Part 8

The idea of presenting the life of Rome as a gorgeous and at times bloody spectacle, with a frequent use of the sensational, reached its greatest height in _Quo Vadis_ (1895), by the Polish author, H. Sienkiewicz. This idea had appeared in the English novel of Roman life, _e. g._, in _Salathiel_ (1827), _The Gladiators_ (1863), and _Ben Hur_ (1880). There is no need to review _Quo Vadis_ in detail here, since it is so well known; but let us establish its relation to the English novel of Roman life. It appeared after Eckstein’s _Nero_ (1889), and a number of English novels of Roman life of the time of Nero, and may owe some of its inspiration to these, especially to _Darkness and Dawn_ (1892). But after _Quo Vadis_ was translated into English (1896), its influence upon later English novels of Roman life overshadowed even that of Canon Farrar’s great and more serious work. _Quo Vadis_ has been translated and read in civilized lands even more widely than _Ben Hur_. These are the two novels of Roman life which have had the most widespread influence upon all subsequent novels of Roman life the world over. _Quo Vadis_ adds practically no new element to the novel of Roman life, but puts certain elements which already existed into a more intensely vivid, and even lurid form,—in short, emphasizes the sensational. In its larger outlines _Quo Vadis_ is reminiscent not only of _Darkness and Dawn_ but of _Hypatia_. It represents the same struggle between the Christian Church and the Roman pagan world, the same triumph of Christianity. The contrast lies between the proud, voluptuous, and cruel spirit of pagan Rome and the spirit of humility and hope of the dwellers in the catacombs. A personal contrast is seen between Nero, the royal performer in the circus, and St. Peter, the fisherman who was to rule the world by his example. Other characters are those familiar to the novel of Roman life, Petronius the connoisseur in luxury, Vinicius the active young Roman noble, Lygia the beautiful Christian maiden condemned to the arena, Ursus the powerful slave, the dissolute Poppæa and members of Nero’s court, Croton the athlete, Glaucus the forgiving Christian, and others too numerous to mention. The scenes of _Quo Vadis_ are also familiar, much the same as those of _Darkness and Dawn_, the picture of the fire at Rome being especially fine. While the moral lesson exists in _Quo Vadis_, what Sienkiewicz did for the novel of Roman life was to portray the life of the city of Rome itself in a form absolutely irresistible to the so-called “average” reader. Realistic effect was the most important thing to the writer of _Quo Vadis_; and in preparation for the writing of a novel which should portray the life of Rome with realistic effect he traveled widely and made a thorough study of numerous Latin authors, especially those who describe the life of Rome of the first few centuries A. D. The result is that Sienkiewicz was a profound scholar; and his scholarship appears in _Quo Vadis_,—though the novel shows some instances of error, chiefly topographical error, especially in the description of the great fire. None the less _Quo Vadis_ is now the novel of Roman life which shows to the greatest extent a combination of careful scholarship and popularity of appeal. By 1900, nearly 2,000,000 copies of the English translation (1896), by Jeremiah Curtin, had been sold; and the influence of the novel upon popular taste is still important, since it creates beyond a doubt in every reader’s mind a desire to read further in Roman historical fiction.

_The Sign of the Cross_, by Wilson Barrett, appeared immediately after _Quo Vadis_, and, though very popular, is nothing but a weak and slavish imitation of Sienkiewicz’s great novel. This is all that need be said of _The Sign of the Cross_ as a novel, since there is nothing original about it, and its brief popularity was due entirely to the reflected splendor of _Quo Vadis_. The fact that this novel was turned into a play with some success, following the example set by the dramatization of _Ben Hur_, shows that theatrical managers realized the possibilities offered by a novel of Roman life. Unfortunately the drama of Roman life presented either on the stage or the screen, has in nearly every instance, become more a gorgeous spectacle or a sensational melodrama, than a serious drama. But the drama of Roman life is mentioned here, since it has induced many who have seen such a play to read the novel on which it was based. This was the case with _Ben Hur_, which in the form of a novel offers, I believe, a higher and stronger appeal than any dramatic production based upon it.

