Chapter 8
sort of cult of life. Some of the more valorous spirits among them even tend to disparage art that life may be the more exalted. "Stop painting and sculping," they cry, "and go and see a football match." There you have life! Life is, undoubtedly, essential to art because life is the stuff of emotion, but some thinkers and artists have an oddly limited notion of what life is. It must, it seems, in the first place, be essentially physical. To sit and dream in your study is not to live. The reason of this odd limitation is easy to see. We all think life is especially the sort of life we are _not_ living ourselves. The hard-worked University professor thinks that "Life" is to be found in a French _café_; the polished London journalist looks for "Life" among the naked Polynesians. The cult of savagery, and even of simplicity, in every form, simply spells complex civilization and diminished physical vitality.
The Expressionist is, then, triumphantly right in the stress he lays on emotion; but he is not right if he limits life to certain of its more elementary manifestations; and still less is he right, to our minds, in making life and art in any sense coextensive. Art, as we have seen, sustains and invigorates life, but only does it by withdrawal from these very same elementary forms of life, by inhibiting certain sensuous reactions.
* * * * *
In another matter one section of Expressionists, the Futurists, are in the main right. The emotion to be expressed is the emotion of to-day, or still better to-morrow. The mimetic dance arose not only nor chiefly out of reflection on the past; but out of either immediate joy or imminent fear or insistent hope for the future. We are not prepared perhaps to go all lengths, to "burn all museums" because of their contagious corruption, though we might be prepared to "banish the nude for the space of ten years." If there is to be any true living art, it must arise, not from the contemplation of Greek statues, not from the revival of folk-songs, not even from the re-enacting of Greek plays, but from a keen emotion felt towards things and people living to-day, in modern conditions, including, among other and deeper forms of life, the haste and hurry of the modern street, the whirr of motor cars and aeroplanes.
There are artists alive to-day, strayed revellers, who wish themselves back in the Middle Ages, who long for the time when each man would have his house carved with a bit of lovely ornament, when every village church had its Madonna and Child, when, in a word, art and life and religion went hand in hand, not sharply sundered by castes and professions. But we may not put back the clock, and, if by differentiation we lose something, we gain much. The old choral dance on the orchestral floor was an undifferentiated thing, it had a beauty of its own; but by its differentiation, by the severance of artist and actors and spectators, we have gained--the drama. We may not cast reluctant eyes backwards; the world goes forward to new forms of life, and the Churches of to-day must and should become the Museums of to-morrow.
* * * * *
It is curious and instructive to note that Tolstoy's theory of Art, though not his practice, is essentially Expressive and even approaches the dogmas of the Futurist. Art is to him just the transmission of personal emotion to others. It may be bad emotion or it may be good emotion, emotion it must be. To take his simple and instructive instance: a boy goes out into a wood and meets a wolf, he is frightened, he comes back and tells the other villagers what he felt, how he went to the wood feeling happy and light-hearted and the wolf came, and what the wolf looked like, and how he began to be frightened. This is, according to Tolstoy, art. Even if the boy never saw a wolf at all, if he had really at another time been frightened, and if he was able to conjure up fear in himself and communicate it to others--that also would be art. The essential is, according to Tolstoy, that he should feel himself and so represent his feeling that he communicates it to others.[59] Art-schools, art-professionalism, art-criticism are all useless or worse than useless, because they cannot teach a man to feel. Only life can do that.
All art is, according to Tolstoy, good _quâ_ art that succeeds in transmitting emotion. But there is good emotion and bad emotion, and the only right material for art is good emotion, and the only good emotion, the only emotion worth expressing, is subsumed, according to Tolstoy, in the religion of the day. This is how he explains the constant affinity in nearly all ages of art and religion. Instead of regarding religion as an early phase of art, he proceeds to define religious perception as the highest social ideal of the moment, as that "understanding of the meaning of life which represents the highest level to which men of that society have attained, an understanding defining the highest good at which that society aims." "Religious perception in a society," he beautifully adds, "is like the direction of a flowing river. If the river flows at all, it must have a direction." Thus, religion, to Tolstoy, is not dogma, not petrifaction, it makes indeed dogma impossible. The religious perception of to-day flows, Tolstoi says, in the Christian channel towards the union of man in a common brotherhood. It is the business of the modern artist to feel and transmit emotion towards this unity of man.
