CHAPTER VI.

_SUPPLEMENTARY._

REMAINS OF LAKE-DWELLINGS IN ENGLAND.

As indicated by the title, the special object and scope of this work is to illustrate the phenomena of lake-dwellings as explored in Scotland. This limitation has been adopted, not with the intention of implying that there is any necessary identity between the area marked out by the general distribution of lake-dwellings and that included within the geographical limits of the kingdom of Scotland, but because, hitherto, their recorded remains south of the Scottish border were so few and undecided in character that there could hardly be any justification in deviating from the commonly entertained opinion that these structures were not to be found in England. But after finishing my labours under this impression, some additional facts have come under my cognisance which greatly strengthen the idea, rather hesitatingly expressed at the conclusion of my last chapter, viz., the probability of the lake-dwelling district being found to coincide with the former extension of the Celtic area in Britain. Partly to support this theory, but more particularly to make this work more complete by including the actual materials that could be supplied were it to appear under the more comprehensive title which the substitution of the word _British_ instead of _Scottish_ would give to it, I have collected together, in the form of this supplementary chapter, all the scattered notices of such trustworthy observations as can now be fairly construed to indicate the sites of lacustrine abodes in England. It will be noticed that some of the recorded observations here reproduced were actually made before antiquaries had time to realise the magnitude of the Continental lake-dwellings, or the subsequent promulgation of Dr. Robertson's views on the Scottish crannogs, and consequently at a time when their real importance was apt to be overlooked; otherwise, it is impossible to conceive how such highly suggestive facts did not at once lead to more definite information.

_Wretham Mere, Norfolk._

Sir Charles J. F. Bunbury, as early as 1856, noticed some appearances in a drained _mere_ near Wretham Hall, Norfolk, which clearly point to being the remains of a lake-dwelling. In a communication on the subject to the Geological Society,[53] he says:--"About Wretham there are several _meres_, or small natural sheets of water, without any outlet. The one to which my attention was particularly called by Mr. Birch occupied about forty-eight acres, and was situated in a slight natural depression, the ground sloping gently to it from all sides. The water has been drawn off by machinery, for the purpose of making use, as manure, of the black peaty mud which formed the bottom....

"Numerous horns of red-deer have been found in the peaty mud, generally (as I was informed) at 5 or 6 feet below the surface, seldom deeper; many attached to the skull, others separate, and with the appearance of having been shed naturally. What is most remarkable, several of those which were found with the skulls attached had been _sawn off_ just above the brow antlers--not broken, but cut off clean and smoothly, evidently by human agency. Some of these horns are of large size, measuring 9 inches round immediately below the brow antler....

"Numerous posts of oak-wood, shaped and pointed by human art, were found standing erect, entirely buried in the peat."

_Pile Structures at London Wall._

On December 18th, 1866, General Lane Fox, F.S.A., read a paper at the Anthropological Society, entitled "A Description of certain Piles found near London Wall and Southwark, possibly the remains of Pile-Buildings."

The author commenced by observing that his attention was directed to this locality by a short paragraph in the _Times_ of the 20th October 1866, stating that upwards of twenty cart-loads of bones had been dug out of the excavations which were being made for the foundations of a wool warehouse near London Wall.

The excavation in question commenced at 40 yards south of the street pavement; therefore, in all probability, at about 70 or 80 yards from the site of the old wall. The area excavated at the time of General Lane Fox's visit was of an irregular oblong form, 61 yards in length, running north and south, and 23 yards wide.

A section of the soil consisted of--

"1. Gravel similar to Thames ballast at a depth of 17 feet towards the north, inclining to 22 feet towards the south end.

"2. Above this, peat of unequal thickness, varying from 7 to 9 feet.

"3. Modern remains of London earth, composed of the accumulated rubbish of the city."

Regarding the remains of piles, the author makes the following important observations:--

"Upon looking over the ground, my attention was at once attracted by a number of piles, the decayed tops of which appeared above the unexcavated portions of the peat, dotted here and there over the whole of the space cleared. I noted down the positions of all that were above ground at the time; and as the excavations continued during the last two months, I have marked from time to time the positions of all the others as they became exposed to view.

"Commencing on the south, a row of them ran north and south on the west side, to the right of these a curved row, as if forming part of a ring. Higher up and running obliquely across the ground was a row of piles, having a plank about an inch and a half thick and a foot broad placed along the south face, as if binding the piles together. To the left of these another row of piles ran east and west; to the north-east again were several circular clusters of piles; these were not in rings but grouped in clusters, and the piles were from eight to sixteen inches apart. To the left of this another row of piles and a plank two inches thick ran north and south. There were two other rows north of this and several detached piles, but no doubt several towards the north end had been removed before I arrived.

"The piles averaged six to eight inches square; others of smaller size measured four inches by three; and one or two were as much as a foot square. They appeared to be roughly cut, as if with an axe, and pointed square; there was no trace of iron shoeing on any of them, nor was there any appearance of metal fastenings in its planks; they may have been tied to the piles, but if so, the binding material had decayed. The grain of the wood was still visible in some of them, and they appear to be of oak. The planks averaged from one to two inches thick. The points of the piles were inserted from one to two feet in the gravel, and were, for the most part, well preserved, but all the tops had rotted off at about two feet above the gravel, which I conclude must have been the surface of the ground, or of the water at the time these structures were in existence."

The relics were exclusively found in the peat or middle layer (which varied from 7 to 9 feet in thickness), but "interspersed at different levels from top to bottom throughout it." According to the author the vast majority of them belonged to the Roman era. He says: "Amongst them are quantities of broken red Samian pottery, mostly plain, but some of it depicting men and animals in relief; one specimen is stamped with the name of Macrinus. All this pottery, in the opinion of Mr. Franks, to whom I showed it, is of foreign manufacture. Other samples are of the kind supposed to have been manufactured in the Upchurch Marshes in Kent, and upon the site of St. Paul's Churchyard. Bronze and copper pins, iron knives, iron and bronze stylus, tweezers, iron shears, a piece of polished metal mirror, so bright that you may see your face in it (this Dr. Percy has pronounced to be of iron pyrites, white sulphuret of iron without alloy), an iron double-edged hatchet, an iron implement, apparently for dressing leather, a piece of bronze vessel, and other bronze and iron implements, which, thanks to the preserving properties of the peat, are all in excellent preservation. Amongst these were also a quantity of leather soles of shoes or sandals, some apparently much worn, and others, being thickly studded with hobnails, may be recognised as the caliga of the Roman legions; also a piece of a tile with the letters P · PR · BR · stamped upon it. Specimens of these are on the table. The coins found are those of Nerva, Vespasian, Trajan, Adrian, and Antoninus Pius....

"In addition to the Roman relics above mentioned, others of ruder construction remain to be described. They consist of what, in the absence of any evidence respecting their uses, may be called handles and points of bone. The former are composed of the metacarpal bones of the red-deer and _Bos longifrons_ cut through in the middle, and roughly squared at the small end; the others, which are called by the workmen spear-heads, are pointed at one end and hollowed out at the other, as if to receive a shaft. Both Professor Owen and Mr. Blake concur in thinking these implements may possibly have been formed with flint, but I cannot ascertain that they were found at a lower level than the Roman remains, nor have any flint implements, to my knowledge, been found in the place. With them were also found the two bone skates on the table; they are of the metacarpal bone of a small horse or ass, one of which has been much used on the ice. Exactly similar skates also of the metacarpal of the horse or ass have been found in a tumulus of the stone period at Oosterend in Friesland; a drawing of them is given in Lindenschmit's Catalogue of the Museum at Mayence, etc. Others have also been found in Zeeland, at Utrecht, and in Guelderland, and there is a specimen in the Museum at Hanover. Professor Lindenschmit attributes all these to the stone period, but the specimens on the table are evidently of the iron age, the holes in the back having been formed for the insertion of an iron staple. Similar skates have been found in the Thames, but they have not hitherto been considered to date so early in England as in Roman times."

Throughout the peat were several kitchen-middens. One deposited a foot and a half above the gravel is thus described: "A layer of oyster and mussel shells about a foot thick, with a filtration of carbonate of lime permeating through the moss. In this kitchen-midden Roman pottery and a Roman caliga were found. Close by, the point of a pile, part of which is exhibited, was found upright in the peat; it had been driven in in such a manner that the point descends to the level of the kitchen-midden and no further. Now, as a pile, in order to obtain a holding, must have been driven at least two feet in the ground, it is evident the peat must have grown at least one foot above the summit of the kitchen-midden before this pile was driven in."

A second kitchen-midden is noted at a height of 3-1/2 feet above the gravel, "composed of oyster, cockle, and mussel shells, and periwinkles, with Roman pottery and bones of the goat and _Bos longifrons_, etc., split lengthwise as if to extract the marrow, with the skulls broken and the horns cut off. It is about a foot and a half thick in the centre, thinning out towards the ends as a heap of refuse would naturally do, and from 12 to 14 feet long; above this is peat for about a foot or a foot and a half, and above the peat another kitchen-midden of the same kind as the preceding. Lastly, the soles of shoes and Roman pottery of the same kind as that found lower down have been taken out at the very top of the peat."

The author being subsequently anxious to obtain further evidence as to the thickness of the stratum in which the Roman remains were found, states that he determined to watch the workmen for four or five hours together during several successive days, while they dug from top to bottom, commencing with the superficial earth, and passing through the peat to the gravel below. The result was as follows: "Roman red Samian ware is found as high as 13 feet from the surface, but very rarely, and in small quantities. At 15 feet it is frequently found, and from that depth it increases in quantity till the gravel is reached at 18 to 21 feet. The chief region of Roman remains is within 2 to 3 feet of the gravel."

