Part 6
_The crayfish (?)._--In Fig. 40 we have a fine specimen, intended apparently to represent a crayfish or some similar crustacean form. The head is supplied with complicated yet graceful antenna-like appendages, made of wire neatly coiled and welded together by pressure or hammering. The eyes are globular and are encircled by the ends of a double loop of wire which extends along the back and incloses a line of minute balls or nodes. The peculiar wings and tail will be best understood by referring to the illustration. The foundation metal is much corroded, being dark and rotten, and the plating of reddish gold seems to have been coated with a thin film of yellow gold. The profile view gives a good idea of the thickness of the metal and of the relief of the parts. Two rings or loops of doubled wire are attached to the extreme end of the nose and a heavy ring for suspending is fixed to the under side of the head.
_Miscellaneous._--Gold, pure and in the usual alloys, was also used in the manufacture of other articles, such as bells, beads, disks, balls, rings, whistles, thimble shaped objects, and amulets of varied shapes. Bells are more generally made of bronze, because, perhaps, of its greater degree of resonance. Thin plates, or rather circular sheets, of gold leaf are numerous. One mentioned by Bollaert was 7¼ inches in diameter. They are plain or crimped about the margins, indented in various ways, and sometimes perforated, apparently for suspension or attachment. Merritt mentions examples having holes which showed evidences of wear upon one side only, indicating attachment in a fixed position to some object or to some part of the costume. But one example is at hand, a thin sheet, three inches in diameter and crimped or indented neatly about the margin. Its thickness is about that of ordinary tinfoil.
[Footnote 14: Herrera: Hist. America, Vol. VI, p. 369.]
[Footnote 15: Herrera: Hist. America, Vol. III, p. 287.]
[Footnote 16: Mr. Hawes's letter answering questions about Chiriqui, read by Mr. Davis before the American Ethnological Society, April 17, 1860.]
[Footnote 17: Nadaillac: Prehistoric America, p. 450.]
[Footnote 18: Bollaert: Ethnological and Other Researches in New Granada, &c.]
[Footnote 19: Bollaert: Antiquarian Researches in New Granada, plate facing p. 31.]
[Footnote 20: A. De Zeltner: Notes sur les sépultures indiennes du département de Chiriqui.]
BRONZE.
_Bells._--Bells seem to have been in pretty general use by the more cultured American races previous to the conquest. The form best known is the hawk bell, or common sleighbell of the North. The globular body is suspended by a loop at the top and is slit on the under side, so that the tinkling of the small free pellets of metal may be audible. Such bells are found in considerable numbers in the graves of Chiriqui, although I have no positive assurance that any of the examples in my possession were actually taken from graves which contained typical Chiriquian relics of other classes. The specimens now in the National Museum (Fig. 41) are in most cases, if not in all, of bronze, as determined by Mr. R. B. Riggs, of the chemical laboratory of the United States Geological Survey. All have been cast in molds. In most cases there are traces of a plating of gold. The largest is 1¼ inches in height and three-fourths of an inch in diameter. It is surmounted by the rude figure of an animal, through or beneath the body of which is an opening for the attachment of a cord. Others have simple loops at the top. The small perforated specimen belongs to Mr. Stearns. The additional piece given in Fig. 42 is unique in conception. It represents a human head, which takes an inverted position when the bell is suspended. The lower part of the bell forms a conical crown to the head and the ring of suspension is attached to the chin. Double coils of wire take the place of the ears, and the other features are formed by setting on bits of the material used in modeling. This specimen belongs to the collection of Mr. Stearns. Many examples of more elaborate workmanship have been recovered from the tombs and are now to be found in the collections of America and Europe.
A specimen found many years ago on the Rio Grande, near Panama, and figured in Harper's Weekly, was of gold and showed specific variations from the Chiriquian pieces. It will be seen by reference to the outline given in Fig. 43 that three very neatly shaped and gracefully ornamented bells are mounted upon a circular plate to which a short handle is attached. It was evidently not intended for suspension, but rather to be held in the hand as a rattle.