Another novel which definitely goes back to _Quo Vadis_ for its best scenes, but is possessed of some individual merit, is _Amor Victor_, the third edition of which appeared in 1902. This novel, by Orr Kenyon, is also marked by the seriousness of purpose which underlies the sensationalism of _Quo Vadis_. It particularly resembles _Quo Vadis_ in its scenes in the arena, and in showing the tremendous difference between the appalling difficulties presented to the Christian at the time of the Empire, and those which he now meets. But _Amor Victor_ also shows the similarity of atrocities committed by pagans then and now. This novel seems to be the first to draw parallels between events in the past and definite, specific occurrences of the present, taken sometimes even from personal experiences. For example, the author, in describing certain almost unthinkable atrocities which occurred in the Roman arena, shows how exactly the same outrages were committed upon the Christians by the Turks shortly before he wrote. Even since _Amor Victor_ was written, these scenes have been repeated in Turkey. Moreover, Kenyon, in describing the scene in which Arsaces, the giant Parthian, kills a lion in the arena, is recalling the time when he himself had seen Sandow, the famous strong man, throw a lion in a public exhibition. This definite use of an incident, which the author has seen with his own eyes, aids him in achieving realistic effect. A similar use of an incident which actually occurred, is made by Mr. E. L. White in _Andivius Hedulio_ (1921), in which the description of the miraculous escape of Commodus’ chariot from disaster was suggested by a real accident in the streets of Baltimore. _Amor Victor_ takes its story of St. John the Apostle from the patristic writings. It is accurate in its historical coloring. In speaking of his serious purpose, the author says in a note at the end of _Amor Victor_, “Newell Dwight Hillis has shown that really great works of fiction are those which illustrate some vital principle, some deep moral lesson.” The novel conveys a moral lesson. Yet, while parts of it are also written in juvenile style, _Amor Victor_ is not merely a story of religious instruction, but a true novel of Roman life. _The Story of Phaedrus_, by Hillis, to which Kenyon has reference in his quotation, is more a story of religious instruction written in distinctly juvenile style. Its hero does not see much of Roman life, since he spends most of his life in copying sacred writings in the depths of the catacombs.

An imitation of _Ben Hur_ with some original touches is Mr. Irving Bacheller’s _Vergilius; A Tale of the Coming of Christ_ (1904). The author reverses the plan of Lew Wallace, by placing the birth of Christ at the end, instead of at the beginning of his story. Mr. Bacheller’s attempt to use the birth of Christ as a climax, to which the rest of the story leads, is not very successful. His treatment of sacred scenes falls far below that of Lew Wallace, and the construction of his plot is poor. But he has described some scenes in Roman life with fine realistic effect, particularly those which take place in the magnificent palaces of Rome and Jerusalem. The descriptions of intrigues which take place in the court of Augustus, show the uncertainty of life at Rome at the time. The characters are few in number, Augustus and the young Jewish prince Herod Antipater being the only important historical figures. The crafty nature of Augustus is portrayed with a very keen insight into the depths of human nature, and the vindictive hatred of the Jewish prince forms a marked contrast to the noble, ingenuous nature of Vergilius, the imaginary hero of the story. Vergilius is a young patrician, and a favorite of Augustus; his character is not idealized and is quite representative of Roman times. In justice to Mr. Bacheller’s work, it should be said that he has not attempted to fill as large a canvas as did Lew Wallace in _Ben Hur_; his picture of life in Roman times is more limited in its scope, and more chaste in its outlines. Scenes which make use of the sensational are not overdone. _Vergilius_ is a novel of Roman life, containing many beautifully written passages, which give it a very high position among such novels.