Amongst the animal remains were, according to Professor Owen, those "of the horse or ass, the red deer, the wild boar, the wild goat (_bouquetin_), the dog, the _Bos longifrons_, and the roebuck. The horns of the roebuck, I afterwards ascertained, were all found at a higher level. These, and also the horse and goat, entered the superficial earth, in which glazed pottery was also found; but the remainder, including the red deer, wild boar, and _Bos longifrons_, appeared, so far as my observations enabled me to judge, to be confined to the peat."

Subsequently Mr. Carter Blake identified amongst these remains no less than four different kinds of the genus _Bos_, viz., _primigenius_, _trochoceros_, _longifrons_, and _frontosus_; as also a specimen of the ibex of the Pyrenees.

Some human skulls were also found in the lowest formation of the peat, or immediately over the gravel. Along with the skulls only three human bones were found; but this, according to the author, was not the result of an oversight, as both the Celts and the Romans were known to have practised decapitation.

The piles at the south end were identified as elm, the remainder were oak (_Quercus robur_).

General Lane Fox stated that recently similar piles with large horizontal beams and Roman pottery were discovered in New Southwark Street.

I find it impossible, even with the above large extracts, to give more than a very general idea of this most interesting and highly suggestive paper, and the important discussion to which it gave rise in the Society.

_Crannog in Llangorse Lake, near Brecon, South Wales._

In Keller's book on Lake-Dwellings,[54] there is a notice of a "crannoge, or stockaded island, in Llangorse Lake, near Brecon (South Wales)," by the Rev. E. Dumbleton, M.A., in which the author describes an island 90 yards in circumference, the highest part of which is 5 feet above the level of the water, on which "some small trees and brushwood have fastened," and around which numerous cleft oak-beams have been detected. In examining the interior by perpendicular openings, they invariably led down to the shell-marl, "showing first a stratum of large, loose stones, with vegetable mould and sand, next (about 18 inches above the marl) peat, black and compact; and beneath this, the remains of reeds and small wood. This fagot-like wood presented itself abundantly all round the edges of the island, and in the same relative position, namely, immediately upon the soft marl; the object of it being, of course, to save the stones from sinking." Pieces of charcoal, broken bones, "a piece of leather pierced with several holes, in some of which, when discovered, the remains of a thong might be observed," three or four scraps of pottery, and a stone that seemed to have been ground, are the only indications of human occupancy recorded. Remains of log platforms, which were observed, are also described in this article. Some of the bones were sent to Professor Rolleston, of Oxford, who wrote that "the chief points of interest respecting these were: first, the presence of two varieties of horse--one small, such as a Welsh pony is; and the other large (as I am informed large horses appear to have existed, as well as mere Galloways, in the very earliest human periods in this country); and, secondly, the smallness of the then ordinarily eaten mammals, _Sus_, _Bos_, _Ovis_. The horse was eaten formerly, especially by the Pagans, and it may have been eaten by the inhabitants of your crannoge; but there is no evidence, from splitting or burning, that they did so." "Some other bones, found subsequently, were exhibited at the meeting of the British Association at Exeter, and were examined by Mr. W. Boyd Dawkins, who pronounced them to be those of the red deer, the wild boar, and the _Bos longifrons_. He stated that the group altogether, from the greater percentage of wild than domestic animals, indicated a remote period."

_Barton Mere, near Bury St. Edmunds._

Professor Boyd Dawkins, under the heading _Habitations in Britain in the Bronze Age_, writes as follows:--"Sometimes, for the sake of protection, houses were built upon piles driven into a morass or bottom of a lake, as for example in Barton Mere (explored by Rev. Harry Jones in 1867,--_Suffolk Inst. of Archæology and Natural History_, June 1869), near Bury St. Edmunds, where bronze spear-heads have been discovered, one 18 inches long, in and around piles and large blocks of stone, as in some of the lakes in Switzerland. Along with them were vast quantities of the broken bones of the stag, roe, wild boar, and hare, to which must also be added the urus, an animal proved to be wild by its large bones, with strongly-marked ridges for the attachment of muscles. The inhabitants also fed upon domestic animals--the horse, short-horned ox, and domestic hog, and in all probability the dog, the bones of the last-named animal being in the same fractured state as those of the rest. Fragments of pottery were also found. The accumulation may be inferred to belong to the late rather than the early Bronze Age, from the discovery of a socketed spear-head. This discovery is of considerable zoological value, since it proves that the urus was living in Britain in a wild state as late as the Bronze Age. It must, however, have been very rare, since this is the only case of its occurrence at this period in Britain with which I am acquainted."--(_Early Man in Britain_, p. 352.)

_Professor T. Rupert Jones on English Lake-Dwellings._

In 1878, Professor T. Rupert Jones, F.R.S., communicated to _Nature_ a short notice on "English Lake-Dwellings and Pile Structures," in which, after drawing attention to the previously published articles of General Lane Fox and Sir Charles Bunbury, he writes as follows:--

"Since writing the above I have been informed that Mr. W. M. Wylie, F.S.A., referred to this fact in '_Archæologia_,' vol. xxxviii. in a note to his excellent memoir on lake-dwellings. I can add, however, that remains of _Cervus elaphus_ (red deer), _C. dama?_ (fallow-deer), _Ovis_ (sheep), _Bos longifrons_ (small ox), _Sus scrofa_ (hog), and _Canis_ (dog), were found here, according to information given me by the late C. B. Rose, F.G.S., of Swaffham, who also stated in a letter dated August 11th, 1856, that in adjoining meres, or sites of ancient meres, as at Saham, Towey, Carbrook, Old Buckenham, and Hargham, cervine remains have been met with; thus at Saham and Towey _Cervus elaphus_ (red deer), at Buckenham _Bos_ (ox) and _Cervus capreolus_ (roebuck); at Hargham _Cervus tarandas_ (reindeer).

"The occurrence of flint implements and flakes in great numbers on the site of a drained lake between Sandhurst and Frimley, described by Captain C. Cooper King in the _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, January 1873, p. 365, etc., points also in all probability to some kind of lake-dwelling, though timbers were not discovered.

"Lastly, the late Dr. S. Palmer, F.S.A., of Newbury, reported to the 'Wiltshire Archæological Society' in 1869 that oaken piles and planks had been dug out of boggy ground on Cold Ash Common, near Faircross Pond, not far from Hermitage, Berks."--(_Nature_, vol. xvii. p. 424.)

_Holderness, York._

A few weeks ago my attention was directed by Mr. Joseph Anderson to a communication which he had just received from a gentleman near Bridlington anent some antiquarian remains indicating lake-dwellings in that district, of which, at my request, the discoverer has kindly favoured me with the following interesting notice:--

"ULROME GRANGE, LOWTHORPE, HULL, _Feb. 28, 1882_.

"DEAR SIR,--This part of the county of York (Holderness) appears formerly to have been intersected by numerous irregular lakes, which were drained about eighty years ago.

"In the spring of the year 1880 the Commissioners of the Beverley and Barmston Drainage found it necessary to deepen one of these drains (the branch called the Skipsea drain).

"A short time after this was done I was walking in one of my fields adjoining, and picked up some perforated bone implements. I shortly afterwards had the earth, which had been excavated at this place, turned over, and found more implements of the same class. Also two made from the antlers of the red deer, and a small piece of red ochre, with several stones which bear traces of having been utilised.

"In the month of May 1881, the water in the drain at that time being very low, and having obtained the services of half a dozen men accustomed to similar work, I had the water dammed, and dug through the peat to a bed of gravel, 9 ft. 6 in. from the surface.

"We found three more perforated bone implements, all in the side of the drain, and at the depth of seven feet, also several stakes and piles with remains of brushwood.

"I then determined, when opportunity offered, to excavate in the field, and proceeded to do so in December last.

"We commenced by digging a trench parallel with the drain and sixty feet in length. This trench and the drain formed two sides of a square, running north and south. Commencing at the south end, we came upon a layer of gravel at the depth of two feet, which dips to the north, and is overlaid by a bed of peat, six feet in thickness, at the north end of the trench.

"As this trench filled with water, we began at the same point and dug a similar one on the south side, running east and west, and connected the first trench with the drain. The gravel slopes also to the west, and dips quite abruptly when at a distance of forty feet from the drain. When the trenches were dug a gravel slope at the south-east corner of the square prevented the water from running out of the first trench. I therefore had the earth turned over on this slope, when we found great numbers of stakes, with some brushwood, the earth being a peaty marl.

"When clear of the slope there is a decided layer of brushwood about two feet thick, also studded with stakes, and along the inner side of the south trench we found a number of piles from five inches to seven inches in diameter, in a line, and mostly upright. One of these we got out quite perfect. It is of oak wood, four feet in length, six inches in diameter, and has a forked top which has apparently been intended for carrying a horizontal beam or support. The piles are about four feet apart. One had given way and been replaced.

"As the trench is not exactly in a line with the piles, several are now left standing and partially exposed. In this portion of the digging, we found several bones of animals, a peculiar grinding-stone of whinstone or granite, almost semicircular in shape, 12 inches long by 7 broad, a flint core, a stone with the centre hollowed, a pounding or hammer stone, and two fragments of rude pottery, evidently British.

"Hazel nuts are numerous; several I have picked out appear to have been opened by squirrels.

"After making these discoveries I suspended work, as I felt that I should like some one acquainted with similar explorations to give an opinion with respect to the course I ought to adopt.

