CHAPTER XVII

Historical Summary

The evidence dealt with in the foregoing chapters throws considerable light on the history of early man in Britain. We really know more about pre-Roman times than about that obscure period of Anglo-Saxon invasion and settlement which followed on the withdrawal of the Roman army of occupation, yet historians, as a rule, regard it as "pre-historic" and outside their sphere of interest. As there are no inscriptions and no documents to render articulate the archæological Ages of Stone and Bronze, they find it impossible to draw any definite conclusions.

It can be urged, however, in criticism of this attitude, that the relics of the so-called "pre-historic age" may be found to be even more reliable than some contemporary documents of the "historic" period. Not a few of these are obviously biassed and prejudiced, while some are so vague and fragmentary that the conclusions drawn from them cannot be otherwise than hypothetical in character. A plainer, clearer, and more reliable story is revealed by the bones and the artifacts and the surviving relics of the intellectual life of our remote ancestors than by the writings of some early chroniclers and some early historians. It is possible, for instance, in consequence of the scanty evidence available, to hold widely diverging views regarding the Anglo-Saxon and Celtic problems. Pro-Teutonic and pro-Celtic protagonists involve us invariably in bitter controversy. That contemporary documentary evidence, even when somewhat voluminous, may fail to yield a clear record of facts is evident from the literature that deals, for instance, with the part played by Mary Queen of Scots in the Darnley conspiracy and in the events that led to her execution.

The term "pre-historic" is one that should be discarded. It is possible, as has been shown, to write, although in outline, the history of certain ancient race movements, of the growth and decay of the civilization revealed by the cavern art of Aurignacian and Magdalenian times, of early trade and of early shipping. The history of art goes back for thousands of years before the Classic Age dawned in Greece; the history of trade can be traced to that remote period when Red Sea shells were imported into Italy by Crô-Magnon man; and the history of British shipping can be shown to be as old as those dug-outs that foundered in ancient Scottish river beds before the last land movement had ceased.

The history of man really begins when and where we find the first clear traces of his activities, and as it is possible to write not only regarding the movements of the Crô-Magnon races, but of their beliefs as revealed by burial customs, their use of body paint, the importance attached to shell and other talismans, and their wonderful and high attainments in the arts and crafts, the European historical period can be said to begin in the post-Glacial epoch when tundra conditions prevailed in Central and Western Europe and Italy was connected with the North African coast.

In the case of ancient Egypt, historical data have been gleaned from archæological remains as well as from religious texts and brief records of historical events. The history of Egyptian agriculture has been traced back beyond the dawn of the Dynastic Age and to that inarticulate period before the hieroglyphic system of writing had been invented, by the discovery in the stomachs of the bodies of proto-Egyptians, naturally preserved in hot dry sands, of husks of barley and of millet native to the land of Egypt.[197]

[197] Elliot Smith, _The Ancient Egyptians_, p. 42.

The historical data so industriously accumulated in Egypt and Babylonia have enabled excavators to date certain finds in Crete, and to frame a chronological system for the ancient civilization of that island. Other relics afford proof of cultural contact between Crete and the mainland, as far westward as Spain, where traces of Cretan activities have been discovered. With the aid of comparative evidence, much light is thrown, too, on the history of the ancient Hittites, who have left inscriptions that have not yet been deciphered. The discoveries made by Siret in Spain and Portugal of unmistakable evidence of Egyptian and Babylonian cultural influence, trade, and colonization are, therefore, to be welcomed. The comparative evidence in this connection provides a more reliable basis than has hitherto been available for Western European archæology. It is possible for the historian to date approximately the beginning of the export trade in jet from England--apparently from Whitby in Yorkshire--and of the export trade in amber from the Baltic, and the opening of the sea routes between Spain and Northern Europe. The further discovery of Egyptian beads in south-western England, in association with relics of the English "Bronze Age", is of far-reaching importance. A "prehistoric" period surely ceases to be "prehistoric" when its relics can be dated even approximately. The English jet found in Spain takes us back till about 2500 B.C., and the Egyptian beads found in England till about 1300 B.C.

The dating of these and other relics raises the question whether historians should accept, without qualification, or at all, the system of "Ages" adopted by archæologists. Terms like "Palæolithic" (Old Stone) and "Neolithic" (New Stone) are, in most areas, without precise chronological significance. As applied in the historical sense, they tend to obscure the fact that the former applies to a most prolonged period during which more than one civilization arose, flourished, and decayed. In the so-called "Old Stone Age" flint was worked with a degree of skill never surpassed in the "New Stone Age", as Aurignacian and Solutrean artifacts testify; it was also sometimes badly worked from poorly selected material, as in Magdalenian times, when bone and horn were utilized to such an extent that archæologists would be justified in referring to a "Bone and Horn Age".

Before the Neolithic industry was introduced into Western Europe and the so-called "Neolithic Age" dawned, as it ended, at various periods in various areas, great climatic changes took place, and the distribution of sea and land changed more than once. Withal, considerable race movements took place in Central and Western Europe. In time new habits of life were introduced into our native land that influenced more profoundly the subsequent history of Britain than could have been possibly accomplished by a new method of working flint. The most important cultural change was effected by the introduction of the agricultural mode of life.

It is important to bear in mind in this connection that the ancient civilizations of Egypt and Babylonia were based on the agricultural mode of life, and that when this mode of life passed into Europe a complex culture was transported with it from the area of origin. It was the early agriculturists who developed shipbuilding and the art of navigation, who first worked metals, and set a religious value on gold and silver, on pearls, and on certain precious stones, and sent out prospectors to search for precious metals and precious gems in distant lands. The importance of agriculture in the history of civilization cannot be overestimated. In so far as our native land is concerned, a new epoch was inaugurated when the first agriculturist tilled the soil, sowed imported barley seeds, using imported implements, and practising strange ceremonies at sowing, and ultimately at harvest time, that had origin in a far-distant "cradle" of civilization, and still linger in our midst as folk-lore evidence, testifies to the full. In ancient times the ceremonies were regarded as being of as much importance as the implements, and the associated myths were connected with the agriculturists' Calendar, as the Scottish Gaelic Calendar bears testimony.

Instead, therefore, of dividing the early history of man in Britain into periods, named after the materials from which he made implements and weapons, these should be divided so as to throw light on habits of life and habits of thought. The early stages of civilization can be referred to as the "Pre-Agricultural", and those that follow as the "Early Agricultural".

Under "Pre-Agricultural" come the culture stages, or rather the industries known as (1) Aurignacian, (2) Solutrean, and (3) Magdalenian. These do not have the same chronological significance everywhere in Europe, for the Solutrean industry never disturbed or supplemented the Aurignacian in Italy or in Spain south of the Cantabrian Mountains, nor did Aurignacian penetrate into Hungary, where the first stage of Modern Man's activities was the Solutrean. The three stages, however, existed during the post-Glacial period, when man hunted the reindeer and other animals favouring similar climatic conditions. The French archæologists have named this the "Reindeer Age". Three later industries were introduced into Europe during the Pre-Agricultural Age. These are known as (1) Azilian, (2) Tardenoisian, and (3) Maglemosian. The ice-cap was retreating, the reindeer and other tundra animals moved northward, and the red deer arrived in Central and Western Europe. We can, therefore, refer to the latter part of the Pre-Agricultural times as the "Early Red Deer Age".

There is Continental evidence to show that the Neolithic industry was practised prior to the introduction of the agricultural mode of life. The "Early Agricultural Age", therefore, cuts into the archæological "Neolithic Age" in France. Whether or not it does so in Britain is uncertain.

At the dawn of the British "Early Agricultural Age" cultural influences were beginning to "flow" from centres of ancient civilization, if not directly, at any rate indirectly. As has been indicated in the foregoing pages, the Neolithic industry was practised in Britain by a people who had a distinct social organization and engaged in trade. Some Neolithic flints were of Eastern type or origin. The introduction of bronze from the Continent appears to have been effected by seafaring traders, and there is no evidence that it changed the prevailing habits of thought and life. Our ancestors did not change their skins and their ideas when they began to use and manufacture bronze. A section of them adopted a new industry, but before doing so they had engaged in the search for gold. This is shown by the fact that they settled on the granite in Devon and Cornwall, while yet they were using flints of Neolithic form which had been made elsewhere. Iron working was ultimately introduced. The Bronze and Iron "Ages" of the archæologists can be included in the historian's "Early Agricultural Age", because agriculture continued to be the most important factor in the economic life of Britain. It was the basis of its civilization; it rendered possible the development of mining and of various industries, and the promotion of trade by land and sea. In time the Celtic peoples--that is, peoples who spoke Celtic dialects--arrived in Britain. The Celtic movement was in progress at 500 B.C., and had not ended after Julius Cæsar invaded southern England. It was finally arrested by the Roman occupation, but continued in Ireland. When it really commenced is uncertain; the earliest Celts may have used bronze only.

The various Ages, according to the system suggested, are as follows:--

1. =The Pre-Agricultural Age.=

Sub-divisions: (A) the _Reindeer Age_ with the Aurignacian, Solutrean, and Magdalenian industries; (B) the _Early Red Deer Age_ with the Azilian, Tardenoisian, and Maglemosian industries.

2. =The Early Agricultural Age.=

Sub-divisions: (A) the _Pre-Celtic Age_ with the Neolithic, copper and bronze industries; (B) the _Celtic Age_ with the bronze, iron, and enamel industries.

3. =The Romano-British Age.=

Including in Scotland (A) the _Caledonian Age_ and (B) the _Early Scoto-Pictish Age_; and in Ireland the _Cuchullin Age_, during which bronze and iron were used.

The view favoured by some historians that our ancestors were, prior to the Roman invasion, mere "savages" can no longer obtain. It is clearly without justification. Nor are we justified in perpetuating the equally hazardous theory that early British culture was of indigenous origin, and passed through a series of evolutionary stages in isolation until the country offered sufficient attractions to induce first the Celts and afterwards the Romans to conquer it. The correct and historical view appears to be that from the earliest times Britain was subjected to racial and cultural "drifts" from the Continent, and that the latter outnumbered the former.

In the Pre-Agricultural Age Crô-Magnon colonists reached England and Wales while yet in the Aurignacian stage of civilization. As much is indicated by the evidence of the Paviland cave in South Wales. At a later period, proto-Solutrean influence, which had entered Western Europe from North Africa, filtered into England, and can be traced in those caverns that have yielded evidence of occupation. The pure Solutrean culture subsequently swept from Eastern Europe as far westward as Northern Spain, but Britain, like Southern Spain and Italy, remained immune to it. Magdalenian culture then arose and became widespread. It had relations with the earlier Aurignacian and owed nothing to Solutrean. England yields undoubted traces of its influence, which operated vigorously at a time when Scotland was yet largely covered with ice. Certain elements in Aurignacian and Magdalenian cultures appear to have persisted in our midst until comparatively recent times, especially in connection with burial customs and myths regarding the "sleeping heroes" in burial caverns.

The so-called "Transition Period" between the Upper Palæolithic and Neolithic Ages is well represented, especially in Scotland, where the land rose after early man's arrival, and even after the introduction of shipping. As England was sinking when Scotland was rising, English traces of the period are difficult to find. This "Transition Period" was of greater duration than the archæological "Neolithic Age".

Of special interest is the light thrown by relics of the "Transition Period" on the race problem. Apparently the Crô-Magnons and other peoples of the Magdalenian Age were settled in Britain when the intruders, who had broken up Magdalenian civilization on the Continent, began to arrive. These were (1) the Azilians of Iberian (Mediterranean) type; (2) the Tardenoisians, who came through Italy from North Africa, and were likewise, it would appear, of Mediterranean racial type; and (3) the Maglemosians, who were mainly a fair, tall people of Northern type. The close proximity of Azilian and Maglemosian stations in western Scotland--at the MacArthur cave (Azilian) and the Drumvaragie shelter (Maglemosian) at Oban, for instance--suggests that in the course of time racial intermixture took place. That all the fair peoples of England, Scotland, and Ireland are descended from Celts or Norwegians is a theory which has not taken into account the presence in these islands at an early period, and before the introduction of the Neolithic industry, of the carriers from the Baltic area of Maglemosian culture.

We next pass to the so-called Neolithic stage of culture,[198] and find it affords fuller and more definite evidence regarding the early history of our native land. As has been shown, there are data which indicate that there was no haphazard distribution of the population of England when the Neolithic industry and the agricultural mode of life were introduced. The theory must be discarded that "Neolithic man" was a wanderer, whose movements depended entirely on those of the wild animals he hunted, as well as the further theory that stone implements and weapons were not used after the introduction of metals. There were, as can be gathered from the evidence afforded by archæological remains, settled village communities, and centres of industry in the Age referred to by archæologists as "Neolithic". The Early Agricultural Age had dawned. Sections of the population engaged in agriculture, sections were miners and workers of flint, sections were hunters and fishermen, sections searched for gold, pigments for body paint, material for ornaments of religious value, &c., and sections engaged in trade, not only with English and Scottish peoples, but with those of the Continent. The English Channel, and probably the North Sea, were crossed by hardy mariners who engaged in trade.

[198] It must be borne in mind that among the producers and users of Neolithic artifacts were the Easterners who collected and exported ores.

At an early period in the Early Agricultural Age and before bronze working was introduced, England and Wales, Scotland and Ireland, were influenced more directly than had hitherto been the case by the high civilizations of Egypt and Mesopotamia, and especially by their colonies in South-western Europe. The recent Spanish finds indicate that a great "wave" of high Oriental culture was in motion in Spain as far back as 2500 B.C., and perhaps at an even earlier period. Included among Babylonian and Egyptian relics in Spain are, as has been stated, jet from Whitby, Yorkshire, and amber from the Baltic. Apparently the colonists had trading relations with Britain. Whether the "Tin Land", which was occupied by a people owing allegiance to Sargon of Akkad, was ancient Britain is quite uncertain. It was more probably some part of Western Europe. That Western European influence was reaching Britain before the last land movement had ceased is made evident by the fact that the ancient boat with a cork plug, which was found in Clyde silt at Glasgow, lay 25 feet above the present sea-level. The cork plug undoubtedly came from Spain or Italy, and the boat is of Mediterranean type.[199] It is evident that long before the introduction of bronze working the coasts of Britain were being explored by enterprizing prospectors, and that the virgin riches of our native land were being exploited. In this connection it is of importance to find that the earliest metal artifacts introduced into our native islands were brought by traders, and that those that reached England were mainly of Gaulish type, while those that reached Ireland were Spanish. The Neolithic industry does not appear to have been widespread in Ireland, where copper artifacts were in use at a very early period.

[199] The boat dates the silting process rather than the silting process the boat.