_Lux Crucis_ (1904) is a very readable novel by Mr. Samuel M. Gardenhire. It is called by its author _A Tale of the Great Apostle_, and is dedicated to the Rt. Rev. Ethelbert Talbot, Bishop of Central Pennsylvania. _Lux Crucis_ is, more than any other novel I know of, an attempt to portray Roman life by taking as much material as possible from previous novels of Roman life. Everything is thus taken at second-hand, without recourse to original sources. This method may show wide reading, but hardly shows thorough scholarship. Scenes in the arena depend upon _Quo Vadis_; scenes which have to do with St. Paul and Christian characters suggest _Ben Hur_ and _Darkness and Dawn_; while other passages, especially that representing the gladiator’s school, undoubtedly go back to _The Last Days of Pompeii_. The author takes his history, chronology, and topography at second hand, and apparently he is confused in his remembrance of his own reading. The result is that _Lux Crucis_ probably contains more ridiculous mistakes than any other novel of Roman life. For example, a so-called Briton is given the Anglo-Saxon name of Ethelred, though he lives in the time of Nero, before the Saxon invasion of Britain; he is made to come from Brittany, though Armorica did not receive that name until at least six hundred years later; and he speaks of crossing the channel to Angle-land, “with a smile.” (The reader also smiles.) An anachronism which is related to topography occurs, when the Forum of Trajan is mentioned in this story of Nero’s time, though the accession of Trajan did not take place until thirty-three years later. These typical instances of error in _Lux Crucis_ are selected from a great number, some of which are almost equally bad. It is remarkable that, in spite of these inconsistencies, the novel is pleasing in its portrayal of characters, historical and non-historical, and many of its scenes are by no means devoid of realistic effect. _Lux Crucis_ furnishes examples of the pitfalls awaiting an author who has attempted a piece of work requiring scholarship, but has been handicapped by his unscholarly methods.

Mr. Walter S. Cramp’s popular novel, _Psyche_ (1905), describes the Rome of Tiberius, and contains much sound history taken from the _Annals_ of Tacitus. In this it resembles Graham’s _Neaera_, which had appeared in 1886. In 1913 Mr. Cramp published another novel of Roman life, called _An Heir to Empire_, which is much like _Psyche_ in its general outlines, except that the story centers in the life of Augustus’ court, instead of in the life of the court of Tiberius. It makes no great misuse of history, but adds too many fanciful details to historical episodes; this in spite of the fact that the novel is formally dedicated “To the Honorable Rodolpho Lanciani, whose genius touched the dust and ruins of Ancient Rome and made them live.”