"Whether the place is a lake-dwelling or not, further research will determine. It is undoubtedly a pile structure, and of a very early date.

"At this season the spring-tides tend to impede further investigation, the water having risen to the height of 7 feet in the trenches on the 19th inst. And as we may hope for warmer weather with longer days, I shall probably defer further exploration until April. I believe I have discovered another similar place, but on a larger scale, and the timbers appear much larger. The two are not more than half a mile apart, and are situated on the same lake as the earthworks and mound at Skipsea (described in Poulson's _Holderness_). In the meantime, any suggestions you may favour me with will be gladly received by yours very faithfully,

"THOMAS BOYNTON.

"DR. MUNRO, _Kilmarnock_."

_Concluding Remarks._

It may be some time yet before further research will throw much additional light on the appearances and discoveries above recorded, but should they turn out to be the genuine remains of ancient lake habitations, it is more than probable that they will be found to be no exceptional instances, but remnants of a more widely distributed custom. Meantime, however, they appear to me sufficiently suggestive, especially when taken together with the evidence I have already produced as to the prevalence of such structures amongst the Celtic races in Scotland and Ireland, and the distinct statement made by Julius Cæsar that the Britons made use of wooden piles and marshes in their mode of entrenchment (_sylvis paludibusque munitum_), to entertain the hypothesis that the original British Celts, from whom in all probability have descended the modern Gaels, were an offshoot of the founders of the Swiss Lake-Dwellings, that they emigrated to Britain when these lacustrine abodes were in full vogue, and that, as they spread northwards and westwards over Scotland and Ireland, they retained, and probably practised, the habit of resorting to insular protection long after the custom had fallen into desuetude in Europe. As, however, the lake-dwelling mania subsided and gradually came to a close on the Continent, subsequent immigrants into Britain, such as the Belgæ, Angles, etc., being no longer acquainted with the subject, cultivated new principles of defensive warfare, or, at any rate, ceased to resort to the protection afforded by the artificial construction of lake-dwellings, whilst the first Celtic invaders, still imbued with their primary civilisation, when harassed by enemies and obliged to act on the defensive, had recourse to their peculiar and inherited system of protection, with such variations and improvements as better implements and the topographical requirements of the country suggested to them. Hence it would follow that the range of the British Lake-Dwellings, both in space and time, would vary according to circumstances and the vicissitudes of their founders; but, speaking generally, it is only reasonable to suppose that its limitation first commenced in those districts most accessible to fresh swarms of Continental immigrants. But this problem, as well as many other subsidiary questions which follow in the same line of inquiry, must be solved by further researches; and should these remarks in any way lead to renewed application in this department, they will serve a good end, whatever may be the result of the hypothesis thus broached regarding the primary sources of the ideas that led to the development of British Lake-Dwellings.

FOOTNOTES:

[Footnote 53: _Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society_, vol. xii. p. 255, May 7, 1856.]

[Footnote 54: _Lake-Dwellings_, by Keller (2d ed., trans. by Lee), p. 660.]

APPENDIX.

ADDITIONAL DISCOVERIES ON THE CRANNOG IN LOCHSPOUTS.

As mentioned at page 182, the selection of the natural basin of Lochspouts as the most suitable site for a reservoir for supplying the town of Maybole with water had been announced shortly after the excavation of the crannog (as far as was then possible without an expensive cutting to reduce the level of the lake) had been completed. In the course of the subsequent negotiations with the proprietor and his agents, which ended in the final adoption of this scheme, we have another proof of the interest taken by Sir James Fergusson, Bart., in these antiquarian researches. The following extract, taken from the contractor's specification for the work to be done within this lake-basin, preparatory to its conversion into the proposed reservoir, requires no explanation:--"After the water in the present loch has been lowered, the bottom of the reservoir, to the extent to be pointed out, to be excavated to a depth of about 3 feet, or to such further depth as the engineer may consider it necessary, to remove the peat and other matters. At the site of the supposed lake-dwelling, the excavations to be so conducted that the structure of the dwelling may be left entire, until such time as it is thoroughly explored by a member or members of the Archæological Society of Ayrshire and Wigtownshire, or such person appointed by them or by Sir James Fergusson, Bart., of Kilkerran, to see this exploration carried out. Any relics that may be found during the excavation to be at once delivered to the party appointed to superintend the exploration, or to such other person as may be in charge in his absence." Just as the proof-sheets of my last chapter had come to hand, I received a note from Mr. William Henderson, C.E., engineer to the Maybole water-works, stating that the outlet at Lochspouts had been cut about 3 feet deeper, that the water was being drained off, and that the contractor was ready to begin the excavations on the site of the lake-dwelling. In anticipation that the result of these operations would furnish a satisfactory solution of some of the problems left undetermined in my previous report, the publication of this volume has been delayed for a few days in order to secure the desired information, and hence I am enabled to give the following short report of the additional discoveries made on this lake-dwelling.

On the receipt of Mr. Henderson's letter, I lost no time in making an appointment to meet him at Lochspouts, where I became more fully acquainted with the nature and extent of the proposed excavations. The débris formerly wheeled from the mound lay in two heaps just beyond the margin of the artificial island, but still within the boundaries of the reservoir. These, therefore, together with a complete section of the island, about 3 feet in thickness, were to be removed entirely beyond the rocky barrier. I understood that in clearing away the contents of this section, the wood-work, especially towards the margin of the crannog, and about the surrounding piles, was to have been left intact for some time, but when I revisited the scene of the operations a few days afterwards, I found that a gang of some forty or fifty men had made such progress that the whole section was completely removed, leaving nothing but small pillars here and there for the purpose of calculating the number of cubic yards excavated. All the horizontal beams and other wood-work were taken away, and nothing left above the base of the section except a few of the encircling uprights on the shore side of the crannog. My regret at this unexpected rapidity of the process of demolition was however considerably allayed when I found that Mr. James Mathewson, the inspector of the works, under whose vigilant eye the operations were conducted, had taken a most intelligent interest in the archæological phase of the remains, and had even taken notes of some of the phenomena which appeared to him most important. It is therefore to him I am chiefly indebted for the following details.

During the former explorations, the conjecture that the paved habitable surface, with its remains of hearths, relics, etc., then reached, was a secondary one superimposed upon the débris of a former habitation, was supported by the following observations, which could not, however, be verified by deeper excavations, owing to the rushing up of water:--

(1.) The level of the log-pavement was considerably higher than the tops of the uprights forming the surrounding circles.

(2.) In various places, when attempting to dig beneath it, ashes, charcoal, bones, hazel-nuts, and sea-shells were turned up. (See page 164.)

The evidence now produced left no doubt that this conjecture was well founded.

On the bank I was shown two heaps of oak beams which had been removed from the excavated débris, and amongst them were some of the ordinary transverses, containing square-cut holes at their extremities. Upon inquiry, I found that some of these, when exposed, were in position in the line of the surrounding stockade, with uprights projecting through the holes. One thick beam was deeply grooved, and resembled one found at Lochlee, figured and described at page 84. A few large flat planks, having a round handle-like projection at one end, some 18 inches long, had only one square-cut hole, sometimes close to this handle, and at other times at the opposite extremity. Another stout oak beam, 6 feet long, contained a series of round holes about an inch in diameter, and from five to six inches apart. The holes, which were on the broad side of the beam, were about 2 inches in depth, but only penetrated half through it, and from one of them portion of a wooden pin was extracted.

This beam was in a fragmentary condition, being, like many others, partially charred.

On examining the surface of the island, as now exposed, I noticed some very large oak beams, prepared like railway sleepers, and in one place, near the centre, there were some stones and clay as if they had formed the base of a fireplace; but the whole area was so muddy that it was difficult to say whether or not this was the exact surface of a former log-pavement.

On looking at the isolated pillars left standing, we noticed that their substance, which consisted of vegetable débris, mixed with brushwood, ashes, and in one place layers of clay, had a more or less stratified arrangement. The depth of the layer removed varied from 2-1/2 to 3 feet, and it appeared to me as if the island had sunk less towards its shore-side than on the far-off side, as the tops of the surrounding piles had become barely visible on the latter, whereas, on the former, not only were the piles exposed for about 18 inches or 2 feet, but some of the transverses were actually found in position lying over them.

At the junction of the gangway and island, a full view of which we now had, the uprights of both structures appeared to be on the same level, but as those of the former approached the shore, they became gradually more elevated, till, as mentioned at page 166, they projected above the grass.

As regards the deeper structures of the island, I was always of opinion, considering the amount of subsidence of its surface that had taken place, that their depth would be correspondingly great. This opinion was now shared by the engineer, contractor, and others, who judged more from the great solidity and firmness presented by the whole mass. In attempting to ascertain some further particulars by digging a hole in its centre, Mr. Mathewson writes as follows:--

"LOCHSPOUTS, _2d May 1882_.

"DEAR SIR,--I have been instructed by the engineer to forward to you, by Wednesday at latest, any information gained by the sinking of the central shaft in the crannog.

"The mode adopted was to open a place about 12 feet square.

"The pump forwarded was only 3 inches diameter, and it was found that three men bailing with buckets were required to enable other two men to dig.

"A large mortised oak beam was found about 18 inches below present surface; still further down a few oak beams were lifted with broken portions of transverse (soft wood) beams adhering to under surface of the oak. This was at a depth of 3 feet 6 inches. A large flat stone, near to which was a compressed mass of grass, some ferns (common bracken), and fragments of moss, was also turned up.--I am, yours faithfully,

"JAMES MATHEWSON.