A question as to the authenticity of these bells as aboriginal works very naturally arises, and it may be difficult to show to the satisfaction of the skeptical mind that any particular specimen is not of European origin or inspiration. At the same time we are not without strong evidences that such bells were in use by the Americans before the advent of the whites. Historical accounts are not wanting, but I shall only stop to point out some of the internal evidences of the native art. The strongest argument is to be found in the presence of analogous features in other branches of the art and in other arts. The eyes of the golden figures of reptiles are in many cases minute hawk bells, and in works of clay, the purely aboriginal character of which has not been called in question, similar features are discovered. The American origin of the bell, therefore, is not to be questioned. The form originated, no doubt, in the rattle, at first a nutshell or a gourd; later it was modeled in clay, and in time the same idea was worked out in the legs and the ornaments of vessels and in the heads and other parts of animal forms, which were made hollow and supplied with tinkling pellets. With the acknowledged skill of these people in the working of metals, there is no reason why the bells described should not have been manufactured independently of European aid and influence, provided the requisite metal was at hand.
It should be observed that if these early American bells were copied from or based upon Spanish originals they would not probably vary greatly in type with the various sections from which they are recovered, but it is observed that marked and persistent differences do occur. The well known Mexican bell, an example of which is outlined in Fig. 44, although of bronze, is generically distinct in form and construction.
In a brief review I may recall the more salient points regarding the use of metals in ancient Chiriqui. Gold, silver, copper, and apparently tin are represented.
Gold and copper were very plentifully distributed among the isthmian races, but we have little information as to the sources of supply. Free gold is found in the stream beds of many localities, and copper was probably found in its native state in some convenient locality; yet it is not impossible that these metals were transported from distant regions, as the inhabitants of Chiriqui must have had considerable intercourse with those of Central America on the north and with those of Granada on the south. Silver and tin are found in alloys with gold and copper, but not as independent metals. The silver gold alloy is probably a natural compound. In no case have I found silver to exceed 6 per cent. of the composite metal. Tin was artificially alloyed with copper, forming bronze. The latter metal resembles our ordinary bronze in color and hardness, but I am unable to secure more than a qualitative analysis on account of the scarcity of specimens available for the purpose. We have no information in regard to the origin of the tin. It is not found in a native state, and since it seems hardly probable that the Chiriquians understood smelting ores we are left in doubt as to whether it was obtained from more cultured nations to the north or to the south or from transoceanic countries.
The gold-copper alloys appear to range between pure gold and pure copper. If the bronze is of European origin, then we must conclude that all objects made of that metal are of post-Columbian manufacture. This question will probably be definitely settled in the near future.
The greater number of the objects were formed by casting in molds. Hammering was but little practiced, excepting, apparently, in the formation of sheet gold, which was probably an indigenous product. Repoussé work is not found, save as represented in the crimping and indenting of gold leaf. Engraving and carving were not practiced. It may be considered certain that gilding, or at least plating, was understood.
The objects are obtained from ancient graves of which no record or reliable tradition is preserved. They are all ornaments, no coin, weapon, tool, or utensil having come to my notice. The absence of utensils and of hammered objects of any kind strikes me as being rather extraordinary, since it is popularly supposed that, in the normal succession of events, hammering should precede casting and that utensils should be made before elaborate ornaments.
The work exhibits close analogies with that of the mainland of South America, but these analogies appear to be in material, treatment, and scope of employment rather than in the subject matter of the conceptions. The personages and zoömorphic characters represented are characteristically Chiriquian, and were derived no doubt from the mythology of the locality. These works affiliate with the various works in stone and clay, the art products of the province thus constituting a fairly homogeneous whole and being entirely free from traces of European influence.
Metals do not come into use early in the history of a race, as they are not found in shapes or conditions suitable for immediate use, nor are they sufficiently showy when found to be especially desirable for ornaments. A long period must have elapsed before the use of metals was discovered, and a longer period must have passed before they were worked; and, in the light of our knowledge of the ancient tribes of the United States, it would seem that a considerable degree of culture may be achieved before the casting of metals is understood; but in the ordinary course of progress the discovery of methods of alloying rare metals would be far separated from that of the simple fusing and casting of a single metal, such as gold. The Chiriquian peoples not only had a knowledge of the methods of alloying gold with copper, and, apparently, copper with tin, but, if our data are correct, they were able to plate the baser metals and alloys with sheet gold, and, what is far more wonderful, to wash them with gold, producing an effect identical with that of our galvanic processes.
The character of the conceptions embodied in the art unite with evidences of technical skill to prove to us that American culture, as represented by the metal ornaments of Chiriqui, was not the product of a day, but of long periods of experiment and progress.
POTTERY.
_Preliminary._--The importance of the potter's art to archæology has often been pointed out. Baked clay is one of the most enduring materials utilized in art, and its employment by the races of men has fallen but little short of universal. The creations of that noblest of arts, architecture, and the antecedent forms of house building are necessarily left where erected, to be fed upon by the remorseless elements of nature, but the less pretentious utensil of clay accompanies its owner to the tomb, where it remains practically unchanged for ages.