F. INFLUENCE OF FRENCH NOVELS OF ROMAN LIFE

Hitherto no mention has been made of the influence of French novels of Roman life upon English novels of Roman life. And I have found that this influence of French novels is not nearly so important as might be supposed, but on the whole, is rather an indefinite thing. But before concluding our survey of the “popular novel” of Roman life and the “gorgeous romance,” it is best to say a few words, (regarding the latter phrase especially), of the influence of certain French novels. In 1862 Gustave Flaubert’s famous _Salammbo_ appeared in the English translation. While this great work undoubtedly had a tremendous influence as a “gorgeous romance,” it is difficult to trace this influence directly. _The Gladiators_ (1863) appeared the following year, and exhibits a similarity of style in presenting the gorgeous pageantry of the past; but while _The Gladiators_ may owe something to _Salammbo_, it seems more likely that Whyte-Melville’s novel was an independent effort to please a certain element of the public taste. Later and greater novels, such as _Ben Hur_ and _Quo Vadis_, may have profited by the splendid example of Flaubert, who filled a large canvas with brilliant colors, but did not sacrifice truth,—but here again the influence is indefinite. In fact, _Salammbo_ appears to have stood forth with such tremendous power that it discouraged rather than encouraged imitation. No one,—so novelists have thought,—could hope to equal Flaubert’s novel in splendor of style or in realistic effect. Thus _Salammbo_ has remained the only great novel whose scene is ancient Carthage. Though its scene does not go to Rome, no view of Roman life would be complete without some knowledge of the most powerful enemy of the Roman Republic, whose life was so closely connected with that of Rome. _Salammbo_ combines the story of a Carthaginian princess, a sister of Hannibal, with an account of the Mercenary War. The description of this war of Carthage with her own soldiers, suggests troubles Rome later had with armies composed of heterogeneous elements. _Salammbo_ is equally vivid in its description of the pagan customs of Carthage, particularly of the custom of offering human sacrifices to Moloch. A few books which describe the city life of Carthage, or her wars with the Romans, no doubt owe their inspiration indirectly to _Salammbo_. G. A. Henty’s excellent book for boys, _The Young Carthaginian_ (1886), describes the political organization and social conditions existing in the city of Carthage, and gives a similar description of the sacrifice to Moloch, before taking Hannibal on his campaign against Rome. _The Lion’s Brood_ (1901) has its scene entirely in the Italian peninsula. Recently Señor Blasco Ibañez published _Sonnica_ (1920), which seems to show evidence of his reading of _Salammbo_. In this novel Hannibal’s siege of the semibarbaric city of Saguntum recalls Flaubert’s description of the siege of Carthage by the Mercenaries. _Sonnica_, besides giving a good characterization of Hannibal, is especially noteworthy for its accurate portrayal of the stern, bare, and crude city of Rome in the early days of the republic. This portrayal contains a fine paragraph on the Roman father, and mentions several historical characters, such as the vindictive Cato and the slave Plautus. _Sonnica_ does not appear as yet to have influenced novels of Roman life in English, though it may have given some suggestions to Mr. Jaquelin A. Caskie, who has written _Nabala_ (1922), an attractive novelette, dealing with the Third Punic War. More likely _Nabala_, (as everything else in fiction connected with Hannibal and Carthage before her fall seems to do), goes back for its principal inspiration to _Salammbo_. Its scenes of fighting outside the city of Carthage recall similar scenes in _Salammbo_, as does its description of what goes on inside the city, the human sacrifice to Moloch furnishing the climax of the story.

A novel written in quite different style by Flaubert is _The Temptation of St. Anthony_ (1874). This has for its scene the cell of an anchorite in the time of Constantine, since St. Anthony says in the novel, “The Emperor Constantine has written me three letters.” In describing the visions[31] which pass through the mind of the saint, however, the author makes it seem as though the entire pageant of the past history of the Roman Empire were passing before his eyes. In his temptation the saint sees pagan gods pass before him, and he takes on the personality of famous kings, with their unlimited power to gratify their passions. In his mental wanderings, he speaks of Athanasius, the Arians, and the monks of Nitria. This last thought recalls the part which the savage monks of Nitria play in Kingsley’s _Hypatia_, and the talk of other affairs of the Church also suggests _Hypatia_. Moreover, the situation of St. Anthony alone in his cell in the desert is strongly reminiscent of passages at the beginning and the end of Kingsley’s novel. But St. Anthony’s strongest temptation comes in the form of the vision of Thais, an irresistibly beautiful courtesan. This suggests M. Anatole France’s (Jacques Anatole France Thibault) _Thais_ (1889), which also makes a portrayal of the beautiful courtesan. Custom forbids English and American novelists from making such a portrayal in detail, and it is to be doubted whether they could present such a picture with the realism of French authors, whose view-point has always been radically different, as regards the degree of frankness to be allowed a novelist in portraying a man’s passion for a beautiful woman. The portrayal of the beautiful courtesan in the French novel of Roman life reaches the greatest frankness in Pierre Louys’ _Aphrodite_, which is, in effect, a description of the schools of prostitution in Roman Alexandria. French novels of this kind have had little effect on novels of Roman life written in English. However, there is one novel written by an American of French descent, which frankly tells the story of a beautiful courtesan, and will now be discussed.