A large battle-axe of pure copper, described by Sir David Brewster in 1822 (_Edinburgh Philosophical Journal_, Vol. VI, p. 357), was found at a depth of 20 feet in Ratho Bog, near Edinburgh. Above it were 9 feet of moss, 7 feet of sand, and 4 feet of hard black till-clay. "It must have been deposited along with the blue clay", wrote Brewster, "prior to the formation of the superincumbent stratum of sand, and must have existed before the diluvial operations by which that stratum was formed. This opinion of its antiquity is strongly confirmed by the peculiarity of its shape, and the nature of its composition." The Spanish discoveries have revived interest in this important find.

As has been indicated, jet, pearls, gold, and tin appear to have been searched for and found before bronze working became a British industry. That the early prospectors had experience in locating and working metals before they reached this country there can be little doubt. There was a psychological motive for their adventurous voyages to unknown lands. The distribution of the megalithic monuments and graves indicates that metals were found and worked in south-western England, in Wales, in Derbyshire, and Cumberland, that jet was worked at Whitby, and that metals were located in Ireland and Scotland. Gold must have been widely distributed during the period of the great thaw. It is unlikely that traces of alluvial gold, which had been located and well worked in ancient times, should remain until the present time. In Scotland no traces of gold can now be found in a number of districts where, according to the records, it was worked as late as the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. Some of the surviving Scottish megalithic monuments may mark the sites of ancient goldfields that were abandoned in early times when the supplies of precious metal became exhausted. The great circles of Callernish in Lewis and Stennis in Orkney are records of activity in semi-barren areas. Large communities could not have been attracted to these outlying islands to live on the produce of land or sea. Traces of metals, &c., indicate that, in both areas in ancient times, the builders of megalithic monuments settled in remote areas in Britain for the same reason as they settled on parts of the Continent. A gold rod has been discovered in association with the "Druid Temple" at Leys, near Inverness. The Inverness group of circles may well have been those of gold-seekers. In Aberdeenshire a group of megalithic monuments appears to have been erected by searchers for pearls. Gold was found in this county in the time of the Stuart kings.

The close association of megalithic monuments with ancient mine workings makes it impossible to resist the conclusion that the worship of trees and wells was closely connected with the religion of which the megalithic monuments are records. Siret shows that the symbolic markings on typical stone monuments are identical with those of the tree cult. Folk-lore and philological data tend to support this view. From the root _nem_ are derived the Celtic names of the pearl, heaven, the grove, and the shrine within the grove (see Chap. XIII). The Celts appear to have embraced the Druidic system of the earlier Iberians in Western Europe, whose culture had been derived from that of the Oriental colonists.

The Oriental mother goddess was connected with the sacred tree, with gold and gems, with pearls, with rivers, lakes, and the sea, with the sky and with the heavenly bodies, long centuries before the Palm-tree cult was introduced into Spain by Oriental colonists. The symbolism of pearls links with that of jet, the symbolism of jet with that of Baltic amber, and the symbolism of Baltic amber with that of Adriatic amber and of Mediterranean coral. All these sacred things were supposed to contain, like jasper and turquoise in Egypt, the "life substance" of the mother goddess who had her origin in water and her dwelling in a tree, and was connected with the sky and "the waters above the firmament". Coral was supposed to be her sea tree, and jet, amber, silver, and gold were supposed to grow from her fertilizing tears. Beliefs about "grown gold" were quite rife in mediæval Britain.[200]

[200] The ancient belief is enshrined in Milton's lines referring to "ribs of gold" that "grow in Hell" and are dug out of its hill (_Paradise Lost_, Book I, lines 688-90).

It should not surprise us, therefore, to find traces of Oriental religious conceptions in ancient Britain and Ireland. These have apparently passed from country to country, from people to people, from language to language, and down the Ages without suffering great change. Even when mixed with ideas imported from other areas, they have preserved their original fundamental significance. The Hebridean "maiden-queen" goddess, who dwells in a tree and provides milk from a sea-shell, has a history rooted in a distant area of origin, where the goddess who personified the life-giving shell was connected with the cow and the sky (the Milky Way), as was the goddess Hathor, the Egyptian Aphrodite. The tendency to locate imported religious beliefs no doubt provides the reason why the original palm tree of the goddess was replaced in Britain by the hazel, the elm, the rowan, the apple tree, the oak, &c.

On the Continent there were displacements of peoples after the introduction of bronze, and especially of bronze weapons. There was wealth and there was trade to attract and reward the conqueror. The Eastern traders of Spain were displaced. Some appear to have migrated into Gaul and North Italy; others may have found refuge in Ireland and Britain. The sea-routes were not, however, closed. Ægean culture filtered into Western Europe from Crete, and through the Hallstatt culture centre from the Danubian area. The culture of the tribes who spoke Celtic dialects was veined with Ægean and Asiatic influences. In time Continental Druidism imbibed ideas regarding the Transmigration of Souls and the custom of cremation from an area in the East which had influenced the Aryan invaders of India.

The origin of the Celts is obscure. Greek writers refer to them as a tall, fair people. They were evidently a branch of the fair Northern race, but whether they came from Northern Europe or Northern Asia is uncertain. In Western Europe they intruded themselves as conquerors and formed military aristocracies. Like other vigorous, intruding minorities elsewhere and at different periods, they were in certain localities absorbed by the conquered. In Western Europe they were fused with Iberian communities, and confederacies of Celtiberians came into existence.

Before the great Celtic movements into Western Europe began--that is, before 500 B.C.--Britain was invaded by a broad-headed people, but it is uncertain whether they came as conquerors or as peaceful traders. In time these intruders were absorbed. The evidence afforded by burial customs and surviving traces of ancient religious beliefs and practices tends to show that the culture of the earlier peoples survived over large tracts of our native land. An intellectual conquest of conquerors or intruders was effected by the indigenous population which was rooted to the soil by agriculture and to centres of industry and trade by undisturbed habits of life.

Although the pre-Celtic languages were ultimately displaced by the Celtic--it is uncertain when this process was completed--the influence of ancient Oriental culture remained. In Scotland the pig-taboo, with its history rooted in ancient Egypt, has had tardy survival until our own times. It has no connection with Celtic culture, for the Continental Celts were a pig-rearing and pork-eating people, like the Ægæan invaders of Greece. The pig-taboo is still as prevalent in Northern Arcadia as in the Scottish Highlands, where the descendants not only of the ancient Iberians but of intruders from pork-loving Ireland and Scandinavia have acquired the ancient prejudice and are now perpetuating it.

Some centuries before the Roman occupation, a system of gold coinage was established in England. Trade with the Continent appears to have greatly increased in volume and complexity. England, Wales, Scotland, and Ireland were divided into small kingdoms. The evidence afforded by the Irish Gaelic manuscripts, which refer to events before and after the Roman conquest of Britain, shows that society was well organized and that the organization was of non-Roman character. Tacitus is responsible for the statement that the Irish manners and customs were similar to those prevailing in Britain, and he makes reference to Irish sea-trade and the fact that Irish sea-ports were well known to merchants. England suffered more from invasions before and after the arrival of Julius Cæsar than did Scotland or Ireland. It was consequently incapable of united action against the Romans, as Tacitus states clearly. The indigenous tribes refused to be allies of the intruders.[201]

[201] _Agricola_, Chap. XII.

In Ireland, which Pliny referred to as one of the British Isles, the pre-Celtic Firbolgs were subdued by Celtic invaders. The later "waves" of Celts appeared to have subdued the earlier conquerors, with the result that "Firbolg" ceased to have a racial significance and was applied to all subject peoples. There were in Ireland, as in England, upper and lower classes, and military tribes that dominated other tribes. Withal, there were confederacies, and petty kings, who owed allegiance to "high kings". The "Red Branch" of Ulster, of which Cuchullin was an outstanding representative, had their warriors trained in Scotland. It may be that they were invaders who had passed through Scotland into Northern Ireland; at any rate, it is unlikely that they would have sent their warriors to a "colony" to acquire skill in the use of weapons. There were Cruithne (Britons) in all the Irish provinces. Most Irish saints were of this stock.

The pre-Roman Britons had ships of superior quality, as is made evident by the fact that a British squadron was included in the great Veneti fleet which Cæsar attacked and defeated with the aid of Pictones and other hereditary rivals of the Veneti and their allies. In early Roman times Britain thus took an active part in European politics in consequence of its important commercial interests.

When the Romans reached Scotland the Caledonians, a people with a Celtic tribal name, were politically predominant. Like the English and Irish pre-Roman peoples, they used chariots and ornamented these with finely worked bronze. Enamel was manufactured or imported. Some of the Roman stories about the savage condition of Scotland may be dismissed as fictions. Who can nowadays credit the statement of Herodian[202] that the warriors of Scotland in Roman times passed their days in the water, or Dion Cassius's[203] story that they were wont to hide in mud for several days with nothing but their heads showing, and that despite their fine physique they fed chiefly on herbs, fruit, nuts, and the bark of trees, and, withal, that they had discovered a mysterious earth-nut and had only to eat a piece no larger than a bean to defy hunger and thirst. The further statement that the Scottish "savages" were without state or family organization hardly accords with historical facts. Even Agricola had cause to feel alarm when confronted by the well-organized and well-equipped Caledonian army at the battle of Mons Grampius, and he found it necessary to retreat afterwards, although he claimed to have won a complete victory. His retreat appears to have been as necessary as that of Napoleon from Moscow. The later invasion of the Emperor Severus was a disastrous one for him, entailing the loss of 50,000 men.

[202] _Herodian_, III, 14.

[203] Dion Cassius (_Xiphilinus_) LXXVI, 12.

A people who used chariots and horses, and artifacts displaying the artistic skill of those found in ancient Britain, had reached a comparatively high state of civilization. Warriors did not manufacture their own chariots, the harness of their horses, their own weapons, armour, and ornaments; these were provided for them by artisans. Such things as they required and could not obtain in their own country had to be imported by traders. The artisans had to be paid in kind, if not in coin, and the traders had to give something in return for what they received. Craftsmen and traders had to be protected by laws, and the laws had to be enforced.

The evidence accumulated by archæologists is sufficient to prove that Britain had inherited from seats of ancient civilization a high degree of culture and technical skill in metal-working, &c., many centuries before Rome was built. The finest enamel work on bronze in the world was produced in England and Ireland, and probably, although definite proof has not yet been forthcoming, in Scotland, the enamels of which may have been imported and may not. Artisans could not have manufactured enamel without furnaces capable of generating a high degree of heat. The process was a laborious and costly one. It required technical knowledge and skill on the part of the workers. Red, white, yellow, and blue enamels were manufactured. Even the Romans were astonished at the skill displayed in enamel work by the Britons. The people who produced these enamels and the local peoples who purchased them, including the Caledonians, were far removed from a state of savagery.

Many writers, who have accepted without question the statements of certain Roman writers regarding the early Britons and ignored the evidence that archæological relics provide regarding the arts and crafts and social conditions of pre-Roman times, have in the past written in depreciatory vein regarding the ancestors of the vast majority of the present population of these islands, who suffered so severely at the altar of Roman ambition. Everything Roman has been glorified; Roman victories over British "barbarians" have been included among the "blessings" of civilization. Yet "there is", as Elton says, "something at once mean and tragical about the story of the Roman conquest.... On the one side stand the petty tribes, prosperous nations in minature, already enriched by commerce and rising to a homely culture; on the other the terrible Romans strong in their tyranny and an avarice which could never be appeased."[204]

[204] _Origins of English History_, pp. 302-3.

It was in no altruistic spirit that the Romans invaded Gaul and broke up the Celtic organization, or that they invaded Briton and reduced a free people to a state of bondage. The life blood of young Britain was drained by Rome, and, for the loss sustained, Roman institutions, Roman villas and baths, and the Latin language and literature were far from being compensations. Rome was a predatory state. When its military organization collapsed, its subject states fell with it. Gaul and Britain had been weakened by Roman rule; the ancient spirit of independence had been undermined; native initiative had been ruthlessly stamped out under a system more thorough and severe than modern Prussianism. At the same time, there is, of course, much to admire in Roman civilization.

During the obscure post-Roman period England was occupied by Angles and Saxons and Jutes, who have been credited with the wholesale destruction of masses of the Britons. The dark-haired survivors were supposed to have fled westward, leaving the fair intruders in undisputed occupation of the greater part of England. But the indigenous peoples of the English mining areas were originally a dark-haired and sallow people, and the invading Celts were mainly a fair people. Boadicea was fair-haired like Queen Maeve of Ireland. The evidence collected of late years by ethnologists shows that the masses of the English population are descended from the early peoples of the Pre-Agricultural and Early Agricultural Ages. The theory of the wholesale extermination by the Anglo-Saxons of the early Britons has been founded manifestly on very scant and doubtful evidence.

What the Teutonic invasions accomplished in reality was the destruction not of a people but of a civilization. The native arts and crafts declined, and learning was stamped out, when the social organization of post-Roman Britain was shattered. On the Continent a similar state of matters prevailed. Roman civilization suffered decline when the Roman soldier vanished.

Happily, the elements of "Celtic" civilization had been preserved in those areas that had escaped the blight of Roman ambition. The peoples of Celtic speech had preserved, as ancient Gaelic manuscripts testify, a love of the arts as ardent as that of Rome, and a fine code of chivalry to which the Romans were strangers. The introduction of Christianity had advanced this ancient Celtic civilization on new and higher lines. When the Columban missionaries began their labours outside Scotland and Ireland, they carried Christianity and "a new humanism" over England and the Continent, "and became the teachers of whole nations, the counsellors of kings and emperors". Ireland and Scotland had originally received their Christianity from Romanized England and Gaul. The Celtic Church developed on national lines. Vernacular literature was promoted by the Celtic clerics.

In England, as a result of Teutonic intrusions and conquests, Christianity and Romano-British culture had been suppressed. The Anglo-Saxons were pagans. In time the Celtic missionaries from Scotland and Ireland spread Christianity and Christian culture throughout England.

It is necessary for us to rid our minds of extreme pro-Teutonic prejudices. Nor is it less necessary to avoid the equally dangerous pitfall of the Celtic hypothesis. Christianity and the associated humanistic culture entered these islands during the Roman period. In Ireland and Scotland the new religion was perpetuated by communities that had preserved pre-Roman habits of life and thought which were not necessarily of Celtic origin or embraced by a people who can be accurately referred to as the "Celtic race". The Celts did not exterminate the earlier settlers. Probably the Celts were military aristocrats over wide areas.