"_P.S._--5.20 P.M. Men leaving. Found mortised beam (oak) with pin in hole. Beams as far as we can plunge a rod--3-1/2 feet deep."

Writing subsequently, May 11th, Mr. Mathewson says:--"The sinking of the shaft was a failure through want of depth at outlet. Oak beams with cross layers of softer wood and brushwood were found all over the bottom of shaft. Some small jaw-bones were brought up from a depth of 2 feet 6 inches below present surface, as also some compressed ferns and grasses, a small quantity of ashes, and a trace of whitish clay. On Friday evening I turned over some of the formerly unmoved oak beams at a corner of the shaft, put the spade a foot further down and turned up a sandstone which had been used as a whetstone. It was irregularly shaped, 7 inches long and 2-3/4 broad. One flat face and a sloping edge were ground smooth by whetting. It was 1 foot 6 inches below present floor. In the near surroundings of the spot I also found ashes and traces of tough whitish clay and a few bones."

Again, writing on the 16th May, Mr. Mathewson says:--"I sounded shaft to-day, and found hard beams from 3 feet 9 inches to 4 feet 3 inches below present level of excavations. The shaft is rudely 3 feet 6 inches deep. In some crevices the iron bar went down to 6 feet from top of shaft, and again struck wood."

RELICS FOUND BELOW UPPER LOG-PAVEMENT.

But the chief evidence that the section now removed from off the island represented the débris of a former habitation, is derived from the relics found among its contents, which are as follows:--

(1.) _Whetstones._--Three of these implements, the most modern-like that I have yet seen, were found to the west of the junction of the gangway with the crannog, and at a depth of 2 feet 6 inches. One is rectangularly-shaped and beautifully polished on all sides. It is made of a hard dark stone, and measures 7-1/4 × 1-3/8 × 7/8 inches; another is a smooth slightly oval-shaped rod, 5-1/2 inches long and about 3/4 inch in diameter; the other is about the same length, but of a roughly quadrangular shape.

(2.) _Wooden Implements._--A semi-globular piece of soft wood, 7 inches in diameter, and having a shallow cavity cut out of its flat surface, measuring 5 inches in diameter, and a uniform depth of 1-1/2 inch. Another cup-shaped vessel or implement, also of soft wood, was surrounded by a deep groove, across which were seen the remains of small wooden pins, some nine or ten in number, which penetrated through both its rims. The diameter of the central cup was 5-1/2 inches, and that of the whole vessel (including the outer rim, the groove, and the rim of the cup), 8-1/4 inches. A third article of wood consisted of a smooth flat beam of oak, 3 feet 6 inches long, 1 foot broad, and 4 inches thick, having a deep groove at one edge, and a stout pin-like projection from one end, as if it had other attachments. In the centre of this beam there was a round hole over which lay a handle-like elevation cut out of the solid, and having not only a vertical hole corresponding with the one in the lower portion, but also another passing horizontally through it, and immediately between the two former. This handle-like elevation was 2 feet 1 inch long, 4-1/2 inches broad, and rose into a slight arch in the middle, where the horizontal hole passed underneath, and in the line of continuation of the latter there was, on both sides, a slight hollow, as if worn out of the beam by friction. The whole was cut out of one piece of solid oak. These articles were found at a depth of about 2 feet below the former log pavement.

(3.) _Bronze Ornament._--A double-spiral ornament of bronze wire, having six twists at one end and three at the other, was found at a depth of 1 foot 6 inches, and near the centre of the island. Its length is 1-5/8 inch (Fig. 260).

(4.) _Jet Ring._--This article was found at a depth of 1-1/2 foot. Its diameter is 1-1/8 inch. The inside looks as if worn in one or two places by friction.

Besides the above, some hammer-stones, a quern, and two fragments of very rude pottery were found.

ARTICLES FOUND WHILE REMOVING THE STUFF FORMERLY WHEELED FROM OFF THE MOUND, _i.e._ ABOVE THE UPPER LOG-PAVEMENT.

(1.) _Rock Crystal._--A conical piece of rock-crystal, evidently ground down to its present shape. The diameter of base is 1/16 less than an inch, and the perpendicular height is 3/4 of an inch. The base is not quite flat, but slightly convex, as will be seen from the annexed outline (Fig. 261). It scratches glass, but is scratched by a diamond, and depolarises a ray of light. Its specific gravity is 2·64.

(2.) _A Leaden Spindle-Whorl._--A small bead-shaped portion of lead perforated with a round hole is supposed to be a spindle-whorl. Its diameter is 3/4 of an inch.

(3.) _Bronze Ornament._--This consists of a small semi-globular-shaped cup, 3/4 of an inch in diameter, to which is attached a triangular-shaped handle-like projection, 3/4 of an inch long (Fig. 262).

(4.) _Glass Bead._--This is a smooth, amber-coloured bead, variegated with a yellowish slag, and measuring 3/4 inch in diameter, and 7/10 of an inch deep (Fig. 263).

(5.) _Bronze Ring._--A small slender ring of bronze, of the size of a finger-ring. It is penannular (but the ends are close, and might have been broken), and is 3/4-inch in diameter.

(6.) _Jet Pendant._--This is made of a circular piece of polished jet or cannel coal, rather less than 1-1/2 inch in diameter, and 1/4 inch thick, which is perforated by four quadrant-like spaces of uniform size and shape, so as to leave the form of a rectangular cross inscribed in a circle. The arms of the cross become a little broader as they approach the circumference, and on one surface they, as well as the circular portion, are ornamented by a row of incised circles, each circle having a small hollow in its centre. An incised line bounds each row of circles on both sides. All these incised lines, circles, and central hollows, were filled by a yellowish kind of enamel. A little projection from the circle, opposite one of the arms of the cross, is perforated transversely to its surface by a small hole for suspension, but it is evident that previous to the making of this hole, it was suspended by means of another hole, which perforated it in an opposite direction, but from which one side was broken off. (Fig. 264.)

Dr. Joseph Anderson, to whom I sent this object for inspection, writes thus:--"I have nothing special to say of the jet object sent to-day, except that it seems to be most certainly Christian, and of an early Christian type. It is the first jet thing I have seen, having this Christian relationship, from any of the early inhabited sites in Scotland. The ornament is very peculiar, and the form of the trinket most interesting, as it compares with the form of the cross within a circle found on the stones in Wigtownshire, though it has not the peculiar appendage which marks the Chrisma."[55]

* * * * *

A more complete account of these discoveries will be prepared for the Fourth Volume of the Collections of the Ayrshire and Wigtownshire Archæological Association.

FOOTNOTE:

[Footnote 55: See article on Inscribed Stones at Kirkmadrine, in the parish of Stonykirk, county of Wigtown, by Dr. Arthur Mitchell.--_Proc. Soc. Antiq. Scot._ vol. ix. p. 568. Also, _Scotland in Early Christian Times_ (Second Series), p. 252.]

INDEX.

Abinger, Lord, on a structure of timbers in Loch Torlundie, 52.

Achilty, Loch of, artificial island in, 32.

Achray, Loch, 247.

Aedilfrid, conquers Deira, 257.

Aeduin, 257.

Agnew, R. Vans, Esq., 49, 183.

Agricola, 249, 250, 251.

Agricultural implements, 119.

Aidan, king of Scots, 257.

Aiton, Mr., on trees buried in moss, 265, 266.

Alclyde, besieged by Olaf the White, 258.

Allen, J. Romilly, Esq., note on padlocks, 226.

Alpin invades Galloway, 258.

Amazons, pile-buildings at mouths of, 4.

Amber, bead of, 48.

Anderson, Dr. Joseph, on fylfot, 132.

---- on jet ornament, 313.

---- on Lochlee crannog, 69, 71, 136.

---- on stone discs used as mirrors, 172.

---- Orkneyinga Saga referred to by, 143.

Angus, king of Picts, 258.

Anstruther, Mrs., 207, 271.

Antiquarian discoveries, scientific value of, 240.

Antlers, 26, 60, 113.

Antrim, crannog in county of, 7.

Anvil, 104.

Appendix, 305.

Apples, remains of, in Swiss lake-dwellings, 14.

Archæological Association of Ayrshire and Wigtownshire, 67.

Archæology, prehistoric sphere of, 1.

Ard, Loch, 246.

Ardakillen, crannog of, 279.

Ardderyd, battle of, 257.

Arisaig, stockaded remains in loch at, 51.

Armlets, 42, 59, 138, 160, 161, 174, 178, 232.

Arrow-heads, 35, 225.

Arthur, Loch, canoe found in, 61.

Artificial islands, composed of stones and earth, 242.

---- found nearly all over Scotland, 276.

Artiodactyles, 140.

Ass, remains of, 294.

Axe-hammer head of stone, 156.

Axe-heads, 35, 46, 221.

Awls, 124, 175, 224.

Backgammon, game of, 25.

Balfour, Professor Bayley, on flora of Lochlee crannog, 144.

Balgone, brass vessels and other remains found in marsh at, 248.

Ballinderry, crannog of, 9.

---- comb from, 278.

Ballynahuish, Castle of, 10.

Banchory, isle and loch of, 16.

Barhapple Loch, crannog in, 182.

Barley, remains of, in Swiss lake-dwellings, 13.

Barlockhart Loch, 56, 247.

Barneallzie Loch, 247.

Barton Mere, pile-structures and osseous remains in, 298.

Battleknowes, square camp at, 245.

Baxter, Mr., 161, 163.

Beads, 42, 48, 137, 178, 232, 312.

Bell, St. Ternan's, 27.