Mr. T. Everett Harré published in Philadelphia in 1916 _Behold the Woman_. This is the story of the famous Alexandrian courtesan of transcendent beauty, who is known in the _Lives of the Saints_ as St. Mary of Egypt. Mr. Harré takes the general outlines of his story from the _Lives of the Saints_, though adding much from invention. And, while _Behold the Woman_ shows an individuality of style and a remarkable power of description, it appears to be a book full of echoes. There is, for example, some similarity of plot between _Behold the Woman_ and the _Thais_ of M. Anatole France, in that both novels portray the repentance and regeneration of the fallen woman.

M. France in _Thais_ had been said to combine “a curiously subtle piety of imagination with impiety of thought.” (B. W. Wells in _The Encyclopedia Americana_, 1920.) Whether this criticism is just or not, as applied to _Thais_, it must be said most emphatically that Mr. Harré’s work shows absolutely no impiety of thought. In presenting the facts of life in the Roman world, in _Behold the Woman_, he is making a simple statement of the truth. Piety of imagination is indeed displayed in the story of Mary’s conversion and life of penitence in the desert. But even in such a scene as that in which the supposed room of the Lord’s Supper is desecrated by the orgy of the fallen monks, the author shows no impiety of thought. Nor, if one sets aside questions of religion, and rests his faith on mere morality, can the charge of immorality be brought against _Behold the Woman_ with any sincerity whatever. In certain scenes of _Behold the Woman_ there appears evidence of a direct borrowing from Pierre Louys’ _Aphrodite_, in which there had been an elaborate description of the bath and toilet of the courtesan, with an extensive catalogue of her charms in symbolic language. In _Behold the Woman_ the scenes attending the destruction of the temple of Serapic remind one of Ebers’ _Serapis_, which had described similar scenes. But Mr. Harré particularly excels in describing with minute touches the superstition of the Roman soldiers, who were called upon to destroy the temple and its huge idol, but feared to do so. Moreover, the brutal conduct of the military on this occasion and at the breaking up of the banquet at Mary’s palace, well represents the ruthless use of Rome’s mighty power. There also appear to be in _Behold the Woman_ some slight suggestions taken from Kingsley’s novel, _Hypatia_, the same proper names being used, but transposed; the name of Philammon, Kingsley’s hero, is given to a character in _Behold the Woman_, who corresponds to one of the minor characters in _Hypatia_. Moreover, the scenes of riot in the streets of Alexandria, which appear in _Behold the Woman_, are reminiscent of similar scenes in _Hypatia_. The two books represent the savage monks in a similar way; and Mary is able to see through their sham Christianity, just as Philammon saw through the pretenses of the monks, in _Hypatia_. But as Mr. Harré says in his preface, he does not agree with Kingsley that “one who writes of such an era ... cannot tell how evil people were.” Here he is quoting the preface of _Hypatia_, though he does not say so. In _Behold the Woman_, he does tell how evil people were; and justly remarks in its preface that the novel is one for strong men and fearless women, not for children. The description of the orgy at the banquet in Mary’s palace is perhaps as realistic a portrayal of such a scene as is made in any novel of Roman life; but the frankness of this description is certainly very nearly equaled in Canon Farrar’s _Darkness and Dawn_, a novel which no one would think of calling immoral in any sense of the word. The description of Mary’s sordid life in the Brucheum, the slum quarter of the city, is also realistic, and portrays a side of life which has been neglected by the authors of novels of Roman life, even when they claimed to be presenting life among all classes of society.

Other scenes in _Behold the Woman_ are similar to those which are already familiar in the novel of Roman life. And no matter what he is describing, the author’s genius and originality have enabled him to portray scenes from life in Roman times, with a vividness and realism hardly exceeded in any novel of Roman life. The style of _Behold the Woman_ is richly ornamental at times, but never too flowery for the theme which the author has in hand. _Behold the Woman_ could be placed in the class of the “gorgeous romance” along with such novels as _Ben Hur_ and _Quo Vadis_. But it shows, more than any other novel of Roman life in English, the influence of the French novels of which we have spoken.

G. NOVELS WRITTEN BY TEACHERS OF ROMAN HISTORY OR OF THE CLASSICS