wilton, _Wiltūn_ (§ 26). win, see gain. wine, _wīn_ (§ 32). wisdom, _wīsdōm_ (§ 26). wise, _wīs_ (§ 80). with, _mid_ (§ 94, (1)); to fight with (= against), _gefeohtan wið_ (§ 94, (3)). withstand, _wiðstǫndan_ (with dative) (§ 116). wolf, _wulf_ (§ 26), _wylf_ (§ 38). woman, _wīf_ (§ 32). word, _word_ (§ 32). worm, _wyrm_ (§ 45).

#Y.#

ye, _gē_ (§ 72). year, _gēar_ (§ 32). yoke, _geoc_ (§ 32). you, _ðū_ (singular), _gē_ (plural) (§ 72). your, _ðīn_ (singular), _ēower_ (plural) (§ 76).

* * * * * * * * * * * * * *

Errata

The spelling “Fins” (translating “ðā Finnas”) is used consistently. Errors were trivial, generally missing punctuation. Shakespeare citations have been silently regularized to “I, ii, 3” form. The Old English text was not checked for misprints.

Numbered Sections:

9 Note to t.: #sęttan#, _to set_ [to t.] 39 NOTE.--Syncopation occurs as in masculine and neuter a-stems. [_final . missing_] 41 sēo hālignes[1], _holiness_. [_comma missing_] 95 for ðǣm, } [_comma missing_] 104 corresponding with its function in Mn.E. [_final . missing_] 130 eard-ian, eard-ode ... [_first comma missing_] 131 NOTE 1. [NOTE. 1.] 132 hæf-de, lif-de, sęcg-an, [_all commas missing_]

Readings:

Poetry: Structure: Meter: Type B: The type of B most frequently occurring is × × –́ | × –́. [_final . missing_]

Beowulf: The Banquet in Heorot (page 138). [8] = ealdre (instr. sing.). [_final . missing_]

Glossary:

ābūgan (§ 109, Note 1) [Note, 1] dēofol, m., n., _devil_; [m. n.,] intinga, m., _cause, sake_. [intinga.] lagulād, f., _sea_ [lake-way, lād = _leading, direction, way_]. [_closing bracket printed as parenthesis_] norðan (§ 93, (5)), _from the north_; [_second closing parenthesis missing_] sǣl, m., f., _time, happiness_ [sil-ly]; [m. f.,] sēfte, _more easily_ (comparative of sōfte). [_closing parenthesis missing_] Swēom, m., dat. pl., _the Swedes_. [_final . missing_] tolūcan (§ 109, Note 1), _destroy_ ... [_section mark § missing_] wið (§ 94, (3)), ... [_section mark § missing_]