Bienne, Lake of, 12, 15.

Birch, Mr., on remains in Wretham Mere, 290.

Bischoff, 89.

Blackberries, in Swiss lake-dwellings, 14.

Black Loch, or Loch Inch-Cryndil, 57.

Blackley, J. T., 29.

Blackwood, Mr. James, 82, 91, 93.

Blairgowrie, loch at, 247.

Blake, Mr. Carter, on remains at London Wall, 294.

---- on genus _Bos_, 296.

Boar, remains of, 24, 50, 74, 139, 147, 182, 236, 295, 298.

Board of wood with markings, 94.

Boat, flat-bottomed in Loch Leys, 26.

Boats, clinker-built, 53.

Bodenmais, vivianites found at, 89.

Bodkin of horn, 116.

Bodle, copper, 60.

Boece, quoted by Maitland, 33.

Boghall, Loch of, 30.

Bone objects, 77, 81, 88, 111, 175, 176, 216, 217, 294, 300.

Borgue, fort at, surrounded by water, 246.

Borland, Mr. John, 88, 232.

Borneo, pile-buildings at, 4.

Borness Cave, 285.

_Bos longifrons_, 50, 139, 237, 294, 295, 296, 297, 299.

---- _frontosus_, _primigenius_, and _trochoceros_, 296.

Bowls of wood, 117, 221.

Box, wooden, 43.

Boynton, Mr. Thos., on remains of lake-dwellings at Holderness, 300.

Brand, Loch of, 30.

Brass, articles made of, 28, 31, 125, 129, 177, 228, 248. See _Bronze_.

---- vessels at Balgone, 248.

Bridle bit, 95, 132.

British lake-dwellings, 289.

Britons and Scots defeated by Angles of Bernicia, 257.

Britons of Strathclyde subdued by Angles, 258.

Broch of Burrian, combs from, 278.

Bronze, articles made of, 24, 25, 26, 29, 30, 38, 40, 41, 42, 44, 45, 46, 59, 65, 67, 95, 129, 132, 177, 245, 293, 311, 312.

---- vessels found in canoe, 65.

---- ---- in Loch of Leys, 26.

Brooch, bronze, 41, 46, 49, 129, 228.

Brora, Loch of, 247.

Brown, Mr. James, on discovery of Lochlee crannog, 69.

Bunbury, Sir Charles, on remains in Wretham Mere, 290.

Bunodont, 140.

Burnett, Sir James Horn, 26.

Burns, the poet, at Lochlee, 68.

Burton, Captain R. F., on lake-villages, 4.

Buston crannog, article on, 190.

---- discovery of, 190.

---- general view of, 196.

---- log pavement in, 198.

Buston crannog, method of excavating, 193.

---- miscellaneous objects from, 232.

---- refuse-heap at, 204.

---- relics found on, description of, 210.

---- remains of dwelling-house at, 199.

---- report on osseous remains from, 236.

---- structure of, 195.

---- view of eastern portion of, 201.

---- view of north side, 202.

---- Loch, increase of silt in, 270.

Bute, crannogs in, 17.

Button, object like a, 234.

---- object of jet like a, 138.

---- of brass, 228.

Cæsar on climate of Britain, 264.

Caldron found in Carlingwark Loch, 29.

Caledonii and Mæatæ, 252.

Caliga, at London Wall, 293, 294.

Cameron, Captain, on lake-villages in Africa, 4.

Campbell, Farquhard, Esq., 53.

Camp-kettles, 67, 245.

Canmor, Loch of, 16, 21.

Canmore, Malcolm, 20, 21.

Cannel coal, ring of, 183, 186.

Canoe, or Canoes, 9, 12, 23, 26, 31, 35, 37, 41, 42, 43, 49, 53, 61, 65, 97, 122, 123, 153, 156, 160, 206, 245, 279.

---- associated with crannogs, 279.

Carlingwark Loch, 28, 246.

Carved wood, 133.

Cassius, Dion, on climate of Britain, 264.

Castle Kennedy, 60.

---- Loch, 247.

Castletown, 247.

Castles, wooden, 18.

Cats, remains of, in Swiss lake-dwellings, 13.

Causeway to Greenknowe, 31.

---- zigzag in Loch of Sanquhar, 36.

---- in Loch Dowalton, 40.

---- in Kielziebar Loch, 51.

---- laid upon oak-trees, 53.

---- in Loch Rannoch, 31.

---- to crannogs in Wigtownshire, 56.

---- stone, 18, 20, 29, 60, 65, 245, 247.

Caves, objects from, 285.

Celt, polished stone, 77, 105.

---- stone and bronze, 10.

Chalmers, George, Esq., 17, 18.

Chalmers, George, Esq., on colonisation of Galloway, 248.

---- on Galloway Picts, 257.

_Chambers's Encyclopædia_, 19.

Chisels, 77, 111, 123, 161, 175.

Chlorus Constantius, 253.

Christianity introduced into Scotland from two sources, 257.

Chronological indications derived from relics, 275.

Circular stone implement, 105.

Clans, Loch of the, 33.

Classification of lake-dwellings, 242.

Cleland, Professor, on osseous remains at Buston, 236.

Climate, supposed change in, 264.

Cloonfinlough, crannog of, 279.

Closeburn Castle, remains at, 245, 280.

Cloth manufactured in Swiss lake-dwellings, 14.

Clubs, 113, 117, 176.

Clunie, Loch of, 246.

Cochran-Patrick, R. W., Esq., at the investigation of crannog at Barhapple Loch, 183.

---- on Buston crannog, 193, 231.

---- on objects found in Loch of Kilbirnie, 65.

---- on Lochlee crannog, 69, 71, 76, 104.

---- on Lochspouts crannog, 160, 161.

Cockle-shells, 34, 295.

Coin, copper, 60; gold, 231; silver, 246.

Coins at London Wall, 293.

---- in Victoria Cave, 285.

Collessie, Castle of, 245.

Combs, 217, 218.

---- of bone, 278.

---- double-margined, 59.

---- from Ireland, 279.

---- wooden, 55.

Compass, article supposed to be a, 226.

Cooke, Dr. M. C., 145.

Copper, objects made of, 60, 137, 245, 293.

Corn (winter), absence of, in Swiss lake-dwellings, 14.

Corncockle, curious wooden structure in moss at, 245.

Cot, Loch, remains in, 32.

Coulter, Mr., on crannog in Ballydoolough, 8.

Counties, lake-dwellings in, 245.

Craig, Mr. James, 91.

Craignarget, sculptured stone at, 131.

Crannog, etymology of, 5.

---- at Arisaig, 51.

---- at Barhapple, 182.

---- Barlockhart, 56.

---- Buston, 190.

---- at Friars' Carse, 152.

---- at Lochlee, 67.

---- at Tolsta, 60.

---- in Dhu-Loch, 17.

---- in Llangorse, 296.

---- in Loch-an-eilan, 22.

---- Loch of Forfar, 20.

---- Lochindorb, 21, 287.

---- Loch Inch-Cryndil, 59.

---- Loch Canmor or Kinnord, 21.

---- Loch of Leys, 26.

---- Loch of Kilbirnie, 62.

---- Lochspouts, 158.

---- Machermore Loch, 56.

Crannogs in Buteshire, 17.

---- in Wigtownshire, 55, 182, 247.

---- of Dunshaughlin, Cloonfinlough, and Strokestown, 9, 127, 279.

---- Irish, 5.

---- ---- antiquity of, 10.

---- Scottish, used as places of refuge, 187, 261.

---- ---- Dr. Robertson's views on, 19.

---- structure of, 259.

---- ---- resembles that of fascine dwellings, 13.

---- See _Lake-dwellings_ and _Lochs_.

Crannough Macknavin, 10.

Cranokis, 19.

Croix gammée, 131.

Cross, Greek form of, 55.

Croy, parish of, remains of crannog in, 31.

Crucibles, 45, 138, 235, 277.

Crystal quartz, 214, 311.

Crystals of vivianite, 88, 123, 143, 204.

Cue, or pigtail, 95, 136.

Culter, parish of, remains of crannog in, 30.

Cumbria ceded to Scots, 259.

Cumming, Mr. Alexander, 49.

Cuninghame, Sir W. J. M., 161.

Cup-marked stones, 108, 212, 213.

Daggers, 28, 94, 95, 115, 125, 177, 220.

Dalrymple, Charles E., Esq., 57.

---- Hon. Hugh, 183.

Dalrymple-Hay, Admiral Sir John C., 183.

Danish and Norwegian pirates, 258.

Dawkins, Professor Boyd, on relics from Victoria Cave, 285.

---- on animal remains from Llangorse, 297.

---- on pile-structures in bronze age, 298.

Dawstone, 257.

Deer, red, remains of, 11, 24, 26, 60, 113, 142, 176, 182, 219, 236, 248, 290, 295, 296, 297, 298, 299, 300.

---- roe, 116, 142, 176, 182, 219, 236, 296, 298, 299.

---- fallow, 299.

Dhu-Loch, crannog in, 17.

Diagram of excavations of Lochlee crannog, 75.

Dog, remains of, 13, 295, 298, 299.

Dolay, Loch of, 247.

Dowalton Loch, crannogs in, 38.

Drummond, Mr., 127.

Dumbleton, Rev. Mr., on crannog in Llangorse Lake, 296.

Dunlop, Mr. Robert, on gold coin, 230.

Duns, Professor, 32, 127.

Dunshauglilin, crannog of, 7, 9, 279.

Eadberct adds Ayrshire to his Galloway possessions, 258.

Early iron age, 127.