Before the fair Celts had intruded themselves in Britain and Ireland, the seeds of pre-Celtic culture, derived by trade and colonization from centres of ancient civilization through their colonies, had been sown and had borne fruit. The history of British civilization begins with neither Celt nor Roman, but with those early prospectors and traders who entered and settled in the British Isles when mighty Pharaohs were still reigning in Egypt, and these and the enterprising monarchs in Mesopotamia were promoting trade and extending their spheres of influence. The North Syrian or Anatolian carriers of Eastern civilization who founded colonies in Spain before 2500 B.C. were followed by Cretans and Phoenicians. The sea-trade promoted by these pioneers made possible the opening up of overland trade routes. It was after Pytheas had (about 300 B.C.) visited Britain by coasting round Spain and Northern France from Marseilles that the volume of British trade across France increased greatly and the sea-routes became of less importance. When Carthage fell, the Romans had the trade of Western Europe at their mercy, and their conquests of Gaul and Britain were undoubtedly effected for the purpose of enriching themselves at the expense of subject peoples. We owe much to Roman culture, but we owe much also to the culture of the British pre-Roman period.

INDEX

Achæans, Celts and, 111, 112.

Acheulian culture, 13, 14.

Adonis, killed by boar, 197.

Ægean culture, Celts absorbed, 112.

-- -- in Central Europe, 96.

Æstyans, the, amber traders, 161.

-- worship of mother goddess and boar god, 161, 162.

Africa, Crô-Magnon peoples entered Europe from, 35.

-- ostrich eggs, ivory, &c., from, found in Spain, 96.

-- transmigration of souls in, 143.

Age, the Agricultural and pre-Agricultural, 213.

-- the Early Red Deer, 214, 215.

-- the Prehistoric, 217.

-- the Historic, 217.

-- the Reindeer, 213.

Ages, Archæological, new system of, 215.

-- -- problem of Scottish copper axe, 219.

-- the Mythical, colours and metals of, 121. See also _Geological_ and _Archæological Ages_.

Agriculture, beginning of, in Britain, 217.

-- importance of introduction of, 212.

-- history of, 210.

-- Neolithic sickles, 4.

-- barley, wheat, and rye cultivated, 5.

Aine, the Munster fairy, 202.

Airts (Cardinal Points), the, doctrine of, 145. See also _Cardinal Points_.

Akkad, Sargon of, his knowledge of Western Europe, 96, 218.

Alabaster, Eastern perfume flasks of, in Neolithic Spain, 96.

Albertite, jet and, 164.

Albiorix, the Gaulish god, 207.

All Hallows, Black Sow of, 200.

Amber, associated with jet and Egyptian blue beads in England, 104, 105 (_ill._), 106.

-- Celtic and German names of, 162.

-- as magical product of water, 162, 163.

-- eyes strengthened by, 165.

-- imported into Britain at 1400 B.C., 106; and in first century A.D., 114.

-- jet and pearls and, 22.

-- as "life substance", 80.

-- Megalithic people searched for, 93.

-- origin of, in Scottish lore, 162.

-- Persian, &c., names of, 163, 164.

-- Tacitus on the Baltic Æstyans, 161.

-- connection of, with boar god and mother goddess, 161.

-- as "tears" of goddess, 161.

-- trade in, 219.

-- the "vigorous Gael" and, 163.

-- connection of, with Woad, 163.

-- white enamel as substitute for, 165.

America, green stone symbolism in, 34.

Angles, 126.

-- Celts and, 227.

Anglo-Saxon intruders, our scanty knowledge of, 209.

Angus, the Irish god of love, 202.

Animism, not the earliest stage in religion, 178.

Annis, Black (also "Black Anny" and "Cat Anna"), 195.

-- -- Irish Anu (Danu), and, 198.

Anthropology, stratification theory, 11, 12.

Anu (Ana), the goddess, 198, 201.

Aphrodite, 221.

-- amber and, 163.

-- the black form of, 164.

-- connection of, with pearl and moon, 158.

-- Julius Cæsar's pearl offering to, 159.

-- myth of origin of, 38.

-- Egyptian Hathor and, 38.

-- the Scandinavian, 161.

Apollo, British temples of, 177.

-- the Gaelic, 202.

-- the Gaulish, 207.

-- god of London, 203.

-- mouse connection of, 179.

-- mouse feasts, 187.

Apple, 221.

-- connection of mouse with, 196.

-- as fruit of longevity, 144.

-- Scottish hag-goddess and, 196.

-- Thomas the Rhymer and apple of knowledge and longevity, 146.

-- "wassailing", 204.

Apple land (Avalon), the Celtic Paradise, 144.

Apples, life substance in, 206.

Apple tree, God of, 204.

Archæological Ages, 1400 B.C., a date in British history, 106.

-- -- "Broad-heads" in Britain and "Long-heads" in Ireland use bronze, 87.

-- -- climate in Upper Palæolithic, 14.

-- -- Egyptian and Babylonian relics in Neolithic Spain, 96.

-- -- Egyptian Empire beads associated with bronze industry in south-western England, 104, 105 (_ill._), 106.

-- -- few intrusions between Bronze and Iron Ages, 109.

-- -- in humorous art, 1.

-- -- "Stone Age" man not necessarily a savage, 2.

Archæological Ages, influences of Neanderthal and Crô-Magnon races, 12.

-- -- Irish sagas and, 119.

-- -- bronze and iron swords, 119.

-- -- Lord Avebury's system, 8.

-- -- Neolithic industry introduced by metal workers in Spain, 95, 99.

-- -- relations of Neanderthal and Crô-Magnon races, 14, 15, 16.

-- -- "Transition Period" longer than "Neolithic Age", 61.

-- -- Western European metals reached Mesopotamia between 3000 B.C. and 2000 B.C., 99, 100. See also _Palæolithic_ and _Neolithic_.

Archæology, stratification theory, 11, 12.

Argentocoxus, the Caledonian, 112.

Armenoid (Alpine) races, early movements of, 56.

Armenoids in Britain, 222.

-- intrusions of, in Europe, 126.

-- partial disappearance of, from Britain, 127.

Armlets, in graves, 158.

Arrow, the fiery, and goddess Brigit, 188.

Arrows, Azilians introduced, into Europe, 55.

-- as symbols of deity, 51.

Art, ancient man caricatured in modern, 1.

Artemis, bee and butterfly connected with, 193.

-- myth of the Scottish, 174, 197.

Arthur, King, Celtic myth attached to, 198.

Arthur's Seat, Edinburgh, night-shining gem of, 160.

-- -- giant of, 131, and also note 1.

Aryans, The, 123.

Astronomy in Ancient Britain and Ireland, 175, and also note 1.

-- Welsh and Gaelic names of constellations, 203.

Atlantis, The Lost, 70.

Atrebates, The, in Britain, 128.

Augustine of Canterbury, Pope Gregory's letter, 176.

-- -- Canterbury temple occupied by, 177.

Augustonemeton (shrine of Augustus), 159.

Aurignac, Crô-Magnon cave-tomb of, 20, 22.

Aurignacian, African source of culture called, 27, 35.

-- custom of smearing bodies with red earth, 27.

-- animism and goddess worship, 178.

-- influence in Britain, 19, 216.

-- burial customs, 45.

-- cave hand-prints, 47.

-- "Combe-Capelle" man, 25.

-- Brüx and Brünn race, 26.

-- Crô-Magnons and, 14.

-- culture of Crô-Magnon grotto, 23, 24.

-- heart as seat of life, 32.

-- green stone symbolism, 33.

-- Indian Ocean shell at Grimaldi, 36.

-- Magdalenians and, 52.

-- the Mother-goddess, 42, 178.

-- Egyptian milk and shells link, 43.

-- "Tama" belief, 44.

-- origin of term, 22.

-- pre-Agricultural, 213.

-- Proto-Solutrean influence on, 49.

-- no trace of, in Hungary, 50.

Aurignacian Age, 13.

Aurignacian implements 21, (_ill._).

Australian natives, Neanderthal man and, 9.

Avalon (Apple land), the Celtic Paradise, 144.

Avebury, megaliths of, 82.

-- -- burial customs, 171.

Axe, Chellean 14, (_ill._).

-- double, as "god-body", 50.

-- Glasgow and Spanish green-stone axes, 97.

-- as religious object, 77.

Axes, Neolithic, distribution of population and, 82, 84.

-- Neolithic, mathematical skill in manufacture of, 4.

Aynia, Irish fairy queen, 201.

Azilian culture, 62.

-- -- artifacts, 13.

-- -- English Channel land-bridge crossed by carriers of, 58, 67, 69.

Azilian culture, Iberian carriers of, 216.

-- -- pre-Agricultural, 213.

-- -- rock paintings, 55.

-- -- customs of, revealed in art, 55.

-- -- script used, 56.

-- -- in Scotland and England, 58, 60.

-- boats, 75.

Azilians in Britain, 70, 125.

Babylonia, goddess of, in Neolithic Spain, 96.

-- influence of, in Asia Minor and Syria, 95.

-- influence of culture of, 212.

-- influence of, in Britain, 218.

-- knowledge of European metal-fields in, 99.

-- religious ideas of, in Britain, 154.

Baptism, milk and honey used in, 152.

Barley, cultivation of, 5.

-- the Egyptian, reaches Britain, 84, 85.

Basket-making, relation of, to pottery and knitting, 6.

Beads, as "adder stones" and "Druid's gems", 163.

-- Egyptian blue beads in England, 104, 105 (_ill._), 106.

-- Egyptian, in Britain, 211.

Bede, on jet symbolism, 164.

Bee, connection of, with Artemis and fig tree, 193.

-- as soul form in legends, 193.

Bees, connection of, with maggot soul form, 102.

-- "Telling the bees" custom, 103, 193.

Belatucadros, a Gaulish Mars, 207.

Belgæ, The, in Britain, 128.

Belisama, goddess of Mersey, 206.

Beltain festival, fires at, 191.

Berries, fire in, 181.

-- life substance in, 206.

-- "the luck", 180.

-- salmon and red, 183.

Berry charms, 47.

Birds, butterfly as "bird of god", 191.

-- Celtic deities as, 195.

Birds, language of, Druids and wren, 145.

-- language of, in India, 151.

-- language of, St. Columba and, 146.

-- oyster catcher and wood linnet as birds of goddess Bride, 187.

-- swan form of soul, 190.

-- taboo in Ancient Britain, 201.

-- taboo in Highlands, 201.

-- tom-tit, robin, wren, and apple cults, 204.

-- wren as king of, 186.

Black Annis, Irish Anu (Danu) and, 198.

--Leicestershire hag-deity, 195, 196.

Black Demeter, 196.

Black goddesses, Greek and Scottish, 164.

Black Kali, Indian goddess, 196.

Black Pig, Devil as, 200.

Black Sow, Devil as, 200.

Blood Covenant, 152.

Boadicea, 162, 227.

-- (Boudicca), Queen, 114.

-- Iceni tribe of, 128.

Boann, the goddess, 202.

Boar, Adonis and Diarmid slain by, 197.

-- in Orkney, 129.

-- salmon and porpoise as, 182.

Boar god on British and Gaulish coins, 162.

-- -- connection of, with amber, 161.

-- -- the Gaulish, 197.

-- -- Mars as, 197.

-- -- The Inverness, 129, 155 (_ill._).

Boats, ancient migrations by sea, 92.

-- axe of Clyde boat, 77.

-- Himilco's references to skin-boats, 77.

-- sea-worthiness of skin-boats, 77.

-- how sea-sense was cultivated, 78.

-- Veneti vessels, 78.

-- Azilian-Tardenoisians and Maglemosians required, 69.

-- Britain reached by, before last land movement ceased, 72.

-- Perth dug-out, under carse clays, 72.

Boats, Forth and Clyde dug-outs, 72.

-- dug-outs not the earliest, 72, 73.

-- Ancient Egyptian papyri and skin-boats, 73.

-- "seams" and "skins" of, 74.

-- Egyptian models in Europe and Asia, 74.

-- religious ceremonies at construction of dug-outs, 74.

-- Polynesian, dedicated to gods, 74.

-- earliest Egyptian, 74.

-- Britons and Veneti, 224.

-- Celtic pirates, 136.

-- earliest, in Britain, 218.

-- early builders of, 6.

-- Easterners exported ores by, from Western Europe, 99.

-- Egyptian barley carried by early seafarers to Britain, 84.

-- exports from early Britain, 104.

-- Glasgow discoveries of ancient, 75, 76.

-- cork plug in Glasgow boat, 75, 76.

-- invention of, 72.

-- oak god and skin boats, 153.

-- outrigger at Glasgow, 76.

-- ancient Clyde clinker-built boat, 76.

-- Aberdeenshire dug-out, 76.

-- Sussex, Kentish, and Dumfries finds of, 77.

-- Brigg boat, 77.

-- Pictish, 136.

-- pre-Roman British, 224.

-- similar types in Africa and Scandinavia 75, (_ill._).

-- why early seafarers visited Britain, 80, 81.

Bodies painted for religious reasons, 28.

Boers, the mouse cure of, 187, and also note 2.

Bone implements, 82.

-- -- Magdalenians favoured, 52.

Bonfires, at Pagan festivals, 181.

Borvo, the Gaulish Apollo, 207.

Bows and arrows, Azilians introduced, into Europe, 55.

Boyne, River goddess of, 202.

Boyne, The "white cow", 206.

Bran, the god and saint, 202.

Bride, The goddess, Bird of, and Page of, 187. -- -- dandelion as milk-yielding plant of, 187.

-- serpent of, as "daughter of Ivor" and the "damsel", 187, 188. See _Brigit_.

-- Saint, Goddess Bride and, 188.

Bride's Day, 187.

Bride wells, 188.

Brigantes, blue shields of, 173.

-- Brigit (Bride) goddess of, 187.

-- territory occupied by, 188.

-- in England, Scotland, and Ireland, 128, 188.

Brigit, Dagda and, 202.

-- as "fiery arrow", 188.

-- the goddess (also Bride), Brigantes and, 187.

-- three forms of, 188, 195.

-- as hag or girl, 195.

Britain, Stone Age man in, 1.

-- early races in, 16.

-- date of last land movement in, 18.

Briton, "cloth clad", 119.

Britons, the, Cruithne of Ireland were, 131, 132.

-- chief people in ancient England, Ireland, and Scotland, 132.

Brittany, Easterners in, 100.

Bronze, Celts and, 106.

-- Gaelic gods connected with, 102.

-- knowledge of, introduced into Britain by traders, 101.

-- British, same as Continental, 101.

-- Spanish Easterners displaced by carriers of, 221.

Bronze Age, The Archæological, British "broad-heads" and Irish "long-heads" as bronze users, 87.

-- -- French forms in Britain and Spanish in Ireland, 88.

-- -- conquest theory, 88.

-- -- prospectors discovered metals in Britain, 89.

-- -- how metals were located, 89.

-- -- bronze carriers reached Spain from Central Europe, 96.

-- -- carriers of bronze earliest settlers in Buchan, Aberdeenshire, 111.

Bronze Age, Celtic horse-tamers as bronze carriers, 111.