Many glimpses of the early history of the American races and of the progress of art in pre-Columbian times are obtained through these exhumed relics, and in no case have we a view more clear and comprehensive than that furnished in the series here presented. The graves of Chiriqui have yielded to a single explorer upwards of 10,000 pieces of pottery, and this chiefly from an area perhaps not more than fifty miles square. These vessels constitute at least 90 per cent. of the known art of the ancient occupants of the province, and, although not so eloquent of the past as are the inscribed tablets of Assyria or the pictured vases of Greece, they tell a story of art and of peoples that without their aid would remain untold to the end of time.
A careful study of the earthenware of this province leads to the conclusion that for America it represents a very high stage of development, and its history is therefore full of interest to the student of art. Its advanced development as compared with other American fictile products is shown in the perfection of its technique, in the high specialization of form, and in its conventional use of a wide range of decorative motives. There is no family of American ware that bears evidence of higher skill in the manipulation of clay or that indicates a more subtile appreciation of beauty of form, and no other that presents so many marked analogies to the classic forms of the Mediterranean. Strangely enough, too, notwithstanding the well established fact that only primitive methods of manufacture were known, there is a parallelism with wheel made ware that cannot but strike the student with amazement.
In speaking thus of the whole body of ceramic products, I would not convey the impression that there is perfect homogeneity throughout, as if all were the work of a single people developed from within, and therefore free from the eccentricities that come from exotic influence. On the contrary, there is strong evidence of mixed conditions of races and of arts, the analysis of which, with our present imperfect data, will be extremely difficult. These evidences of mixed conditions are found in the marked diversity and individuality of character of the various groups of ware.
It is impossible, without the aid of careful observations in the field, to arrive at any conclusion as to the relative age of the different varieties of ware. Appearances of age are deceptive; the newer looking varieties may be the older and those executed in the most primitive style may belong to the later period, for grades in culture are not chronologic.
With reference to the principal groups of relics, we cannot do better than accept the statements of collectors that all are buried in like ways and in similar tombs, different varieties in many cases occurring in the same tomb. There are, however, in a few minor groups such marked distinctions in workmanship and style that we are compelled to attribute them to different periods or to distinct communities. The groups separated most completely from others are the scarified pottery presented first in the series of painted wares, the maroon group, which follows, and other varieties represented by fugitive pieces. The latter may have reached Chiriqui from neighboring provinces. There are certain pieces that speak decidedly of Costa Rican influence and others that find their counterparts in the Colombian states to the south.
In art in clay in most countries the vessel is the leading idea, the center about which nearly the entire ceramic art is gathered. This is true in a marked degree in Chiriqui, and vessels are therefore given the first place in this paper. The less usual forms include drums, whistles, rattles, stools, spindle whorls, needlecases, and toy-like images, all of which present features of peculiar interest. These classes of objects are discussed in separate sections.
There are few indications of an ambition to model natural forms or mythologic figures independently of utensils and useful objects, and, strange to say, no pieces are found that portray the human face and figure with even a fair degree of approach to nature.
_How found._--In describing the graves and tombs in a previous section, I alluded to the manner in which the pottery was deposited. It appears to have been buried with the dead or thrown into the grave with the earth and stones with which the pit was filled. There was little regularity in the place or position of the vessels and many were broken when found. The precise use of the vessels, the character of the contents, or the relation of particular pieces to the remains of the dead cannot be determined. Although the human remains have almost entirely disappeared and there are no traces left of utensils of wood, bone, horn, or shell, the paste, slip, and colors are wonderfully well preserved and the surface is not even discolored by contact with the earth. When found, every crevice and cavity is completely filled with earth, and the paste is often so tender that the vessels have to be dried with great care before they can be handled with freedom. The number of pieces found in a grave sometimes reaches twenty, but the average is perhaps not above three or four.