Earn, Loch, 246.

Eegfrid, king of Northumbria, 258.

Edward I. visits Lochindorb, 21.

Edward III., 21.

Eglinton, the Earl of, 190, 193, 194.

Eldrig, Loch, 247.

Ellan-na-glach, 246.

Elm, 30, 145, 296.

Elytra, 139.

_Encyclopædia, Chambers's_, 19.

---- _Britannica_, 20.

England, lake-dwellings in, 289.

English lake-dwellings, Prof. T. Rupert Jones on, 298.

---- animal remains found in, 299.

Ephesus, topographical changes at, 270.

Etive, Loch, 54.

Evans, J., Esq., on gold coin, 231, 287.

Ewer lion, found in Kilbirnie Loch, 66.

Fascine structures, 12, 13.

Fascine dwellings, structural resemblance between them and Irish and Scottish crannogs, 13.

Fasnacloich, artificial island at, 245.

Fauna of Lochlee crannog, 139.

Federatt, Castle of, 245.

Fell Loch, 247.

Fergus Loch, 246.

Fergusson, Sir Charles Dalrymple, 162.

---- Sir James, 158, 161, 305.

Fermanagh, crannogs of, 6.

Ferrules, 125, 226.

Fibulæ, 88, 129.

Files, 226.

Finger-rings, 132, 228, 312.

Fir Island, 29.

Fish, remains of, in Swiss lake-dwellings, 13.

---- without fins in Loch Lomond, 33.

Fisher, W. W., Esq., on vivianites, 143.

Flakes, flint, 35, 52, 109, 214, 299.

Flemington, Loch of, 35.

Flint cores, 214, 301.

---- implements, 35, 52, 88, 108, 174, 214, 299.

Flora of Lochlee crannog, 144.

Food, kind of, used by lake-dwellers, 13, 283.

Ford, paved, 56.

Fordun, on island in Loch Cannor, 22.

Forest trees in bogs, 265.

Forfar, Loch of, crannog in, 20.

Forge iron, 29.

Founders of Swiss lake-dwellings, 14.

Fowl, domestic, absence of, in Swiss lake-dwellings, 14.

---- unknown to the Greeks till time of Pericles, 14.

Franks, Mr., on pottery at London Wall, 293.

Freuchie, Loch, 247.

Friars' Carse, notes of a crannog at, 152.

Fringe-like objects, 78, 88, 95, 133, 145.

Fullah, Loch, 247.

Funnel-shaped holes in stones, 170.

Fuschl, Lake of, 13.

Fylfot, 131.

Galloway, Picts of, 256.

Gangway, 18, 87, 99, 165, 183, 263, 308.

Gas, marsh, 89.

Geographical distribution of lake-dwellings, 242.

Gibson, Master Alexander, 49.

Gillespie, Rev. James, 61.

Gillon, Captain, discoveries at Lochlee by, 105, 126.

Glass, 49, 59, 233.

---- objects made of, 42, 48, 59, 137, 178, 232, 312.

---- Loch, 247.

Goats, remains of, 13, 50, 78, 295, 296.

Gold, dagger plated with, 28.

---- coin, at Buston, 231.

---- finger-rings, 228.

Gordon, Mr. Samuel, 29.

Gouges, 123, 222.

Granech, Loch, 247.

Greek cross, 55.

Green Knowe, 30.

Greenwell, Canon, on sepulchral and domestic vessels, 281.

Grierson, Dr., 36, 153, 156.

Grigor, Dr., on crannog in Loch of the Clans, 33.

Grindstone, 211, 301.

Grose, _Antiquities of Scotland_, by, 155, 280.

Gynag, Loch, 246.

Hadrian, Emperor, visits Britain, 251.

Hammer-stones, 78, 98, 102, 161, 169, 185, 210, 301, 311.

Hammers, iron, 41, 47.

Handles of horn or bone, 113, 116, 123, 175, 176, 220.

Hare, remains of, 298.

Hatchet, iron, 95, 127, 293.

Hay, Mr. Robert, 190.

Hearths, 75, 78, 155, 165, 184, 200.

Heating-stones, 103.

Hemp, absence of, in Swiss lake-dwellings, 14.

Hemsworth, Mr., 8.

Henderson, Mr. William, C.E., 306.

Herodian on natives of North Britain, 264.

Herodotus on Lake Prasias, 3.

Heron, Loch, 247.

Hippocrates on lake-dwellings, 3.

Historical phenomena associated with the lake-dwelling area, 249.

Historical statements on climate, 264.

Hobkirk, Mr., 145.

Hobnails, 293.

Hoe, wooden, 117.

Hoffman, 88.

Holderness, pile structures at, 300.

Hone-stone. See _Whetstones_.

Hopson, Mr., 161.

Horn, objects made of, 60, 74, 78, 81, 113, 123, 161, 167, 219.

Horse eaten by Pagans, 297.

---- remains of, 13, 142, 294, 296, 297, 298.

Hunter-Weston, Col., 161.

---- on fylfot, 131.

Huts, kind of, in Swiss lake-dwellings, 14.

Hypothesis on origin of Scottish lake-dwellings, 302.

Ibex of the Pyrenees, 296.

Inch-Cryndil, Loch of, 57.

Increase of lake silt at Buston and Lochlee, 270.

Innes, Cosmo, on destruction of ancient forests, 268.

Insect cases, 139.

Iona burned by Norsemen, 258.

Irish crannogs, articles found on, 9.

---- ---- and fascine structures, 13.

Iron, articles made of, 29, 30, 35, 41, 46, 47, 87, 88, 95, 96, 123, 126, 177, 293.

---- age, 127.

---- slag, 41, 48, 214.

Island, floating, in Loch Lomond, 33.

Islands in Highland lakes, 242.

Isle of Loch of Banchory, 16, 26.

---- of Loch Canmor, 16.

Jamieson, Dr., 21.

Jardine, Sir W., 38.

Jars, handles of, 157.

Jet or lignite, objects made of, 138, 174, 185, 186, 232, 311, 312.

Jones, Prof. T. Rupert, on English lake-dwellings, 298.

---- Rev. Harry, on remains at Barton Mere, 298.

Keller, Dr. Ferdinand, on Swiss lake-dwellings, 11, 14, 15.

Kennedy, Mr. Thomas, 91.

Kenneth MʽAlpine, 258.

Key (bronze) from Lochspouts crannog, 177.

Keys in York Museum, 178.

Kielziebar Loch, island in, 50.

Kilbirnie, Loch of, crannog in, 62.

Kilchoman, island in loch at, 245.

Kilmarnock, Town Council of, 91.

---- Philosophical Society of, donation from, 91.

Kilwinning, Monastery of, 30.

Kinahan, G. H., Esq., on Irish crannogs, 8, 10.

Kinder, Loch of, artificial island in, 28.

Kinellan, Loch of, artificial island in, 32.

King, Captain C. Cooper, 299.

Kinnaird, Loch of, 247.

Kinord, Loch of, 21.

Kitchen-middens at London Wall, 294.

Knife, flint, 214.

Knives, metal, 77, 96, 123, 222, 236, 293.

Knob of pottery, 235.

Knobs of bone, 216.

Knocking-stones, 60.

Knowe Green, 30.

---- Saverough, comb from, 278.

---- Swan, at Buston, 190.

Knox, James, Esq., 17, 18.

Kyloe, Highland, 50.

Ladles, 117, 185.

Laggan, Loch, 246.

Lake Fuschl, 13.

---- Ledaig and Lochnell, 53.

---- of Bienne, 15.

---- of Neuchâtel, 15.

---- of Rothiemurchus, 246.

---- of Zürich, 11.

Lake-dwellings at Singapore, 4.

---- classification of, 242.

---- collateral phenomena that help to determine age of, 241.

---- Continental, 11.

---- ---- chronological range of, 14.

---- in Africa, 4.

---- in South America, 4.

---- in England, 289.

---- ---- concluding remarks on, 302.

---- on shores of Gulf of Maracaibo, 3.

---- plan of structure in Switzerland, 12.

---- Scottish, geographical distribution of, 242.

Lake-dwellings, Scottish, historical and traditional phenomena associated with their area of distribution, 249.

---- peculiar to Celtic districts, 248.

---- relative distribution among the four ancient kingdoms of Scotland, 248.

---- relics from, do not point to a Saxon but to a Celtic origin, 277.

---- ---- similar to those from other Celtic antiquities, 278.

---- subsidence of, 272.

---- topographical changes in area of, 264.

Landsborough, Rev. David, 152.

---- discovers vivianites in bones, 88.

Lane Fox, General, on pile-buildings at London Wall, 291.

Late Celtic period, 127.

Lawrie, Mr., views of Buston crannog by, 196, 201, 202.

Lawson, Mr. J., 162.

Lead, knob of, 133.

---- spindle whorl of, 312.

Leather, objects of, 14, 49, 94, 136, 233, 293, 297.

---- implement for dressing, 293.

Ledaig, lake-dwelling at, 53.

Lee, J. E., Esq., F.G.S., 141.

Leys, Loch of, 25.

Liddle, Peter, Esq., on crannog at Tolsta, 60.

Lignite. See _Jet_.

Limerick, Bishop of, on fylfot, 131.

Lindenschmit, Prof., on bone skates, 294.

Lion ewer, from Kilbirnie Loch, 66.

Llangorse Lake, crannog in, 296.

Lochs, artificial remains found in:--

Loch Achray, 247.

---- Loch-an-eilan, 22.

---- Ard, 246.

---- Arthur, 61.

---- Banchory, 16.