-- -- carriers expel Easterners from Spain, 100, 101.

-- -- Druidism and, 149.

-- -- Egyptian relics of, 104.

-- -- relics of 113, (_ill._).

Bronze industry, fibulæ and clothing, 119.

Brünn and Brüx races, 50.

-- -- skull caps, 25, 26.

_Brut, The_, reference in, to Apollo's temple, 177.

Bull, rivers and, 206.

Bulls, The Sacred, 155 (_ill._).

-- sacrifice of, in Ross-shire in seventeenth century, 148.

Burial Customs, Avebury evidence regarding, 171.

-- -- body painting, 27.

-- -- Seven Sleepers myth, 29.

-- -- British Pagan survivals, 17.

-- -- Crô-Magnon Aurignacian, in Wales, 19.

-- -- doctrine of Cardinal Points and, 168, 170.

-- -- Egyptian pre-dynastic customs, 170.

-- -- food for the dead, 158.

-- -- urns in graves, 158.

-- -- green stones in mouths of Crô-Magnon dead, 33.

-- -- Egyptian and American use of green stones, 33, 34.

-- -- long-barrow folk in England, 82.

-- -- milk offerings to dead, 148.

-- -- in Neolithic Britain, 86.

-- -- Palæolithic, 158.

-- -- "Round Barrow" folk, 87.

-- -- Shakespeare's reference to Pagan, 45.

-- -- Crô-Magnon rites, 45.

-- -- shell and other ornaments, 36.

-- -- short-barrow and cremation intruders, 104.

-- -- solar aspect of ancient British, 170.

-- -- Welsh ideas about destiny of soul, 144.

-- -- why dead were cremated, 109, 110, 111.

Butterfly, connection of, with jade and soul in China, 193.

-- connection with plum tree in China and honeysuckle in Scotland, 193.

-- as fire god in Gaelic, 191.

-- Gaelic names of, 191.

-- goddess Freyja and, 192.

-- Psyche as, 192.

-- as Italian soul form, 192.

-- Serbian witches and, 192.

-- Burmese soul as, 193.

-- Mexican soul and fire god as, 194.

Byzantine Empire, The, Chinese lore from, 160.

Cailleach, The, 174, 197. See _Artemis_.

Caithness, the "cat" country, 130.

Caledonians, The, 129.

-- Celtic tribal name of, 112.

-- personal names of, 112.

-- clothing of, 119.

-- the Picts and, 130.

-- Romans and, 224.

-- Tacitus's theory regarding, 137.

Calendar, the Gaelic, 198.

Calgacus, 112.

Callernish stone circle, 94.

Calton (hazel grove), 150.

Camulos, god of Colchester, 207.

Canoes. See _Boats_.

Canterbury Pagan temple, St. Augustine used, 177.

Cantion, the, Kent tribe, 128.

Cardinal Points, doctrine of, 145, 168.

-- -- south as road to heaven, 145, and also note 1.

-- -- Gaelic colours of, 168.

-- -- goddesses and gods come from their own, 173.

-- -- giants of north and fairies of west, 173.

-- -- in modern burial customs, 171.

-- -- "sunwise" and "withershins", 172, and also note 1.

Carnonacæ Carini, the, 129.

Carthage, Britain and, 229.

-- British and Spanish connection with, 107.

-- megalithic monuments and, 149.

Carthage, trade of, with Britain, 114.

Cassiterides, The, 98.

-- Carthagenians' trade with, 114.

-- Pytheas and, 115.

-- Crassus visits, 116.

-- exports and imports of, 104.

-- OEstrymnides of Himilco and, 116.

-- the Hebrides and, 117.

Cat, the Big, 196.

-- as goddess, 154.

-- pear tree and, 196.

Cat-Anna, Leicestershire hag-goddess, 195.

Cat goddess of Egypt, 196.

Cat stone, 196.

Cats, the, peoples of Shetland, Caithness, and Sutherland as, 129, 130.

-- witches as, 196.

Caturix, the Gaulish god, 207.

Catuvellauni, The, in England, 128.

Cauldron. See _Pot_.

Cauldron, the Celtic, 90, 91.

-- -- Welsh goddess of, 204.

-- of Dagda, 202.

-- Holy Grail and, 205.

-- myth of, 205.

Celts, Achæans and, 111.

-- as carriers of La Tène culture, 112.

-- confederacies formed by, 112.

-- as conquerors of earlier settlers in Britain and Ireland, 107.

-- as military aristocrats in Britain, 107.

-- conquests of, 111.

-- Etruscans overcome by, 112.

-- Sack of Rome, 112.

-- Danube valley and Rhone valley trade routes controlled by, 114.

-- as pig rearers and pork curers, 114, 223.

-- destiny of soul, 144. See _Soul_.

-- displacement theory regarding, 137.

-- earlier fair folks in Britain, 125.

-- ethnics of, 112.

-- the fair in Britain and Ireland, 227.

-- fair queens of, 112.

-- gold and silver offered to deities by, 80.

Celts, Maglemosians and, 138.

-- origin of, obscure, 222.

-- as Fair Northerners, 222.

-- Pictish problem, 130. See _Picts_.

-- as pirates, 136.

-- references to clothing of, 119.

-- British breeches, 119.

-- settlement of, in Asia Minor, 112.

-- Tacitus on the Caledonians, &c., 137.

-- Teutons and, 125.

-- Iberians and, 125.

-- Teutons did not exterminate, in England, 227.

-- early Christian influence of, 228.

-- theory of extermination of, in Britain, 122.

-- as traders in Britain, 107.

-- and transmigration of souls, 143.

-- tribes of, in ancient Britain, 128.

-- tribal rivalries of, in Britain, 119.

-- westward movement of, 214.

Celtic art, Ægean affinities, 118, 119.

-- cauldron, 205, 206.

-- gods, connection of, with metals, 102.

Cenn Cruach, Irish god, 102, 103.

Cereals, 5.

Cerones, Creones, the, 129.

Chancelade Man, 53.

Chariots, in pre-Roman Britain, 119.

Charms, hand-prints, horse-shoes, and berries as, 47.

-- herbs and berries as, 167.

-- lore of, 157 _et seq._ See _Shells_, _Necklaces_, _Pearls_.

-- otter skin charm, 189.

Chellean culture, 13.

-- -- artifacts of, 13, 14.

-- _Coup de Poing_ 14, (_ill._).

Children sacrificed, 174.

China, butterfly soul of, 193.

Chinese dragon, Scottish Bride serpent and, 188, 189.

Churchyards, Pagan survivals, 171.

Cocidius, a Gaulish Mars, 207.

Cockle-shell elixir, in Japan and Scotland, 40, 41.

-- -- in Crete, 41.

Coinage, ancient British, 223.

Colour symbolism, black and white goddesses, 164.

-- -- blue artificial shells, 173.

-- -- blue shields of Brigantes, 173.

-- -- blue as female colour, 173.

-- -- blue as fishermen's mourning colour, 173.

-- -- blue stone raises wind, 172.

-- -- body paint used by Neolithic industry peoples, 82.

-- -- Celtic root _glas_ as colour term, and in amber, &c., 162, 163.

-- -- coloured pearls favoured, 168.

-- -- coloured races and coloured ages, 121, 124.

-- -- coloured stones as amulets, 80.

-- -- Dragon's Eggs, 173.

-- -- enamel colours, 165.

-- -- four colours of Aurignacian hand impressions in caves, 47.

-- -- Gaelic colours of seasons, 169.

-- -- Gaelic colours of winds and of Cardinal Points, 168.

-- -- green stones used by Crô-Magnon, Ancient Egyptian, and pre-Columbian American peoples, 33, 34.

-- -- how prospectors located metals by rock colours, 89.

-- -- Irish rank colours, 173, and also note 1.

-- -- jade tongue amulets in China, 34.

-- -- luck objects, 165.

-- -- lucky and unlucky colours, 157.

-- -- painted vases in Neolithic Spain, 96.

-- -- painting of god, 174.

-- -- red berries as "fire berries", 181.

-- -- red berries, 31.

-- -- Greek gods painted red, 31.

-- -- Indian megaliths painted, 32.

-- -- Chinese evidence, 32.

-- -- red earth devoured, 32.

-- -- _Ruadh_ (red) means "strong" in Gaelic, 32.

Colour symbolism, red and blue supernaturals in Wales, 158.

-- -- red body paint in Welsh Aurignacian cave burial, 20.

-- -- red earth and blood, 167.

-- -- herbs and berries, 167.

-- -- red jasper as blood of goddess, 45.

-- -- red stone in Aurignacian cave tomb, 46.

-- -- shells coloured, in Mentone cave, 46.

-- -- Red symbolism, 31.

-- -- red blood and red fire, 31, 32.

-- -- blood as food of the dead, 32.

-- -- red souls in "Red Land", 32.

-- -- red woman as goddess, 45.

-- -- scarlet-yielding insect, 152.

-- -- sex colours, 170.

-- -- significance of wind colours, 174.

-- -- Solutrean flint-offerings coloured red, 50.

-- -- white serpent, 188.

-- -- why Crô-Magnon bodies were smeared with red earth, 27.

-- -- Woad dye, 163.

Columba, Saint, Christ as his Druid, 146.

"Combe-Capelle" man, 25, 26, 36.

-- -- shells worn by, 46.

Con-chobar, dog god and, 66.

Copper, axe of, in Scotland, 219.

-- in Britain, 91.

-- difficult to find and work in Britain, 95.

-- Easterners worked, in Spain, 97, 98.

-- as variety of gold, 80.

-- offered to water deity, 174.

Coral, enamel and, 162.

-- as "life-giver" (_margan_), 161.

-- as "life substance", 80.

-- Megalithic people searched for, 93.

-- symbolism of, 221.

-- use of, in Britain, 164, 165.

-- enamel as substitute for, 165.

Cormorants, Celtic deities as, 195.

Cornavii, The, in England and Scotland, 129.

Cornwall, Damnonians in, 89.

Cow, The Sacred, in Britain and Ireland, 152, 154, 195, 206.

-- connected with River Boyne, 206.

-- Dam[)o]na, Celtic goddess of cattle, 208.

-- Indian, and milk-yielding trees, 151.

-- Morrigan as, 195.

-- The Primeval, in Egypt, 149.

-- white, sacred in Ireland, 152.

Cranes, Celtic deities as, 195.

Cremation, in Britain, 127.

-- significance of, 109.

Cresswell caves, Magdalenian art in, 53.

Cromarty, night-shining gem of, 160.

Crom Cruach, Irish god, 102; children sacrificed to, 174.

-- -- as maggot god, 102.

Crô-Magnon, animism, 178.

Crô-Magnon Grotto, discovery of, 23.

-- -- skeletons in, 23.

Crô-Magnon Races, advent of, in Europe, 12.

-- -- ancestors of "modern man", 10, 11.

-- -- archæological horizon of, 9.

-- -- Aurignacian culture of the, 14.

-- -- Brüx and Brünn types different from, 26.

-- -- burial customs of, 45.

-- -- cultural influence of, on Neanderthals, 14.

-- -- discovery of Crô-Magnon grotto skeletons, 23.

-- -- first discovery of traces of, in France, 20.

-- -- history of modern man begins with, 26.

-- -- as immigrants from Africa, 35.

-- -- Indian Ocean shell at Mentone, 36, 37.

-- -- inventive and inquiring minds of, 27.

-- -- Magdalenian culture stage of, 53.

-- -- domestication of horse, 53.

-- -- modern representatives of, 122.

Crô-Magnon Races, Mother-goddess of, 42.

-- -- "Tama" belief, 44.

-- -- not in Hungary, 50.

-- -- "Red Man" of Wales, 19.

-- -- Red Sea shells imported by, 210.

-- -- history of, 210.

-- -- relations of, with Neanderthal man, 14.

-- -- in Wales, 19.

-- -- sea-shell necklace 39, (_ill._).

-- -- trade of, in shells, 40.

-- -- tall types, 24.

-- -- high cheek-bones of, 25.

-- -- tallest types in Riviera, 35, 36.

Crô-Magnon skulls 24, (_ill._).

Crô-Magnons, Azilian intruders and, 62.

-- heart as seat of life, among, 32.

-- in Britain, 67, 125, 216.

-- English Channel land-bridge crossed by, 67.

-- hand-prints and mutilation of fingers, 47.

-- modern Scots and, 137.

-- Selgovæ and, 139.

Crow, and goddess of grove and sky, 160.

Crows, Celtic deities as, 195.

Cruithne, in Ireland, 224.

-- the Irish, not Picts, 132.

-- the Q-Celtic name of Britons, 132.

Cuchullin, and Scotland, 224.

-- dog god and, 64.

-- goddess Morrigan and, 195.

-- his knowledge of astronomy, 175, and also note 1.

-- pearls in hair of, 163.

Dagda, the god, 202.

-- connection with oak and fire, 202.

-- cauldron of, 202.

-- Thor and, 202.

-- a giant-slayer, 202.

Damnonians. See _Dumnonii_.

-- an early Celtic "wave", 107.

-- Fomorians as gods of, 198.

-- settlements of, in metal-yielding areas, 89.

Damona, Celtic goddess of cattle, 208.

Danann deities, 201.

-- -- not in Scotland, 199.

-- -- talismans of, 205.

-- -- Japanese talismans, 205.

-- -- war against Fomorians, 198.

-- -- Welsh "Children of Don" and, 203.

Dandelion, as milk-yielding plant of goddess Bride, 187.

Danes, in Britain, 126.

Dante, moon called "eternal pearl" by, 159.

Danu, the goddess, 198.

Danube valley trade route, 114.

Danubian culture in Central Europe, 96.

-- -- Celts as carriers of, 111, 112.

Decantæ, The, 129.

Deer, as goddess, 154.

Demetæ, The, in Wales, 129.

Demeter, The black, 196.

Demons, dogs as enemies of, 65.

Derbyshire, Magdalenian art in, 53.

Deva, Devona, Dee, Rivers, 206.

Devil as "Big Black Pig" in Scotland, 200.

-- as Black Sow in Wales, 200.

-- as pig, goat, and horse, 191.

Devon, Damnonians in, 89.

-- Magdalenian art in, 54.

Diamond, The night-shining, 160.

Diana of the Ephesians, fig tree and, 193.

Diancecht, Irish god of healing, 202.

Diarmid, Gaelic Adonis, 197.

Diodorus Siculus, on gold mining, 90.

-- -- reference to British temple to Apollo, 177.

Disease, deity who sends also withdraws, 179.

-- ancient man suffered from, 2.

-- "Yellow Plague", 2.

Dog, The Big, god Indra as, 196.

-- The Sacred, 154, 155 (_ill._).

-- taboo to Cuchullin, 154, and also note 3. See _Dogs_.

Dogger Bank, ancient plateau, 68.