_Material._--The material used in the manufacture of this ware is remarkably uniform throughout the whole province, varying slightly with the locality, with the group, and with the character of the vessel constructed. Generally the paste consists of a matrix of fine clay tempered with finely pulverized sand, in which may be detected grains of quartz, feldspar, hornblende, augite, particles of iron oxide, &c. Argillaceous matter has been sparingly used, the sand in many cases comprising at least 75 per cent. of the mass. Many of the unpainted specimens, from which the polished slip has been removed, give off showers of fine sand when rubbed by the hand, and it is difficult to detect the presence of any finely comminuted matrix whatever. The thin slip employed in surface finish is more highly argillaceous than the paste. The clay used was probably mostly light in color, as the paste is now quite uniformly so. The baking was effected apparently without a very high degree of temperature and by methods that left few marks or discolorations upon the vessels. In hardness and durability the paste corresponds pretty closely with that of our red porous earthenware. The softer pieces can be scratched or even carved with a knife. Water will penetrate any of these vessels in a few minutes, but decay has probably tended to make the walls more porous.
_Manufacture._--There is no piece of this ware that does not bear evidence of a high degree of skill on the part of the potter; and yet, owing to the thorough manner in which the work is finished, the precise methods of manipulation are not easily detected. So great is the symmetry and so graceful are the shapes that one is led to suspect the employment of mechanical devices of a high order. The casual observer would at once arrive at the conclusion that the wheel or molds had been used, but it is impossible to detect the use of any such appliances. We observe that irregular and complex forms, in the production of which mechanical appliances could not be used to advantage, are modeled with as much grace of contour and perfection of surface as are the simpler shapes that could be turned upon a wheel, and we conclude that with this remarkable people the hand and the eye were so highly educated that mechanical aids were not indispensable. I find no evidence that coil building was systematically practiced, but it is clear that parts of complex forms were modeled separately and afterwards united. The various ornaments in relief (the heads and other parts of animals) and the handles, legs, and bases of vessels were constructed separately and then luted on, and with such skill that the thinnest walls and the most complex and delicate forms were not injured in the process. The contact irregularities were then worked down, and every part of the surface, including the more important ornaments, were rendered smooth, preparatory to the application of the thin surface wash or slip. After the slip was applied and the clay became somewhat indurated, the surface was polished with smooth pebbles, the marks of which can be seen on the less accessible parts of the vessel. On the exposed surfaces of certain groups of ware the polish is in many cases so perfect that casual observers and inexperienced persons take it for a glaze. Incised figures and painted decorations were generally executed after the polishing was complete. Details of processes will be given as the various classes of ware pass under review.
The methods of baking were apparently of a higher order than those practiced in many parts of America. One rarely discovers traces of the dark discolorations that result from primitive methods of baking, yet there are none of the contact marks that arise from the furnace firing of Spanish-American potters.
_Color._--The colors of the ware and of the surface applications vary decidedly with the different groups. The prevailing colors of the paste may be defined as ranging from very light yellow grays to a variety of ochery yellows and very pale terra cotta reds. In one or two groups there is an approach to salmon and orange hues, and in another the color is black or dark brown. The color within the mass is in some cases darker than upon the surface, an effect produced in baking, and not through the use of different clays. The slip is usually lighter than the surface of the paste.
The colors used in finishing and decorating are confined to reds, blacks, and purple grays. In one large group of ware the appearance of the delineations is such as to lead to the conclusion that the principal pigment or fluid employed in delineation has totally disappeared, carrying with it all underlying colors not of unusual permanence or not worked down with the polishing implement. The Aztec and other races of tropical America used an argillaceous, white pigment in decorating their wares, which has in many cases partially or wholly disappeared, carrying away considerable portions of the colors over which it was laid, while in other cases, and also in this Chiriqui ware, there is no trace of color remaining and we are left to surmise that the brush used probably contained merely a "taking out" medium. Red was profusely used and varies from a light vermilion to a deep maroon. In certain classes of vessels it was hastily daubed on, covering prominent parts of the surface or forming irregular spots, streaks, and rude figures. In two groups of ware it was used as the chief delineating color. In some cases it was employed as a wash or slip and was worked down with the polishing stone, and in this condition it was treated as a ground upon which to execute designs in other colors. It is always a fast color and is probably of mineral character.
The blacks are of two kinds, which are used in distinct groups of ware: one, probably a mineral pigment, somewhat pasty when applied and quite permanent, is always used in delineating the ornamental figures; the other, possibly a vegetable tint, is always used as a ground upon which to execute designs in other mediums. It is confined to a single group of ware. It has in many cases disappeared entirely, and where remaining can be removed with ease by rubbing.
A light purple tint is tastefully and sparingly employed in one group of ware. Browns and other hues occur but rarely and in all cases result from alterations of other colors produced in firing. The color effects of this pottery, although evidently much modified by age, are sufficiently rich to be highly pleasing to the eye.