---- Barlockhart, 247.

---- Barean, 37.

---- Barneallzie, 247.

---- Black, 57.

---- Brand or Boghall, 30.

---- Brora, 247.

---- Canmor, 16, 21.

---- Carlingwark, 28, 246.

---- Castle, 247.

---- Cluny, 246.

---- Cot, 32.

---- Dolay, 247.

---- Doon, canoes found in, and castle in, 245.

---- Dowalton, 38.

---- Earn, 246.

---- Eldrig, 247.

---- Etive, 54.

---- Fell, 247.

---- Fergus, 246.

---- Freuchie, 247.

---- Fullah, 247.

---- Glass, 247.

---- Granech, 247.

---- Gynag, 246.

---- in Blairgowrie, 247.

---- Heron, 247.

---- Inch-Cryndil, 57.

---- Kielziebar, 50.

---- Kinder, 28.

---- Kinnaird, 247.

---- Laggan, 246.

---- Loch in Dunty, 35.

---- Lochmaben, 32.

---- Lochy, 32.

---- Lomond, 33.

---- Lotus or Arthur, 61.

---- Machermore, 247.

---- Mochrum, 247.

---- Morall, 246.

---- Na Mial, 53.

---- of Achilty, 32.

---- of Boghall, 30.

---- of the Clans, 33.

---- of Flemington, 35.

---- of Kilbirnie, 62.

---- of Kinellan, 32.

---- of Leys, 25.

---- of Monivaird, 267.

---- of Moy, 246.

---- of Rescobie, 246.

---- Orr, 245.

---- Owel, 9.

---- Quien, 18.

---- Rannoch, 31.

---- Sanquhar, 36.

---- Shin, 247.

---- Spinie, 30, 246.

---- Sunonness, 247.

---- Tay, 247.

---- Torlundie, 52.

---- Tummell, 246.

---- Vennachar, 247.

---- Winnoch, castle in, and canoes found in, 245.

---- Yetholm, 247.

---- _See_ Tabular Statement, page 245.

Lochlee crannog, article on, 68.

---- character of wood-work, 147.

---- composition of silt in bed of lake, 151.

---- concluding remarks on, 146.

---- discovery of, 68.

---- excavations of, 71.

---- fauna of, 139.

---- flora of, 144.

---- gangway, 99.

---- hearths, 75, 77, 79.

---- increase of silt in Loch, 271.

---- level of Loch of, 168.

---- log-pavement of, 82.

---- position of relics and composition of relic bed, 78.

---- relics from, 101.

---- ---- deposited in Burns's Museum, Kilmarnock, 151.

---- structure of island, 97.

Lochindorb, crannog of, 21.

Lochy, crannog in Loch, 32.

Lochmaben, remains in, 32.

Lochnell, lake-dwelling at, 53.

Lochrutton, island in, 28.

Lochspouts crannog, article on, 158.

---- area of, 162.

---- articles found in stuff formerly removed off mound, 311.

---- beams found below log-pavement, 307.

---- composition of mound, 166.

---- deeper structures of island, 308.

---- gangway, 165, 308.

---- hearths, 165.

---- investigations of, 161.

---- log-pavement of, 163.

---- organic remains at, 181.

---- outlet of loch at, deepened, 306.

---- relics from, 168.

---- ---- found below upper log-pavement, 309.

---- report of additional discoveries at, 305.

Lochspouts crannog, subsidence of, 167.

Lock, bolt of, from drained loch in parish of Croy, 31.

---- ---- from Buston crannog, 226.

Lockwood, Castle of, 245.

Log pavement, 62, 82, 153, 163, 186, 198, 205.

Lomond, crannog in Loch, 33.

London Wall, pile structures at, 291.

Lotus, Loch of, 61.

Lough at Friars' Carse, 155.

Lough Nahineb, 11.

---- Rea, crannogs of, 8, 10.

Lovaine, Lord, on crannogs in Dowalton Loch, 38.

Love, Robert, Esq., on crannog in Loch of Kilbirnie, 62.

Lubbock, Sir John, on Swiss lake-dwellings, 15.

Macdonald, Dr., 71, 79, 161.

MacFadzean, Mr. James, on lake-dwellings in Lochspouts, 159.

Machermore, Loch of, 56, 247.

Mackinlay, Mr. John, on crannogs in Buteshire, 17.

Macknavin, crannough of, 10.

MacMahon, country of, 10.

Mæatæ and Caledonii, 252.

Malacca, Straits of, 4.

Mallet, iron, in Carlingwark Loch, 29.

---- wooden, 117.

Mapleton, Rev. R. J., on artificial island in Loch Kielziebar, 50.

---- ---- on loch at Arisaig, 51.

Maracaibo, Gulf of, 3.

Margaret, Queen, Inch of, 20.

Mathewson, Mr. James, notes on Lochspouts crannog, 306.

Maxwell, Sir Herbert E., 183.

---- Sir William, 39, 43.

MʽCulloch, James, 187.

MʽNaught, Mr. D., on the discovery of Buston crannog, 190.

MʽPherson on coble-built boats, 23.

Mirrors, 172, 293.

Mitchell, Dr. Arthur, 287, 313.

Mohrya, lake-villages in, 4.

Mondsee, Austria, 13.

Monivaird, Loch of, 247.

Mons Grampius, battle of, 251.

Montelius, M. Oscar, on croix gammée, 131.

Morall, Loch of, 246.

Morton, canoe and copper vessels found at, 245.

---- old castle at, 245.

Moulin, castle and causeway at, 247.

Mountblairy, Castle of, 246.

Moy, Loch of, 246.

Mull, artificial island of, 53.

Museum, Belfast, 230.

---- Dublin, Royal Irish Academy, 5, 9, 11, 127, 223, 230.

---- Edinburgh National, 26, 30, 43, 49, 57, 59, 105, 126, 131, 248.

---- Kilmarnock, Burns's, 127, 151.

---- Oxford, 143, 151.

---- York, 127, 178.

---- Zürich, 70.

Mussel-shells, 60, 294, 295.

Nahineb, Lough of, 11.

Nails, iron, 7, 64, 124, 226.

Na Mial, Loch of, 53.

Nathusius, 140.

Nature's method of counting time, 270.

Needles, 112, 216.

Nelson, Thomas, Esq., 154.

Neuchâtel, Lake of, 15.

Neville, Hon. R. Cornwallis, 227.

New Guinea, pile-buildings of, 4.

Newton Stone, inscription on, 131.

Nicholson, Cornelius, 132.

North Britain, four kingdoms of, 256.

---- Britons, manners of, 250, 251, 252, 264, 286.

Norwegian and Danish pirates, 258.

Nuts, hazel, 14, 52, 78, 146, 167, 283, 301, 307.

Oar, 48, 96, 123, 156, 210.

Ober Meilen, 11.

Ogham, characters of, 132,

Orinoco, pile-buildings at mouths of, 4.

Orkneyinga Saga, 143.

Ornamentation on Combs, 218.

Orr Loch, 245.

Osseous remains at Buston, 236.

---- at Dowalton, 50.

---- at Holderness, 300.

---- at Llangorse, 297.

---- at Lochlee, 139.

---- at Lochspouts, 181.

Osseous remains at London Wall, 295.

---- from crannogs, inferences from, 283.

Oval stone implements, 56, 173.

Owel, Loch, canoe found in, 9.

Owen, Prof., on osseous remains at Dowalton, 50.

---- ---- at London Wall, 294, 295.

Ox, remains of, 13, 24, 50, 139, 182, 237, 294-299.

Oyster-shells, 294, 295.

Paddle. See _Oar_.

Padlock, bolt of, 225.

Palmer, Dr. S., 299.

Pan, brass, 28.

---- bronze, 40, 41.

Patella, Roman, 45.

Pears, remains of, 14.

Pebbles, 74, 171.

Peel Bog, wooden castle in, 245.

Percy, Lord, 39, 42.

Periwinkle, 295.

Phasis, people of, 3.

Philosophical Society of Kilmarnock, 91.

Pick of deer-horn, 176.

Pick-axe, iron, 129.

Picts, kingdom of, 257.

Picts of Galloway, 256.

Pig, remains of, 13, 24, 50, 74, 139, 182, 236, 295-299.

Pigments, 139.

Pigtail or cue, 95, 134.

Pile structures at Holderness, 299.

---- at London Wall, 291.

---- at Southwark, 296.

---- in Barton Mere, 298.

Pins of bone, 175, 215.

---- of bronze, 130, 228, 293.

---- of copper, 293.

---- wooden, 117, 206.

Plates, 117.

Platforms, 54, 58, 72, 86, 183.

---- structure of, in Swiss lake-dwellings, 12.

Plums, remains of, 14.

Polished stone discs, 172.

---- disc of pyrites, 293.

Polishers, of stone, 158, 169, 210.

Portland, his Grace the Duke of, 69, 91.

Pots, bronze, 24, 25, 38, 45, 67.

---- of bronze or brass, 248, 249.

Potteries, pieces of, found in drained lake in parish of Croy, 31.

Pottery at Buston, 233, 236.

---- at Lochlee, 138.

---- at Lochspouts, 178.

---- at London Wall, 293.

---- bit of, from Loch of the Clans, 34.

---- British, 301.

---- glazed, 296.

---- in Barton Mere, 298.

---- in crannogs, inferences from, 280.

---- in Llangorse crannog, 297.

---- in Wigtownshire, 189.

---- knob of, 234.

---- Romano-British, 280.

---- sepulchral, different from domestic vessels, 281.