-- -- animal bones, &c., from, 57, 61.

-- -- Island, 69.

Dog gods, 64.

Dogs, children transformed into, 190.

-- domesticated by Maglemosians, 57, 63.

-- religious beliefs regarding, 63.

-- early man's dependence on, 65.

-- in ancient Britain and Ireland, 66.

-- in warfare, 66.

-- exported from Britain in first century A.D., 114.

Dog Star, The, 64.

Dolmen, The. See _Megalithic monuments_.

Domnu, tribal goddess of Damnonians, 90.

Don, the Children of, 203.

Doves, Celtic deities as, 195.

Dragon, Bride's Scottish serpent charm and Chinese charm, 188.

-- Hebridean, 190.

-- Irish, and the salmon, 182.

-- otter and, 189.

-- on sculptured stone, 155 (_ill._).

-- luck pearls of, 184.

-- stones as eggs of, 173.

Dragon-mouth Lake, The Irish, 183.

Dragon Slayers, the, Druids and, 145.

Druid Circle, the Inverness, 220.

Druidism, 140.

-- belief in British origin of, 142.

-- doctrines absorbed by, 222.

-- eastern origin of, 149.

-- in ancient Spain, 149.

-- Pliny on Persian religion and, 143, and also note 1.

-- oak cult, 145.

-- tree cults and, 141.

Druids, in Anglesea, 103.

-- human sacrifices of, 103.

-- "Christ is my Druid", 146.

-- the collar of truth, 146.

-- connection of, with megalithic monuments, 103, 154.

-- and oak, 141.

-- classical references to, 141.

-- "Druid's gem", 163.

-- evidence of, regarding races in Gaul, 100.

-- Tacitus on Anglesea Druids, 147.

-- temples of, 177.

-- "True Thomas" (the Rhymer) as "Druid Thomas", 146.

-- sacred salmon and, 182.

Druids, salmon and dragon myth, 182.

-- star lore of, 175.

-- Kentigern of Glasgow as Christian Druid, 185.

-- wren connection, 145.

-- soothsayers, 145, 146.

Dug-out canoes, origin of, 72. See _Boats_.

Dumnogeni, The, in Yarrow inscription, 89.

Dumnonii, 128. See _Damnonians_.

-- Fomorians as gods of, 198.

-- Silures and, 129.

Dunatis, Gaulish Mars, 207.

Durotriges, in Britain and Ireland, 128.

Dwyn, St., formerly a goddess, 204.

Dwynwen, British Venus, 204.

Eagle, the Sacred, 155 (_ill._).

-- wren and, in myth, 186.

Ear-rings, as solar symbols, 165.

East, The, "Evil never came from", 168. See _Cardinal Points_.

Easterners, colonies of, in Spain and Portugal, 95, 100, 211, 218, 229.

-- descendants of, in Britain, 118.

-- displacement of, in Spain, 100, 221.

-- Druidism introduced into Europe by, 149.

-- as exploiters of Western Europe, 98.

-- settlements of, in France and Etruria, 100.

-- in Hebrides, 139.

-- influence of, in Britain and Ireland, 221.

-- iron industry and, 107.

-- not all of one race, 107.

-- Neolithic industry of, 214.

-- in touch with Britain at 1400 B.C., 106.

-- in Western Europe, 218, 229.

Eel, Morrigan as, 195.

Eels, as "devil fish" in Scotland, 190.

-- tabooed in Scotland, 199.

Eggs, Dragons', stones as, 173.

Egypt, alabaster flasks, &c., from, in Neolithic Spain, 96.

-- artificial shells in, 41, 173.

-- barley of, carried to Europe, 84.

-- black and white goddesses of, 164.

-- blue beads from, in England, 104, 105 (_ill._), 106, 211.

-- Cat goddess of, 196.

-- culture of, transferred with barley seeds, 212.

-- "Deathless snake" of, and Scottish serpent, 188.

-- dog-headed god of, 64.

-- earliest sailing ship in, 74.

-- earliest use of gold in, 80.

-- malachite charms in, 80.

-- flint sickles of, 4.

-- furnaces and crucibles of, in Western Europe, 101.

-- Hathor and Aphrodite, 38.

-- shell amulets in early graves in, 39.

-- Isis as "Old Wife", 181, and also note 2.

-- gods in weapons, 51.

-- gold in, 90, 93.

-- gold diadem from, in Spanish Neolithic tomb, 98.

-- gold models of shells in, 41.

-- green stone symbolism, 33.

-- Hathor as milk goddess, 149.

-- history of agriculture in, 210.

-- ideas regarding soul in, 103.

-- influence of, in Asia Minor and Europe, 95.

-- influence of, in Britain, 218.

-- invention of boats in, 72.

-- ivory from, found in Spain, 96·

-- Ka and serpent, 189.

-- milk elixir in Pyramid Texts, 43.

-- milk goddess of, in Scotland, 221.

-- Mother Pot of, and Celtic cauldron, 206.

-- Osirian Underworld Paradise, 143.

-- pork taboo in, 201.

-- annual sacrifice of pigs in Scotland and, 201.

-- Post-Glacial forests of, 15.

-- pre-dynastic burial customs, 170.

-- sex colours in, 170.

Egypt, proto-Egyptians and British Iberians, 126.

-- red jasper as "Blood of Isis", 45.

-- "Red Souls" in "Red Land", 32.

-- why gods of, were painted, 32.

-- religious ideas of, in Britain, 154, 201, 206, 218, 221.

-- stones, pearls, metals, &c., and deities of, 80.

-- symbols of, in Celtic art, 118.

-- transmigration of souls, 143.

Elk, on Dogger Bank, 57, 68.

Elm, 221.

Enamel, 224.

-- British, the finest, 225.

-- coral and, 162.

-- as substitute for coral, 165.

-- turquoise, lapis lazuli, white amber and, 165.

Enamels, colours of the British, 226.

Eoliths, 13, 26.

Epidii, The, 129.

Ep[)o]na, Celtic goddess of horses, 208.

Eskimo, the Chancelade skull, 53.

-- Magdalenian art of, 53.

Etruscans, 149.

-- Celts as conquerors of, 112.

-- civilization of, origin of, 100.

European metal-yielding areas, 99.

Evil Eye, The, shells as protection against, 39.

Fairies, associated with the west, 173.

-- dogs as enemies of, 65.

-- on eddies of western wind, 173.

-- Greek nereids and, 173.

-- Fomorians (giants) at war with, 198.

-- goddess as "fairy woman", 207.

-- shell boat of, 207.

-- Irish "queens" of, 201.

-- as milkers of deer, 154.

-- as "the mothers" in Wales, 206.

-- Picts and, 131, and also note 1.

-- Scottish "Nimble Men" and "Blue Men", 208.

Fairies, as supernatural beings, 201, and also note 2.

Fairy dogs, 64.

Fairyland, as Paradise, 144.

-- Thomas the Rhymer in Paradise of, 146.

Fata Morgana, 161.

Fauna, Post-Glacial, in Southern and Western Europe, 14.

Festus Avienus, 116.

Figs, hazel-nuts and, 151.

Fig milk, 149.

-- trees, bees and wasps fertilize, 193.

-- tree, Diana of the Ephesians and, 193.

Finger charms, 47.

Finger-mutilation, Aurignacian custom, 47.

-- Australian, Red Indian, and Scottish customs, 47.

Fir, The Sacred, 179.

Fir-bolgs, The, 188.

-- as miners, 90, and also note 1.

-- as slaves, 90.

-- Celts as subduers of, 107.

-- subject peoples called, 223.

Fir-domnan, 90, and also note 1.

Fir-domnann, 118.

-- Fomorians as gods of, 198. See _Damnonians_ and _Dumnonii_.

Fire, Beltain need fires, 191.

-- Brigit and, 188.

-- butterfly as god of, in Gaelic, 191.

-- God Dagda and, 202.

-- goddess and, 163.

-- Mexican god of, as butterfly, 193.

-- pool fish and, 182.

-- salmon and, 183.

-- Scottish goddess of, 181.

-- in red berries, 181.

-- in St. Mungo myth, 186.

-- from trees, 180.

-- lightning and, 181.

-- worshipped in ancient Britain, 147.

Fire-sticks, The, 180.

"Fire water" as "water of life", 181.

Fish taboo, 201.

Flax, Stone Age people cultivated, 5.

Flint, as god, 51.

Flints, in Aurignacian cave-tomb, 45.

-- as offerings to deity, 50.

Flint deposits, English, 81.

-- -- early peoples settled beside, 81.

-- -- river-drift man in England near, 81.

Flint industry, Tardenoisian microliths used by Maglemosians, 57.

-- working, ancient English flint factories, 82.

-- -- Aurignacian, 13, 14. See _Palæolithic_.

-- -- Aurignacian, Solutrean, and Magdalenian implements 21, (_ill._).

-- -- Chellean _coup de poing_ 14, (_ill._).

-- -- "Combe-Capelle" man's, 25.

-- -- early English trade in worked flints, 81.

-- -- eastern influence in Neolithic industry, 214.

-- -- Egyptian origin of Spanish Neolithic industry, 97.

-- -- the evolution theory, 99.

-- -- Hugh Miller's and Andrew Lang's theories regarding, 11.

-- -- Neanderthal and pre-Neanderthal, 12.

-- -- Neolithic saws or sickles, 4.

-- -- Palæolithic and Neolithic, 212.

-- -- Tardenoisian microliths or "pygmy flints", 54, 55 (_ill._).

-- -- proto-Solutrean and "true" Solutrean, 49.

Flint-god, the Solutrean, 51.

-- Zeus and Thor as, 51.

Foam, as milk, 151.

Fomorians, duels of, in Scotland, 199.

-- as gods of Dumnonii, 198.

-- Neit as war god, 202.

-- Nemon as goddess of, 202.

-- war of, with fairies, 198, 199.

Fowl taboo in ancient Britain, 201.

Freyja, Scandinavian Venus, 161.

-- pearls, amber, &c., as tears of, 161.

Furfooz man, 56.

Gaelic Calendar, 198.

Galatia, Celts in, 112.

Galley Hill man, 26.

Gaul, Celts of, in Roman army, 127.

-- early inhabitants of, 100.

-- refugees from sea-invaded areas in, 70.

Gaulish gods, 207.

Gems, "Druid's gem", 163.

-- night-shining, 160.

-- as soul-bodies, 44.

Geological Ages, breaking of North Sea and English Channel land-bridges, 69.

-- -- confusion regarding, in modern art, 1.

-- -- date of last land movement, 100.

-- -- megalithic monuments submerged, 100.

-- -- early boats and, 72.

-- -- England in Magdalenian times, 54.

-- -- sixth glaciation and race movements, 54.

-- -- England sinking when Scotland was rising, 71.

-- -- last land movement, 70, 100.

-- -- horizon of Crô-Magnon races, 26.

-- -- Pleistocene fauna in Europe, 14.

-- -- Archæological Ages and, 14.

-- -- Post-Glacial and the early Archæological, 13, 14, 15.

-- -- theories of durations of, 16, 17, 18.

Giants, associated with the north, 173.

-- (Fomorians) as gods, 198.

-- war of, with fairies, 198.

-- Scottish, named after heroes, 131, and also note 1.

_Glas_, as "water", "amber", &c., 162, 163.

Glasgow, seal of city of, 185.

Glass, connection of, with goddess, 163.

-- imported into Britain in first century A.D., 114.

Goat, Devil as, 191.

God, in stone, 173.

God-cult, Solutreans and, 51.

God-cult, stone as god, 51, 173.

Goddess, Anu (Danu), 198, 201.

-- -- as "fairy queen" in Ireland, 201, 202.

-- bird forms of, 195.

-- Black Annis, 195.

-- Black Aphrodite, 164.

-- Black goddess of Scotland, 164.

-- The Blue, 173.

-- Bride (Brigit) and her serpent, 187.

-- Brigit as goddess of healing, smith-work, and poetry, 188.

-- cat forms of, 196.

-- connection of, with amber and swine deities, 161.

-- connection of, with glass, 163.

-- connection of, with grove, sky, pearl, &c., in Celtic religion, 158-60, 162, 179, 206.

-- animals and plants of, 162.

-- cult animals of, 154, 161, 162, 195, 196, 200.

-- eel and, 200.

-- eel, wolf, &c., forms of, 195.

-- Egyptian milk goddess, 149.

-- Indian milk goddess, 151.

-- Gaulish goddess Ro-smerta, 174.

-- influences of, 179.

-- groups of "mothers", 206.

-- Hebridean "maiden queen", 221.

-- honeysuckle as milk-yielding plant, 193.

-- bee and, 193.

-- luck and, 167.

-- Morrigan comes from north-west, 173.

-- wind goddess from south-west, 173.

-- Scottish Artemis, 174, 196.

-- The Mother, Aurignacians favoured, 51.

-- -- connection of, with law and trade, 166.

-- -- Crô-Magnon form of, 42, 51.

-- -- jasper as blood of, 45.

-- -- her life-giving shells, 40.

-- -- shell-milk Highland myth, 42.

-- The mother-pot, 205.

-- rivers and, 206.

-- Oriental, in Spain, 220.

Goddess, pearl, &c., offerings to, 174.

-- precious stones of, 221.

-- Scottish hag goddess, 174, 196.

-- Indian Kali, 196.

-- shell and milk Hebridean goddess, 153.

Gods, animal forms of, 196.

-- Danann deities, 198.

-- deity who sends diseases withdraws them, 179.

-- influences of, 179.

-- Gaelic references to, 140, 179.

-- Hazel god, 140, 150.

-- Gaelic fire god, 140.

-- "King of the Elements", 179.

-- Romano-Gaulish, 207.

Goibniu, Irish god and the Welsh Govannan, 203.

Gold, amber and, 165.

-- coins of, in pre-Roman Britain, 223.

-- deposits of, in Britain and Ireland, 79, 84, 89, 91, 95, 114, 219, 220.

-- mixed with silver in Sutherland, 91.

-- earliest use of, in Egypt, 80.

-- copper used like, 80.

-- Egyptian diadem of, found in Neolithic Spain, 98.

-- in England (map), 83.

-- exported from Britain in first century A.D., 114.

-- finds of, in Scotland, 220.

-- first metal worked, 84.

-- as a "form of the gods", 80.

-- as "fire, light, and immortality", 80.

-- as "life giver", 80.

-- Gaelic god and, 102.

-- Gauls offered, to water deity, 174·

-- how miners worked, 90.

-- "World Mill" myth, 90.

-- ingot of, from salmon, 184.

-- luck of, 166.

-- no trace of where worked out, 93.

-- not valued by hunting peoples in Europe, 99.

-- offered to deities by Celts, 80.

-- psychological motive for searches for, 94.

Gold, knowledge and skill of searchers for, in Britain, 95.