Now it is not our purpose to examine whether Tolstoy's definition of religion is adequate or indeed illuminating. What we wish to note is that he grasps the truth that in art we must look and feel, and look and feel forward, not backward, if we would live. Art somehow, like language, is always feeling forward to newer, fuller, subtler emotions. She seems indeed in a way to feel ahead even of science; a poet will forecast dimly what a later discovery will confirm. Whether and how long old channels, old forms will suffice for the new spirit can never be foreseen.
* * * * *
We end with a point of great importance, though the doctrine we would emphasize may be to some a hard saying, even a stumbling-block. Art, as Tolstoy divined, is social, not individual. Art is, as we have seen, social in origin, it remains and must remain social in function. The dance from which the drama rose was a choral dance, the dance of a band, a group, a church, a community, what the Greeks called a _thiasos_. The word means a _band_ and a _thing of devotion_; and reverence, devotion, collective emotion, is social in its very being. That band was, to begin with, as we saw, the whole collection of initiated tribesmen, linked by a common name, rallying round a common symbol.
Even to-day, when individualism is rampant, art bears traces of its collective, social origin. We feel about it, as noted before, a certain "ought" which always spells social obligation. Moreover, whenever we have a new movement in art, it issues from a group, usually from a small professional coterie, but marked by strong social instincts, by a missionary spirit, by intemperate zeal in propaganda, by a tendency, always social, to crystallize conviction into dogma. We can scarcely, unless we are as high-hearted as Tolstoy, hope now-a-days for an art that shall be world-wide. The tribe is extinct, the family in its old rigid form moribund, the social groups we now look to as centres of emotion are the groups of industry, of professionalism and of sheer mutual attraction. Small and strange though such groups may appear, they are real social factors.
Now this social, collective element in art is too apt to be forgotten. When an artist claims that expression is the aim of art he is too apt to mean self-expression only--utterance of individual emotion. Utterance of individual emotion is very closely neighboured by, is almost identical with, self-enhancement. What should be a generous, and in part altruistic, exaltation becomes mere _megalomania_. This egotism is, of course, a danger inherent in all art. The suspension of motor-reactions to the practical world isolates the artist, cuts him off from his fellow-men, makes him in a sense an egotist. Art, said Zola, is "the world seen through a temperament." But this suspension is, not that he should turn inward to feed on his own vitals, but rather to free him for contemplation. All great art releases from self.
* * * * *
The young are often temporary artists: art, being based on life, calls for a strong vitality. The young are also self-centred and seek self-enhancement. This need of self-expression is a sort of artistic impulse. The young are, partly from sheer immaturity, still more through a foolish convention, shut out from real life; they are secluded, forced to become in a sense artists, or, if they have not the power for that, at least self-aggrandizers. They write lyric poems, they love masquerading, they focus life on to themselves in a way which, later on, life itself makes impossible. This pseudo-art, this self-aggrandizement usually dies a natural death before the age of thirty. If it live on, one remedy is, of course, the scientific attitude; that attitude which is bent on considering and discovering the relations of things among themselves, not their personal relation to us. The study of science is a priceless discipline in self-abnegation, but only in negation; it looses us from self, it does not link us to others. The real and natural remedy for the egotism of youth is Life, not necessarily the haunting of _cafés_, or even the watching of football matches, but strenuous activity in the simplest human relations of daily happenings. "Whatsoever thy hand findeth to do, do it with thy might."
* * * * *
There is always apt to be some discord between the artist and the large practical world in which he lives, but those ages are happiest in which the discord is least. The nineteenth century, amid its splendid achievements in science and industry, in government and learning, and above all in humanity, illustrates this conflict in an interesting way. To literature, an art which can explain itself, the great public world lent on the whole a reverent and intelligent ear. Its great prose writers were at peace with their audience and were inspired by great public interests. Some of the greatest, for example Tolstoy, produced their finest work on widely human subjects, and numbered their readers and admirers probably by the million. Writers like Dickens, Thackeray, Kingsley, Mill, and Carlyle, even poets like Tennyson and Browning, were full of great public interests and causes, and, in different degrees and at different stages of their lives, were thoroughly and immensely popular. On the other hand, one can find, at the beginning of the period, figures like Blake and Shelley, and all through it a number of painters--the pre-Raphaelites, the Impressionists--walking like aliens in a Philistine world. Even great figures like Burne-Jones and Whistler were for the greater part of their lives unrecognized or mocked at. Millais reached the attention of the world, but was thought by the stricter fraternity to have in some sense or other sold his soul and committed the great sin of considering the bourgeois. The bourgeois should be despised not partially but completely. His life, his interests, his code of ethics and conduct must all be matters of entire indifference or amused contempt, to the true artist who intends to do his own true work and call his soul his own.