Prasias, dwellers in Lake, 3.

_Prehistoric Annals of Scotland,_ 67, 229.

---- Times, 15.

Preservation of antiquarian objects due to exceptional causes, 2.

Primeval forests in prehistoric times, 268.

---- existed when crannogs were constructed, 269.

Prison Island, description of, 22.

Pugio or dagger plated with gold, 28.

Punch of iron, 124, 224.

Queen Margaret's Inch, 20.

Querns, 32, 49, 56, 74, 81, 106, 171, 193, 213, 311.

Quien Loch, remains in, 18.

Rannoch, Loch, remains in, 31.

Raspberries, in Swiss lake-dwellings, 14.

Rea, Lough, 8, 10.

Reeves, Dr., on crannogs in Antrim, 7.

Refuse-heaps, 88, 194, 204, 294.

Reid, Mr. Charles, 91, 148.

Reindeer, remains of, 117, 142, 299.

Relic-bed at Lochlee crannog, 77.

Relics from Buston, 210-236.

---- from Dowalton, 43, 50.

---- from Inch-Cryndil, 59.

---- from Lochlee, 101-139.

---- from Lochspouts, 168-182, 309-313.

---- from Scottish lake-dwellings compared with those on Irish crannogs, 277.

---- ---- not of a warlike character, 282.

Relics from Scottish lake-dwellings, their discovery almost confined to the counties of Ayr and Wigtown, 276.

---- ---- similar to those in Romano-British towns, 277.

---- found in Loch of Kilbirnie, 65.

---- from Wigtownshire crannogs, 56.

Rescobie, Loch of, 246.

Reservoir at Lochspouts, 182, 305.

Ring pin, 131.

Rings of bronze, 45, 46, 236, 312.

---- of brass, 31.

---- of gold, 228, 229, 230.

---- of horn or bone, 116, 137.

---- of iron, 126.

---- jet, cannel coal or lignite, 99, 138, 174, 185, 311.

---- vitreous paste or glass, 48.

Robert I., King, 27.

Robertson, Dr. Joseph, on Scottish crannogs, 16, 19.

Rock-crystal, ornament of, 311.

Roe-deer, remains of, 116, 142, 176, 219, 236, 296, 298, 299.

---- horn implements made of, 116, 177.

Rolleston, Professor, on osseous remains from Lochlee crannog, 117, 139.

---- ---- ---- from Llangorse crannog, 297.

Roman camp-kettles, 67.

---- soldiers withdrawn from Britain, 255.

Ronnecht, 27.

Ropes in Swiss lake-dwellings, 14.

Rose, C. B., F.G.S., on remains in English lakes, 299.

Rothiemurchus, Lake of, 246.

Saga, Orkneyinga, 143.

Samian ware, 138, 178, 280, 293, 295.

Sandals at London Wall, 293.

Sandhurst, flints found at, 299.

Sanquhar, remains in Loch of, 36.

Saucepan from Dowalton, 41.

Saw, iron, 87, 126.

Saxon element not indicated by relics from Scottish crannogs, 277.

Scharley, mine of, 89.

Schliemann, quoted, on Swastika, 131.

---- on gold rings at Mycenæ, 230.

Scots, kingdom of, 257.

Scottish crannogs, comparison with fascine structures on Continent, 13.

Scraper, wooden, 119.

Scrapers of flint, 109, 174, 214.

Seaforth, family of, 32.

Semple Castle, 245.

Severus, Emperor, enters North Britain, 253.

Sharpening-stones. See _Whetstones_.

Shears, 126, 293.

Sheep, remains of, 13, 50, 60, 78, 141, 238, 299.

Shells, 60, 139, 164.

Shin, Loch, 247.

Shirley, Mr., on Irish crannogs, 10.

Shoes, 49, 136, 293, 295.

---- horse, 28.

Shore Island, 10.

Silt, increase of, in lochs at Buston and Lochlee, 270.

Singapore, pile structures at, 4.

Skates of bone, 294.

Skeleton of sheep or goat, 78, 79.

Skene, W. F., Esq., quoted, 252, 253, 255.

---- on Chalmers's statement as to colonisation of Galloway by Irish in eighth century, 257.

Skulls, human, at London Wall, 296.

---- sheep, 78, 79.

Slag, 41, 48, 200, 214.

Sling-stones, 103, 211.

Sloes, remains of, 14.

Smith, Dr. Angus, on lake-dwellings at Ledaig and Lochnell, 53, 55.

---- Dr. J. Alexander, quoted, 143.

Southwark Street, pile structures at, 296.

Spatula, 131, 175.

Spear-heads, 94, 116, 125, 176, 224, 294, 298.

Spindle-whorls, 56, 77, 109, 172, 193, 213, 312.

Spinie, Loch, remains in, 30.

Spiral objects, 226.

Spoons, 34, 112, 185.

Squirrels, 146, 301.

St. Columba, apostle of the northern Picts, 257.

St. Ninian founds a church at Candida Casa, 257.

St. Ternan, Archbishop of the Picts, 27.

Stags' heads found in Carlingwark Loch, 28.

Stair, Earl of, 59, 183.

---- Field-Marshal the Earl of, 60.

Stewart, Mr. J. Leveson, 183.

Stoddart, J. H., Esq., 183.

Stone, objects made of, 102, 169.

---- hammer, 25.

---- implements, with central hollows, 56, 173.

Stonehouse, farm of, 50.

Stonykirk, 57.

Stravithy, fortalice on bog at, 245.

Strokestown, crannog of, 9.

Structure of wooden islands, 259.

Stuart, Dr., on Scottish crannogs, 16, 32, 52, 67, 259.

---- on crannogs in Loch Dowalton, 38.

---- on crannog in Loch of Forfar, 20.

Stylus at London Wall, 293.

Subsidence of Scottish lake-dwellings, 148, 156, 167, 191, 272.

Suidæ, 140.

Summary of observations on Buston crannog, 204.

Sunonness Loch, remains in, 247.

_Sus._ See _Pig_.

Suttie, Sir George Grant, 248.

Swastika, 131.

Swine, prehistoric, 141.

Sword, bronze, 30.

Tabular statement of Scottish lake-dwellings, 244.

---- value of, 248.

Tacitus on North Britain, 250, 264.

Tay, Loch, islands in, 247.

Theodosius, 255.

Thomson, Mr. J., F.G.S., 169.

Three-pronged iron implement, 128.

Tile, Roman, 293.

Tines. See _Deer_.

Tolsta, crannog of, 60.

Topographical changes in lake-dwelling area, 264.

---- ---- at Buston since the construction of crannog, 269.

---- nomenclature of Britain, 287.

Torlundie, Loch, 52.

Town-Council of Kilmarnock, 91.

Trestle-work at Lochlee crannog, 94.

Tripods of bronze, 24, 245, 248, 249.

Trough, wooden, 93.

Troy, 131.

Tummel, Loch of, 246.

Turner, F. J., Esq., F.S.A. Scot., 69, 70, 71, 90.

---- Mr. J. H., 69, 71.

Tusk, implement made of, 139.

Tusks. See _Boar_.

Tweezers at London Wall, 293.

Ulpius Marcellus, 252.

Upchurch pottery at London Wall, 293.

Urbicus Lollius, 251.

Uriconium, bone comb from, 279.

Urn, found near Loch Cot, 32.

Urns, remains of, 298.

Vennachar, Loch, 247.

Vernon, the Hon. G. R., 193.

Vessels of bronze, 24, 29, 38, 44, 59, 66, 245, 248, 249, 293.

---- of wood, 74, 80, 81, 88, 93, 118, 177, 185, 221, 310.

Victoria Cave, 285.

Vitreous paste, objects of, 48, 232.

Vivian, Mr., Cornwall, 89.

---- J. P., Esq., M.P., 183.

Vivianite, crystals of, 88, 123, 143, 204.

Wakefield, island of, 10.

Wakeman, W. F., Esq., quoted, 6.

---- on pottery of crannogs, 9.

Walkmill at Lochspouts, 160.

Wattie, Rev. James, on crannogs in Loch Canmor, 22.

Wheat found in Swiss lake-dwellings, 13.

Wheel used in making crannog pottery, 281.

Whetstones or hones, 35, 44, 49, 104, 127, 170, 185, 211, 310.

Whorls. See _Spindle-whorls_.

Wilde, Sir W. R., quoted, 6, 7, 11.

---- on antiquity of Irish crannogs, 10.

---- on crannog at Lagore, 5.

---- on submergence of Irish crannogs, 275.

Wilson, Rev. George, on crannogs in Wigtownshire, 55, 183, 247.

Wilson's _Prehistoric Annals of Scotland_, 67, 229.

Wood, objects made of, 43, 74, 80, 81, 88, 93, 117, 133, 177, 185, 206, 221, 310.

Wooden islands, structure of, 259, 261.

---- ---- period of, 243.

Wretham Mere, remains in, 290.

Wyllie, W. M., Esq., F.S.A., 299.

Yetholm, Loch of, 247.

York, Museum at, 127, 178.

Zürich, remains from lake-dwellings at, 11.

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+-----------------------------------------------------------------+ | Transcriber notes: | | | | P. 256. Footnote 42 refers to the battle of Aardderyd or | | 'Arderyth' 1577 according to the reference cited. | | Footnote 15. 'horizonal' changed to 'horizontal' in | | 'horizontal beams'. | | P.271. 'other two feeter' changed other to another. | | Corrected various punctuation. | | | | Tags that surround text: _LOOKING NORTHWARDS_ indicate italics. | +-----------------------------------------------------------------+