-- ring in St. Mungo legend, 185.

-- rod of, at Inverness stone circle, 220.

-- in salmon myths, 183.

-- Scottish deposits of, 89.

-- search for, in Britain, 214, 217.

-- shells imitated in, 41, 80.

-- trade in, 219.

-- as tree, 221.

Goodwin Sands, 69.

Goose, taboo in ancient Britain, 201.

Govannan. See _Goibniu_.

Grail, The Holy, 205.

Grannos, Gaulish Apollo, 207.

Gregory the Great, letter from, to Mellitus, 176.

Grimaldi, Indian Ocean shell in Aurignacian cave at, 36.

Grove, The sacred, Celtic names of, 159·

-- -- Latin "nemus", 159.

Gwydion, the god, Odin and, 204.

Hades, dog and, 64.

Hallowe'en, pig associated with, 200.

Hallstatt culture, Celts influenced by, 112.

Hand-prints, in Aurignacian caves, 47·

-- four colours used, 47.

-- dwellings protected by, in India and Spain, 47.

-- Arabian, Turkish, &c., customs, 47·

Hare, taboo in ancient Britain, 201

Harpoon, 62.

-- Victoria cave, late Magdalenian or proto-Azilian, 58.

-- finds of, in England and Scotland, 58.

-- Azilians imitated Magdalenian reindeer horn in red deer horn, 56.

-- Magdalenians introduced, 52.

Hazel, nut of, as fruit of longevity, 144.

-- as god, 150, 179.

-- in early Christian legends, 150.

-- as milk-yielding tree, 150.

Hazel, as sacred tree, 150.

-- nuts of, as food, 151.

-- palm tree and, 221.

-- The Sacred, 150, 179.

-- connection of, with sky, wells, &c., 179.

-- snakes and, 189.

-- in St. Mungo (St. Kentigern) myth, 186.

-- sacred fire from, 186.

-- Groves, Sacred, "Caltons" were, 150.

Heart, as seat of life, 154.

-- as seat of life to Crô-Magnons and Ancient Egyptians, 32.

Heaven as South, 170.

Hebrides, dark folks in, 138.

-- descendants of Easterners in, 118.

-- "Maiden Queen" of, 221.

-- reroofing custom in, 178.

-- Sea god of, 193.

-- traces of metals in, 117.

-- as the OEstrymnides, 118.

Heifer, milk of, in honeysuckle, 193.

Hell, as North. See _Cardinal Points_.

Herbs, ceremonial gathering of, 168.

-- life substance in, 206.

-- lore of, 167.

-- from tears of sun god, 181, and also note 3.

-- Silvanus, god of, 207.

Hills, Gildas on worship of, 176, 178.

Himilco, voyage of, 116.

Homer, reference of, to cremation, 110.

Honey, in baptisms, 152.

-- as life-substance, 193.

-- nut milk and, 150, and also note 1.

-- in "soma" and "mead", 151.

Honeysuckle, butterfly and, 193.

-- honey and milk of, 193.

Horn implements, 82.

-- -- Magdalenians favoured, 52.

Horse, Demeter and, 196.

-- domesticated by Azilians, 55.

-- domesticated by Crô-Magnons, 53.

-- eaten in Scotland, 200.

-- Ep[)o]na, Celtic horse goddess, 208.

Horse, The Sacred, 155 (_ill._).

-- god, 129, and also note 2.

Horse-shoe charms, 47.

Hound's Pool, 64.

Houses, Neolithic, 5.

Human sacrifices, children as, 174.

Iberians, Armenoids and, 127.

-- as carriers of Neolithic culture, 126.

-- Celts and, 125.

-- Silurians as, 137.

Ice, connection of, with amber, &c., 163.

Ice Age. See _Geological Ages_.

Iceni, The, of Essex, 128.

-- boar god of, 162.

Idols, in ancient Britain, 147, 176.

-- Pope Gregory's reference to ancient English, 176.

Indo-European theory, 124.

Indo-Germanic theory, 124.

Indra, dog and, 64.

Ireland, as a British island, 132.

Iron, exported from Britain in first century, A.D., 114.

Iron Age, Celts in, 112.

Iron industry, Easterners and, in Western Europe, 107.

Island of Women, 178.

Isles of the Blest, Gaelic, 143.

Ivory, associated with bronze, jet, and Egyptian beads in England, 104.

-- in Crô-Magnon grotto, 23.

-- Egyptian, in Neolithic Spain, 96.

-- imported into Britain in first century A.D., 114.

-- in Welsh cave-tomb, 20.

Jade, butterfly soul in, 193.

Japan, the _shintai_ (god body) and Gaelic "soul case", 173.

-- talismans of, and the Irish, 206.

Jasper, symbolism of, 221.

Jet, amber and, 164.

-- British and Roman beliefs regarding, 164.

-- as article of trade at 1400 B.C., 106.

-- associated in Stonehenge area with Egyptian blue beads, 104, 105 (_ill._), 106.

Jet, early trade in, 219.

-- early working of, 82.

-- megalithic people searched for, 93·

-- pearls and amber and, 221.

Jupiter, The Gaulish, 207.

-- Lapis, 51.

Jutes, 126.

-- Celts and, 227.

Kali, the Black, 196.

Kentigern, St., as Druid, 185.

-- -- in salmon and ring legend, 184.

Kent's Cavern, Magdalenian art in, 54·

Kerridiwen, the goddess, cauldron of, 204.

Knife of deity, 206.

Knitting, Stone Age people and, 5.

-- relation to basket-making and pottery, 5.

Lake, the Sacred, goddess and, 180.

Lanarkshire, Damnonians in, 89.

Land-bridges, breaking of North Sea and English Channel bridges, 69.

-- Dogger Bank, 57, 61, 67, 68.

-- English Channel, 17, 67.

-- Italian, 14, 35.

Land movement, the last, 216.

Language and race, 123, 124, 222.

Language of birds. See _Birds_.

La Tène culture, Celts as carriers of, to Britain, 112.

Leicestershire, Black Annis, a hag deity of, 195.

Lewis, Callernish stone circle, 94.

Lightning, butterfly form of god of, 191.

-- as heavenly fire, 181.

-- and trees, 181.

Lir, sea god, 202. See _Llyr_.

-- sea god, "Shony" and, 194.

Liver as seat of life in Gaelic, 154, 187.

-- cure from mouse's, 187.

Lizard as soul-form, 189.

Lleu, the god, 204.

Llyr, sea god, 202. See _Lir_.

-- the sea god, "Shony" and, 194.

London, god's name in, 203.

Love-enticing plants, 168.

Luck, belief in, 157.

-- berries and, 180.

-- fire as bringer of, 191.

-- lucky and unlucky days, 168.

-- pearls and, 166, 167.

Lud, god of London, 203.

-- form of, 203.

Lugh, Celtic god, associated with north-east, 173.

-- Gaelic Apollo, 202.

Lugi, The, 129.

Mæatæ, The, Picts and Caledonians and, 130.

Magdalenian culture, 13.

-- -- Azilian and, 62.

-- -- Eskimo art and, 53.

-- -- in Britain, 53.

-- -- origin of, 52.

-- -- new implements, 52.

-- -- traces of influence of, in Scotland, 60.

-- -- Victoria cave reindeer harpoon, 58.

-- cave art revival and progress, 53.

-- implements, 21 (_ill._).

-- pre-Agricultural, 213.

Maggot god, early Christian myth of, 103.

-- -- bees and, 103.

-- -- Gaelic, 102.

Magic wands, 146, 191.

-- -- Etruscan, French, and Scottish, 100.

Maglemosian culture, 54, 56.

-- -- art and, 57.

-- -- Magdalenian influence on, 57.

-- -- Siberian origin of, 57.

-- -- artifacts and, 13.

-- -- in Britain, 125.

-- -- Northerners as carriers of, 217.

-- -- pre-Agricultural, 213.

Maglemosians, boats of, 76.

-- animals hunted, 57.

-- land-bridges crossed by, 57.

-- in France and Britain, 58.

-- in Britain, 70.

-- Celts and, 138.

-- Dogger Bank land-bridge crossed by, 57, 67.

-- dogs domesticated by, 63.

-- Tardenoisian microliths used by, 58.

Malachite charms, 80.

Mammoth, bones of, from Dogger Bank, 68.

-- evidence that heart was regarded as seat of life, 33, (_ill._).

-- in Western Europe, 14. See _Fauna_.

Man, the Red, of Wales, ornaments of, 80.

Mars, the Gaulish, 207.

-- Greek and Gaulish boar forms of, 197.

Marsh plants, goddess and, 162.

Mead, milk and honey in, 151.

Meave, Queen, 112, 114, 227.

Mediterranean race in North Africa and Britain, 126.

-- Sea, divided by Italian land-bridge, 14.

Megalithic culture, Egyptian influence in Britain, &c., 101.

-- monuments, burial customs and, 170.

-- -- connection of, with ancient mine workings, &c., 92, 93.

-- -- connection of, with metal deposits, 82.

-- -- connection of, with sacred groves, 103.

-- -- cult animals on Scottish, 155 (_ill._).

-- -- "cup-marked" stones, 148.

-- -- knocking stones, 148.

-- -- Gruagach stone, 148.

-- -- "cradle stone", 148.

-- -- child-getting stones, 148.

-- -- distributed along vast seaboard. 91.

-- -- searchers for metals, gems, &c., erected, 92.

-- -- distribution of, 82, 83 (_ill._).

-- -- distribution of Scottish, 219.

-- -- Druids and, 103, 154.

-- -- Easterners and followers of, as builders of, 104, 149.

-- -- Egyptian Empire beads and Stonehenge circle, 104, 105 (_ill._), 106.

-- -- Gaelic gods and, 102.

-- -- Gaelic metal symbolism and, 102.

-- -- Gaelic name of sacred shrine, 159.

-- -- Phoenicians and, 149.

Megalithic monuments, their relation to exhausted deposits of metals, 94.

-- -- problem of Lewis and Orkney circles, 94.

-- -- Standing Stones as maidens 147.

-- -- Tacitus on Anglesea altars and Druids, 147.

-- -- Stonehenge as temple, 177.

-- -- Heathen temples and, 178.

-- -- stone circle as sun symbol, 170.

-- -- stones submerged in Brittany, 100.

-- -- Tree Cult and, 220.

-- -- worship of stones, 147, 179.

-- -- connection of, with trees and wells, 147.

Mentone, Aurignacian Mother-goddess, 43.

-- Indian Ocean shell in Aurignacian cave at, 36.

Mersey, the, goddess of, 206.

Mesopotamia, influence of, in Western Europe, 218.

-- knowledge of European metal fields in, 99.

Metals, eastern colonists worked, in Spain, 95.

-- Egyptian furnaces and crucibles in Britain, 101.

-- megalithic monuments and deposits of, 82.

-- searchers for, in Britain, 89.

-- searchers for; how prospectors located deposits of gold, &c., 89.

-- traces of, in Scotland, 93.

Metal symbolism, Gaelic gods and metals, 102. See _Gold_, _Silver_, _Copper_, and _Bronze_.

Metal working, after introduction of bronze working, 106.

Mictis, tin from, 116.

Milk, baptisms of, 152.

-- in the blood covenant, 152.

-- children sacrificed for corn and milk, 174.

-- cult animals of milk goddess, 154.

-- dandelion as milk-yielding plant of goddess Bride, 187.

-- in elixirs, 151.

Milk, "soma" and "mead" and, 151.

-- elm as milk tree, 151.

-- foam as milk, 151.

-- goddess-cow gives healing milk, 195.

-- Hebridean milk goddess, 153, 221.

-- honeysuckle as milk-yielding plant, 193.

-- Indian evidence regarding "river milk" and milk-yielding trees, 151.

-- Irish milk lake, 152.

-- healing baths of, 152.

-- marsh mallows and, 152, and also note 1.

-- mistletoe berries as milk berries, 153.

-- Oblations of, in Ross-shire, 148.

-- offerings of, to dead, 148.

-- elixir, Highland shell-goddess myth, 42.

-- -- Egyptian evidence regarding, 43.

-- -- prepared from shells in Japan and Scotland, 40.

-- goddess, Hathor as, 149.

Milky Way, The, 154, 221.

-- -- in ancient religion, 150.

-- -- in Welsh and Gaelic, 203.

Mind, heart as, 33.

Mining, Egyptian methods in Western Europe, 102.

Mistletoe, as "All Heal", 153, 167.

-- milk berries, 153.

-- trees on which it grows in Britain, 145, and also note 2.

Modern man, 9. See _Crô-Magnon Races_.

Mogounus, a Gaulish Apollo, 207.

Moon, Aphrodite as goddess of, 159.

-- Dante refers to, as pearl, 159.

-- Gaels swore by, 148.

-- as "Pearl of Heaven", 159.

-- worship of, in ancient Britain, 147.

Morgan le Fay, Arthur's pursuit of, 198.

-- -- goddess Anu and, 198.

-- -- as "life giver", 161.

Morrigan, The (Irish goddess), Anu and, 198.

Morrigan, associated with north-west, 173.

-- as the "life giver", 161.

-- forms of, 195.

Mother goddess. See _Goddess_.

Moths as soul forms, 192.

Mouse, buried under apple tree, 196.

-- hunting of, in Scotland, 187.

-- mouse cures, 187.

-- Scottish supernatural, 187.

-- Apollo and, 179.

-- -- mouse feasts, 187.

-- cures, Boers have, 187, and also note 2.

-- feasts in Scotland and the Troad, 187.

Mousterian Age, 13.

-- -- artifacts of, 14.

-- -- Neanderthal races of, 14.

Mungo, St., as Druid, 185, 186.

-- -- salmon legend of, 184.

Navigation. See _Boats_.

Neanderthal man, Crô-Magnon influence on, 14.

-- -- disappearance of, 15, 16, 122.

-- -- European climates experienced by, 14.

-- -- relations of, with Crô-Magnon races, 14.

-- -- first discovery of bones of, 8, 9.

-- -- skeleton of, found, 9.

-- -- Australian natives and, 9.

-- -- description of, 9, 10.

-- -- flint working of, 12.

-- -- Mousterian artifacts of, 14.

-- -- Piltdown man and, 26.

Necklaces in Crô-Magnon grotto, 23.

-- Crô-Magnon sea shells, 39 (_ill._).

-- Egyptian blue beads in British "Bronze Age" necklace, 104, 105 (_ill._), 106.

-- as gods, 44.

-- in graves, 158.

-- shell, in Welsh Aurignacian cave-tomb, 20.

-- why worn, 37.

Need fires, 181.

-- -- butterfly and, 191.

Neit, god of battle, 202.

_Nem_, the root in _neamh_ (heaven), _neamhnuid_ (pearl), _nemeton_ (shrine in a grove), _nemed_ (chapel), _neimhidh_ (church-land), _nemus_ (a grove), _Nemon_ (goddess), and _N[)e]m[)e]t[)o]na_ (goddess), 159, 160.

N[)e]m[)e]t[)o]na, British goddess, 159.

Nemon, the goddess, a Fomorian, 202.

-- Irish goddess, and pearl, heaven, &c., 159.

Neolithic, chronological problem, 212.

-- Egyptian diadem of gold found in Spanish Neolithic tomb, 98.

-- Egyptian origin of Spanish Neolithic industry, 97, 214.

-- metal workers as flint users, 98.

-- Scottish copper axe problem, 219.

-- why ornaments were worn, 37, 38.

-- Age, transition period longer than, 61.

-- Culture, Iberians as carriers of, 126.

-- Industry, carriers of, attracted to Britain, 78.

-- -- distribution of population and, 81-4.

-- -- "Edge" theory, 61.

-- -- Campigny find, 62.

-- -- in Ireland, 85.

-- -- in Scotland, 85.

-- -- Scottish pitch-stone artifacts, 85.

-- -- carriers of, not wanderers, 86.

-- -- a lost art, 86.

Nereids, the, fairies and, 173.

Ness, the River, 206.

Night-shining gems, 160.

Norsemen, 126.

-- modern Scots and, 137.

Northern fair race, 125.

Northerners, Armenoids and, 127.

Novantæ, The, 129.

Nudd, the god, 203.

Nut, as "soul case", 173.

Nut-milk, 150.

-- -- honey and, as elixir, 150, and also note 1.

Nuts, life substance in, 206.

-- of longevity, 150.

Oak, 221.

-- acorn as fruit of longevity, 144.

-- Druids and, 141, 145.

-- Black Annis and, 196.

-- Galatian oak grove and shrine, 159.

-- on Glasgow seal, 185.

-- god of, and seafarers, 153.

-- god Dagda and, 202.

-- the Sacred, 179.

-- use of acorns, 153.

-- in tanning, 153.

-- Spirits, 207.

Oaths, Sacred, Gaels swore by sun, moon, &c., 148.

Oban, MacArthur Cave, 58, 217.

Obsidian artifacts, 86.

Odin, the dog and, 64.

-- pork feasts of, 144.

-- Welsh Gwydion and, 204.

OEstrymnides, The, Himilco's tin islands, 116, 118.

Onyx, same name as pearl in Gaelic, 160.

Oracles, Druids and, 145.

Orc (young boar), salmon as, 182.

Orcs, The Picts as, 201.

Orkney, boar name of, 129.

-- megalithic remains in, 94.

-- "Sow day" in, 201.

Ornaments, "adder stones", "Druid gems", &c., 163.

-- jet charms, 164.

-- in Crô-Magnon grotto, 23.

-- as gods or god-cases, 44.

-- in grotto at Aurignac, 22.

-- in Mentone cave-tombs, 45.

-- religious value of, 80, 165.

-- in Welsh Aurignacian cave-tomb, 20.

-- why worn by early peoples, 37, 38.

Ostrich eggs, found in Spain, 96.

Otter, skin charm of, 189.

-- as god, 190.

-- as soul-form, 189.

-- the king, 189.

-- jewel of, 189.

Palæolithic, chronological problem, 212.

-- implements of Upper Palæolithic, 21 (_ill._).

Palæolithic Age, why ornaments were worn, 37, 38.

-- -- break in culture of, 12.

-- -- origin of term, 8.

-- -- races of, 8.

-- -- sub-divisions of, 12, 13. See, _Chellean_, _Acheulian_, _Mousterian_, _Aurignacian_, _Solutrean_, and _Magdalenian_.

Palm tree, British substitutes for, 221.

-- -- cult of, in ancient Spain, 149.

Paradise, as "Apple land" (Avalon) 144.

-- Celtic ideas regarding, 143.

-- fairyland as, 143.

-- pork feasts in, 144.

-- Welsh ideas regarding, 144.

-- in Border Ballads, 144.

Parisii, The, in Britain, 128.

Patrick, St., Pagan myth attached to, 198.

Paviland cave, Crô-Magnon burial in Welsh, 19.

Pearl, Aphrodite (Venus) as pearl, 158.

-- as life substance, 80, 158.

-- moon as "Eternal Pearl" in Dante's _Inferno_, 159.

-- Gaelic name of, 159.

-- nocturnal luminosity of, 160.

Pearls, British, attracted Romans, 79·

-- and sacred grove, &c., 159.

-- Cæsar's pearl offering to Venus, 159.

-- in Cuchullin's hair, 163.

-- on Roman emperor's horse, 163.

-- dragons possess, 184.

-- in England (map), 83, 84.

-- fabulous origin of, 161.

-- Irish standard of value a _set_ (pearl), 166.

-- luck of, 166.

-- jet and amber and, 221.

-- as "life substance", 80, 158.

-- as _margan_ (life-giver), 161.

-- as medicine in India, 41.

-- searched for by megalithic people, 92.

-- soul in, 206.

-- as _tama_ in Japan, 44.

-- as "tears" of goddess Freyja, 161.

Pearls, why offered to goddess, 174.

-- Ythan River, Aberdeenshire, yields, 76.

Pear tree, cat and, 196.

Peat, from Dogger Bank, 57, 68.

Penny Wells, 174.

Phoenicians, the Cassiterides monopoly of, 104.

-- eastern colonists in Spain and, 98.

-- methods of, as exploiters, 98.

-- in Iron Age, 107.

-- megalithic monuments and, 149.

-- in modern Cornwall, 139.

Pictones, The, as allies of Romans, 224.

-- Scottish Picts and, 131.

Picts, The, agriculturists and seafarers, 130.

-- Caledonians and, 130.

-- allies of the Scots, 130.

-- Cruithne were Britons, 132.

-- fairy theory, 131, and also note 1.

-- as Pechts and Pecti, 131.

-- Gildas, Bede, and Nennius on, 132.

-- Irish myth regarding, 132.

-- Irish Cruithne not Picts, 132.

-- Saxon allies of, 131.

-- Roman, Scottish, and Welsh names of, 131.

-- as branch of the Pictones, 131.

-- tattooing habit of, 136.

-- vessels of, 136.

-- tribes of, 136.

-- as pirates, 136.

Pig, Demeter and, 196.

-- Devil as, 191, 200.

-- in Roman religious ceremony, 51.

-- Scottish and Irish treatment of, 199.

-- taboo in Scotland, 199.

-- the Sow goddess, 154.

Pigs, Achæans and Celts as rearers of, 111, 199.

-- Adonis and Diarmid and, 197.

-- Celts rearers of, 114.

-- and amber, 161.

-- as food of the dead, 144.

-- "lucky pigs", 157.

-- Orkney a boar name, 129.

Pigs, salmon as, 182. See _Pork taboo_.

Piltdown man, 26.

Pin Wells, 174.

Pirates, ancient, Picts as, 136.

-- -- Gaelic reference to, 136.

Pliocene mammals, 16.

Poetry, goddess of, 188.

Polycrates of Samos, luck of, in seal, 184.

Pope Gregory the Great, letter on Pagans in England, 176.

Pork. See _Pigs_ and _Swine_.

-- taboo in Arcadia, 223.

-- -- why Cretans detested, 154, and also note 3.

-- -- Scottish, 199 _et seq._, 223.

-- -- Celts ate pork, 199.

Porpoise as sea-boar, 182.

Portugal, colonists from, in Britain, 106.

-- early eastern influence in, 211.

-- settlements of Easterners in, 95.

-- settlers from, in Britain, 127.

Pot, the, shell as, 207.

-- as symbol of Mother-goddess, 205.

-- the Mother, Celtic cauldron as, 90.

"Pot of Plenty", Celtic cauldron as, 205.

Potter's wheel, 112.

Pottery, Neolithic, 5.

-- relation to basket-making and knitting, 5, 6.

Priestesses, ancient British, Tacitus refers to, 147.

-- witches and, 147, and also note 1.

Ptolemy, evidence of, regarding British tribes, 128.

Purple-yielding shells, in Crô-Magnon grotto, 23.

-- -- searched for by megalithic people, 92.

Pytheas, 229.

-- exploration of Britain by, 115.

-- the Mictis problem, 116.

-- voyage of, 107.

Races, alien elements may vanish, 123.

-- "Caucasian Man", 123.

-- Aryan theory, 123.

Races, animal names of Scoto-Celtic tribes, 129.

-- Azilian and Tardenoisian, 55.

-- Maglemosian, 56.

-- Britain in Roman period, 127.

-- Britain mainly "long-headed", 128.

-- Ptolemy's evidence regarding British tribes, 128.

-- British extermination theory, 227.

-- British Iberians and proto-Egyptians, 126.

-- Armenoid intrusions, 87, 126, 222.

-- Spanish settlers in Britain, 127.

-- bronze carriers displace eastern metal searchers in Western Europe, 100.

-- bronze users as earliest settlers in Aberdeenshire, 111.

-- Brünn and Brüx, 50.

-- Celts and Armenoids, 112.

-- Celts and Northerners, 112, 222.

-- Celts as conquerors of early settlers in Britain, 107.

-- colours of the mythical, 121, 125·

-- extermination theory, 122.

-- Celts as Fair Northerners, 222.

-- "broad heads" in Britain, 56, 87, 126, 222.

-- Celts and Teutons, 125.

-- Chancelade skull and Eskimos, 53.

-- Crô-Magnons in Wales, 19.

-- first discovery of Crô-Magnons in France, 20.

-- Cuchullin and Scotland, 224.

-- Britons in Ireland, 224.

-- Damnonians as metal workers, 89.

-- Damnonians in England, Scotland, and Ireland, 89, 90.

-- dark and fair peoples in England, 227.

-- descendants of Easterners in Britain, 118.

-- drifts of, into Britain, 79.

-- early settlers in Britain, 125, 216.

-- eastern colonists in Spain, 95.

-- Easterners reached ancient Britain from Spain, 97.

-- fair and dark among earliest settlers in Post-Glacial Britain, 60.

Races, fair Celts and Teutons, 60.

-- Fir-bolgs in Ireland, 223.

-- Furfooz type, 56.

-- broad-headed fair types, 56.

-- Gaelic Fir-domnann and Firbolg, 90, and also note 1.

-- Gibraltar man, 8.

-- Cannstadt man, 8.

-- Neanderthal man, 9. See _Neanderthal Man_.

-- great migrations by sea, 92.

-- high and heavy Scots, 137.

-- intrusion of "Round Barrow", broad-headed people, 87, 126.

-- "Long heads" use bronze in Ireland, 87.

-- megalithic intruders, 94.

-- mixed peoples among Easterners in Western Europe, 107.

-- modern Crô-Magnons in Africa, British Isles, and France, 25.

-- "Combe-Capelle" man, 25.

-- Brüx and Brünn skulls, 25.

-- "Galley Hill" man, 26, 27.

-- modern man, 9.

-- Crô-Magnon, 9, 19. See _Crô-Magnon Races_.

-- Piltdown man, 9, 26.

-- Heidelberg man, 9.

-- Phoenician type in Cornwall, 139.

-- physical characters of, 124.

-- "pockets" in British Isles, 138.

-- Post-Glacial movements of, 54.

-- pre-Celtic extermination theory, 107.

-- few intrusions in ancient Britain, 109.

-- settlements of traders and workers, 109.

-- "short barrow" intruders, 104.

-- cremating intruders, 104.

-- Solutrean intrusion, 49.

-- Tacitus's references to British races, 137.

-- transition period and Neolithic, 61.

Rainbow as god's rod-sling, 204.

Raven and goddess of grove and sky, 160.

Ravens, Celtic deities as, 195.

Red deer on Dogger Bank, 68.

"Red Man", The Welsh, 19, 27.

Regni, The, Sussex tribe, 128.

Reindeer on Dogger Bank, 68.

-- French and German, in early, Aurignacian times, 14. See _Fauna_.

-- in Scotland till twelfth century, 67.

-- in Germany in Roman times, 68.

-- Age, the, 213.

Rhodesia, mouse cure in, 187, and also note 2.

Rhone valley trade route, 114.

Rivers, goddesses and, 206.

River-worship, 176, 178, 179.

Robin, apple cult and, 204.

Robin Red-breast, on Glasgow seal, 185.

-- -- in St. Mungo legend, 186.

Romans, how Britain was conquered by, 119, 120.

-- Celtic boats superior to boats of, 224.

-- as exploiters of conquered countries, 79.

-- how loan-rate of interest was reduced, 79.

-- goddess, groups of, 207.

-- Gauls in army of, 127.

-- mean and tragical conquest of Britain by, 226, 227.

-- myths of, regarding savages in ancient Britain, 224.

-- references of, to Picts and Caledonians, 130.

-- religious beliefs of, no higher than those of Gaels, 208.

-- Tacitus on rewards of, in Britain, 79.

-- wars for trade, 229.

Rome, connection of, with milk goddess cult, 149, 150.

-- sacked by Celts, 112.

Ro-smerta, the Gaulish goddess, 174.

Rowan, 221.

-- berry of, as fruit of longevity, 144.

-- the sacred, 179, 180. See _Tree Cults_.

Rye, cultivation of, 5.

Sacred stones and sacred trees, 103. See _Megalithic Monuments_ and _Tree Cults_.

Sacrifices, annual pig sacrifices,201.

-- oxen sacrificed to demons in England, 178.

-- at "wassailing", 204, 205.

Sahara, 27.

-- grass-lands of the, 14.

St. Swithin's Day, 168.

Salmon on city of Glasgow seal, 185.

-- as form of dragon, 182.

-- fire and, 183.

-- Gaelic names of, 182.

-- Irish saint finds gold in stomach of, 184.

-- in St. Mungo legend, 184.

-- the ring myth, 183.

-- the sacred "salmon of wisdom", 182.

Sargon of Akkad, his knowledge of Western European metal-yielding areas, 99 _et seq._, 218.

Saxons, 126.

-- Celts and, 227.

-- the, Picts as allies of, 131.

Scape-dog, the, 65.

Scots, The, Crô-Magnons and, 137.

-- Picts and, 130.

-- first settlement of, in Scotland, 130.

Scott, Michael, in serpent myth, 188.

Seafaring. See _Boats_.

Sea god, the Hebridean _Seonaidh_ (Shony), 193.

Seasons, Gaelic colours of, 169.

Selgovæ, The, 139.

-- in Galloway, 129.

Serpent, Bride's serpent and dragon, 188.

-- as "daughter of Ivor", the "damsel", &c., 187.

-- dragon as, 182.

-- goddess Bride and, 187.

-- jet drives away, 164.

-- sacred white, 188.

-- on sculptured stones, 155 (_ill._).

-- "snake of hazel grove", 189.

-- sea-serpent, 189.

-- as soul, 189.

-- the white, in Michael Scott legend, 188.

Setantii, The, in England and Ireland, 128.

-- Cuchullin and, 128.

Severus, disastrous invasion of Scotland by, 130, 225.

Sheep, goddess as, 154.

-- in Scoto-Celtic tribal names, 129.

Shells, as amulets, 34, 80.

-- Aphrodite as pearl in, 158.

-- in British graves, 46.

-- finds of, in Ireland and Scotland, 46.

-- coloured, in Aurignacian cave-tomb, 46.

-- wearing of, not a juvenile custom, 46.

-- Combe-Capelle man wore, 25.

-- in Crô-Magnon grotto, 23.

-- Crô-Magnon trade in, 40.

-- Japanese and Scottish "shell-milk" elixirs, 40, 221.

-- "Cup of Mary" Highland myth, 42.

-- limpet lore, 42, and also note 1.

-- Egyptian artificial, 173.

-- Egyptian gold models of, 41.

-- stone, ivory, and metal models of, 41.

-- as "life-givers", 41.

-- "Evil Eye" charms, 39.

-- Crô-Magnon necklace, 39 (_ill._).

-- as food for dead, 41.

-- Cretan artificial, 41.

-- fairy woman's coracle a shell, 207.

-- in grotto at Aurignac, 22.

-- ground shells as elixir, 38.

-- as "houses" of gods, 38.

-- love girdle of, 38.

-- Hebridean tree goddess and, 153.

-- Indian Ocean shell in Aurignacian cave, 36.

-- as "life substance", 80, 158, 178.

-- mantle of, in Aurignacian cave-tomb, 45.

-- milk from, 40, 221.

-- "personal ornaments" theory, 37.

-- Red Sea shell in Hampshire, 47, and also note 1.

-- Red Sea shell in Neolithic Spain, 96.

Shells, Red Sea shell at Mentone, 210.

-- searched for by megalithic people, 92 _et seq._

-- in Welsh cave-tomb, 20.

Ships. See _Boats_.

Silures, The, Hebrideans and, 139.

-- Tacitus on, 137.

-- in Wales and Scilly Islands, 129.

Silurians, as miners, 118.

Silvanus, British deity, 207.

Silver, amber and, 165.

-- in Britain, 91.

-- difficult to find and work in Britain, 95.

-- exported from Britain in first century A.D., 114.

-- Easterners worked, in Spain, 97.

-- Gaelic god connected with, 102.

-- offered to water deity by Gauls, 174.

-- offered to deities by Celts, 80.

-- lead, as ballast for boats of Easterners, 99.

Sin (pronounced _sheen_), the Druid's judgment collar, 146.

Skins, exported from Britain in first century, A.D., 114.

Sky, connection of sacred trees and wells with, 179.

Slaves, exported from Britain in first century A.D., 114. See _Fir-bolgs_.

Sleepers myth, in Highland story, 47.

-- the Seven, antiquity of myth of, 29.

Smertæ, The, 129.

Smertullis, the god, Ro-smerta and, 174.

Smintheus Apollo. See _Mouse Apollo_.

Solutrean Age, 13.

-- pre-Agricultural, 213.

-- proto-Solutrean influence, 216.

-- culture, cave art declines, 51.

-- -- characteristic artifacts, 50.

-- -- climate, 51.

-- -- open-air camps, 51.

-- -- bone needles numerous, 52.

-- -- decline of, in Europe, 52.

-- -- earliest influence of, in Europe, 49.

Solutrean culture, "true" wave of, 49.

-- -- carriers of, 50.

-- Implements, 21 (_ill._).

Soul, animal shapes of, 65, 178, 190.

-- bee and butterfly forms of, 191.

-- bee forms of, in folk tales, 193.

-- beliefs regarding, Sleepers myth, 29.

-- soul-case in Scotland and Japan, 44.

-- butterfly as, in Greece, Italy, Serbia, Burmah, Mexico, China, Scotland, Ireland, &c., 192, 193.

-- the "change" in Gaelic, 158.

-- nourishment of, 158.

-- cremation customs and destiny of, 109.

-- dead go west, 173.

-- dog form of, 65.

-- Druids and transmigration, 142.

-- heart and liver as seats of life, 154.

-- maggot as, 102.

-- Egyptian Bata myth, 103.

-- moth form of, 192.

-- serpent form of, 189.

-- lizard and other forms of, 189.

-- star as, 208.

-- in stone or husk, 173.

-- in trees, 190.

-- in egg, fish, swans, &c., 190.

-- in weapons, 50.

-- Welsh ideas regarding destiny of, 144.

Sow-day in Orkney, 201.

Sow goddess, the, 154. See _Pigs_.

Spain, British trade with, 114, 116.

-- colonists from, in Britain, 106.

-- displacement of Easterners in, 221.

-- Druidism in, 149.

-- early trade of, with Britain, 218.

-- Easterners in, 95, 211, 218, 229.

-- Easterners kept natives of, ignorant of uses of metals, 99.

-- Egyptian gold diadem in Neolithic tomb, 98.

-- Egyptian origin of Neolithic industry in, 97.

-- expulsion of Easterners from, 100.

-- in pre-Agricultural Age, 213.

-- settlers from, in Britain, 127.

Spear of god Lugh, 206.

Spinning, 5.

Spirit worship. See _Animism_.

Standing Stones. See _Megalithic Monuments_.

Star, St. Ciaran's stellar origin, 208.

-- the Dog, 64.

Stars, Druid lore of, 175.

-- Gaels measured time by, 175, and also note 1.

-- Sir[)o]na, star goddess, 208.

-- Milky Way and milk goddess cult, 149.

-- Welsh and Gaelic names of, 203.

Stennis, Standing Stones of, 94.

Stone of Danann deities, 206.

-- as god, 51.

Stonehenge, doctrine of Cardinal Points and, 174.

-- and Egyptian Empire beads, 104, 105 (_ill._), 106.

-- Temple theory, 177.

Stones, in graves, 33, 34.

-- wind raised by, in Hebrides, 172.

-- as "god body", 173.

-- as dragon's eggs, 173.

Sumeria. See _Babylonia_.

Sun, ancient British solar symbol, 162.

-- circulating chapels, &c., 148.

-- ear-rings and, 165.

-- fire and, 181.

-- rays of, as tears, 181, and also note 3.

-- Gaelic worship of, 170.

-- Gaels swore by, 148.

-- goddess and, 163.

-- modern and ancient sunwise customs, 171.

Sun-worship in Britain, King Canute and, 147.

Surgery, ancient man's skill in, 2.

-- folk-lore evidence regarding, 3, 4.

Surrogate of life blood, 28.

Sussex dug-out, 76, 77.

Swallows, Celtic deities as, 195.

Swans, as souls, 190.

-- as oracles, 190.

-- Celtic deities as, 195.

Swine. See _Pork Taboo_.

-- Celts rearers of, 114.

-- Devil and, 200.

Swine, Maglemosian hunters of, 57.

-- Orkney a boar name, 129.

-- in Roman religious ceremony, 51.

-- Scottish taboo of, 199.

Sword of god Lugh, 206.

Symbols, swashtika, &c., 165, 166. See _Colour Symbolism_.

Tæxali, The, 129.

Talismans, Irish and Japanese, 206.

Taran[)u]cus (Thunderer), Gaulish god, 207.

Tardenoisian, 54, 62.

-- artifacts, 13.

-- Iberian carriers of, 216.

-- pre-Agricultural, 213.

-- pygmy flints, 54, 55 (_ill._).

Tardenoisians, The, in Britain, 125.

-- English Channel land-bridge crossed by, 69.

-- Industry, traces of, in Africa, Asia, and Europe, 71.

-- Maglemosians and, 57.

Temples, pagan, used as Christian churches, 177.

-- the Gaulish, 177.

-- Apollo's temple in England, 177.

-- Stonehenge, 177.

-- Pytheas refers to, 178.

-- reroofing custom, 178.

Ten Tribes, The Lost, 118.

Teutons, British Celts' relations with, 137.

-- Celts and, 125.

Thomas the Rhymer, "True Thomas" as "Druid Thomas", 146.

Thor, Dagda and, 202.

Tilbury man, 70, 71.

Tin, 101.

-- beginning of mining in Cornwall, 116.

-- Scottish and Irish, 94, 117.

-- in Britain and Ireland, 91.

-- surface tin collected in Britain, 9.

-- English mines of, opened after surface tin was exhausted, 91.

-- the Mictis problem, 116.

-- descendants of ancient miners in Britain, 118.

-- exported from Cornwall in first century A.D., 114.

Tin, Phoenicians and the Cassiterides, 104.

-- search for, in Britain, 95.

-- traces of, in Scotland, 94.

-- trade in, 219.

-- voyage of Pytheas, 107.

-- Cornish mines opened, 107. See _Cassiterides_ and _OEtrymnides_.

Tin Land, Sargon of Akkad's knowledge of the Western European, 99, 218.

Tin-stone as ballast for boats of Easterners, 99.

Toad, The, Jewel of, 189.

Tom-tit, apple cult of, 204.

Toothache, ancient man suffered from, 2.

Torquay, Magdalenian art near, 54.

Trade, early British exports, 104.

-- Red Sea shell in Hampshire, 47, and also note 1.

-- routes, British and Irish, 223.

-- -- British trade with Spain and Carthage, 114.

-- -- Danube valley and Rhone valley, 114.

-- -- early trade between Spain and Britain, 218.

-- -- exports from Britain in first century A.D., 114.

-- -- when overland routes were opened, 106.

-- -- Celts and, 106, 107.

-- -- Phoenicians kept sea-routes secret, 107.

-- -- voyage of Pytheas, 107.

Transition Period. See _Azilian_, _Tardenoisian_, and _Maglemosian_.

-- -- longer than Neolithic Age, 61.

-- -- race movements in, 54.

-- in Scotland, 216.

Transmigration, Druidism and, 142, 222.

Traprain, silver as substitute for white enamel at, 165.

Tree cults, apple of knowledge eaten by Thomas the Rhymer, 146.

-- -- apple tree as "Tree of Life", 204.

-- -- birds and apple trees, 204.

-- -- Artemis and the fig, 193.

Tree cults, bee and maggot soul forms in trees, 103.

-- -- and standing stones, 103, 104.

-- -- coral as sea tree, 221.

-- -- grown gold, 221.

-- -- and standing stones and wells, 147.

-- -- trees and wells and heavenly bodies, 180.

-- -- Druidism and, 141.

-- -- fig as milk-yielding tree, 149.

-- -- Gaelic and Latin names of sacred groves, 159.

-- -- Galatian sacred oak, 159.

-- -- Gaulish, 151.

-- -- elm as milk tree, 151.

-- -- plane as milk tree, 151.

-- -- grove goddess as raven or crow, 160.

-- -- the hazel god, 140, 144.

-- -- apple of longevity, 144.

-- -- Hebridean shell and milk goddess and, 153.

-- -- Indian milk-yielding trees, 151.

-- -- mouse and apple tree, 196.

-- -- mistletoe and Druidism, 145.

-- -- megalithic monuments and, 220.

-- -- and pearls, &c., 220.

-- -- palm tree cult in Spain, 220.

-- -- oak on Glasgow seal, 185.

-- -- sacred groves and stone shrines, 156.

-- -- sacred rowan, 180.

-- -- Silvanus, British tree god, 207.

-- -- souls in trees, 190.

-- -- St. Mungo takes fire from the hazel, 186.

-- -- stone circles and, 178.

-- -- Trees of Longevity and Knowledge, 152.

-- -- woodbine as "King of the Woods" in Gaelic, 180.

-- -- fire-producing trees, 180.

Trepanning in ancient times, 2.

Trinovantes, The, in England, 128.

Turquoise, symbolism of, 221.

Twelfth Night, 204.

Underworld, Gaelic ideas regarding, 143.

Underworld, Egyptian paradise of, 143.

-- fairyland as Paradise, 144.

-- Welsh ideas of, 144.

-- "Well of healing" in, 197.

Urns, burial, food and drink in, 158.

Uxellimus, Gaulish god, 207.

Vacomagi, The, 129.

Veneti, The, Pictones assist Romans against, 224.

-- Picts and, 131.

Venus. See _Aphrodite_.

-- the British, 204.

-- Cæsar offered British pearls to, 79.

-- origin of, 38.

-- the Scandinavian, 161.

Vernicones, The, in Scotland, 129.

Viking ship, origin of, 76.

Votadini, in Scotland, 129.

Vulcan, the Celtic, 202, 203.

Warfare, Neolithic weapons rare, 6.

Water, fire in, 182.

-- as source of all life, 180.

-- spirits, 207.

"Water of Life", "fire water" as, 181, 182.

Weapons, Celts swore by, 148.

-- demons in, 50.

-- as sacred symbols in Ireland and Japan, 206.

Well, "Beast" (dragon) in, 182.

Wells, Bride (Brigit) and, 188.

-- connection of, with trees, stones, and sky, 180.

-- goddess and, 180.

-- "well of healing" in Underworld, 197.

Well-worship and sacred grove, heaven, &c., 160.

Well-worship, Dingwall Presbytery deals with, 148.

-- Gildas refers to, 176.

-- well as a god, 176-9.

-- trees, standing stones, and, 147.

-- winds and, 174.

-- offerings of gold, &c., 174.

Welsh gods, 203.

Were-animals, Scottish, 190.

-- witches and, 191.

Wheat, cultivation of, 5.

Whistle, the, antiquity of, 31.

Widow-burning, 110.

Wind, fairies come on eddies of, 173.

Wind and water beliefs, 174.

Wind goddess, Scottish, associated with south-west, 173.

Winds, colours of, 169 _et seq._

-- Gaelic names of, in spring, 198.

-- Hebridean wind-stone, 172.

Witches, cat forms of, 196.

-- priestesses and, 147.

-- were-animals and, 191.

Withershins, 172.

Woad, Celtic connection of, with water, amber, &c., 163.

Wolf, goddess as, 154.

-- goddess Morrigan as, 195.

Woodbine as "King of the Woods", 180.

"World Mill", The, metal workers and, 90.

Wren, apple cult of, 204.

-- Druids and, 145.

-- hunting of, 187.

-- the sacred, 186.

-- as king of birds, 186.

Yellow Muilearteach, the, Scottish deity, 196, 197.

Zuyder Zee, formerly a plain, 69.

-- -- disasters of, 69, 70.

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Transcriber's note:

Minor spelling inconsistencies, mainly hyphenated words, have been made consistent.

Obvious typographical errors have been corrected.

A "List of Illustrations" has been added to the text for the convenience of the reader. It includes Illustrations that were not included in the "List of Plates."

In the Index the phrase (_ill._) has occasionally been moved so as consistently to come after the page to which it refers.