At a certain moment, during the eighties and nineties, it looked as if these doctrines were generally accepted, and the divorce between art and the community had become permanent. But it seems as if this attitude, which coincided with a period of reaction in political matters and a recrudescence of a belief in force and on unreasoned authority, is already passing away. There are not wanting signs that art, both in painting and sculpture, and in poetry and novel-writing, is beginning again to realize its social function, beginning to be impatient of mere individual emotion, beginning to aim at something bigger, more bound up with a feeling towards and for the common weal.
Take work like that of Mr. Galsworthy or Mr. Masefield or Mr. Arnold Bennett. Without appraising its merits or demerits we cannot but note that the social sense is always there, whether it be of a class or of a whole community. In a play like _Justice_ the writer does not "express" himself, he does not even merely show the pathos of a single human being's destiny, he sets before us a much bigger thing--man tragically caught and torn in the iron hands of a man-made machine, Society itself. Incarnate Law is the protagonist, and, as it happens, the villain of the piece. It is a fragment of _Les Misérables_ over again, in a severer and more restrained technique. An art like this starts, no doubt, from emotion towards personal happenings--there is nothing else from which it can start; but, even as it sets sail for wider seas, it is loosed from personal moorings.
Science has given us back something strangely like a World-Soul, and art is beginning to feel she must utter our emotion towards it. Such art is exposed to an inherent and imminent peril. Its very bigness and newness tends to set up fresh and powerful reactions. Unless, in the process of creation, these can be inhibited, the artist will be lost in the reformer, and the play or the novel turn tract. This does not mean that the artist, if he is strong enough, may not be reformer too, only not at the moment of creation.
The art of Mr. Arnold Bennett gets its bigness, its collectivity, in part--from extension over time. Far from seeking after beauty, he almost goes out to embrace ugliness. He does not spare us even dullness, that we may get a sense of the long, waste spaces of life, their dreary reality. We are keenly interested in the loves of hero and heroine, but all the time something much bigger is going on, generation after generation rolls by in ceaseless panorama; it is the life not of Edwin and Hilda, it is the life of the Five Towns. After a vision so big, to come back to the ordinary individualistic love-story is like looking through the wrong end of a telescope.
Art of high quality and calibre is seldom obscure. The great popular writers of the nineteenth century--Dickens, Thackeray, Tennyson, Tolstoy--wrote so that all could understand. A really big artist has something important to say, something vast to show, something that moves him and presses on him; and he will say it simply because he must get it said. He will trick it out with no devices, most of all with no obscurities. It has vexed and torn him enough while it was pushing its way to be born. He has no peace till it is said, and said as clearly as he may. He says it, not consciously for the sake of others, but for himself, to ease him from the burden of big thought. Moreover, art, whose business is to transmit emotion, should need no commentary. Art comes out of _theoria_, contemplation, steady looking at, but never out of _theory_. Theory can neither engender nor finally support it. An exhibition of pictures with an explanatory catalogue, scientifically interesting though it may be, stands, in a sense, self-condemned.
We must, however, remember that all art is not of the whole community. There are small groups feeling their own small but still collective emotion, fashioning their own language, obscure sometimes to all but themselves. They are right so to fashion it, but, if they appeal to a wider world, they must strive to speak in the vulgar tongue, understanded of the people.
* * * * *
It is, indeed, a hopeful sign of the times, a mark of the revival of social as contrasted with merely individualistic instincts that a younger generation of poets, at least in France, tend to form themselves into small groups, held together not merely by eccentricities of language or garb, but by some deep inner conviction strongly held in common. Such a unity of spirit is seen in the works of the latter group of thinkers and writers known as _Unanimists_. They tried and failed to found a community. Their doctrine, if doctrine convictions so fluid can be called, is strangely like the old group-religion of the common dance, only more articulate. Of the Unanimist it might truly be said, "_il buvait l'indistinction_." To him the harsh old Roman mandate _Divide et impera_, "Divide men that you may rule them," spells death. His dream is not of empire and personal property but of the realization of life, common to all. To this school the great reality is the social group, whatever form it take, family, village or town. Their only dogma is the unity and immeasurable sanctity of life. In practice they are Christian, yet wholly free from the asceticism of modern Christianity. Their attitude in art is as remote as possible from, it is indeed the very antithesis to, the æsthetic exclusiveness of the close of last century. Like St. Peter, the Unanimists have seen a sheet let down and heard a voice from heaven saying: "Call thou nothing common nor unclean."
Above all, the Unanimist remembers and realizes afresh the old truth that "no man liveth unto himself." According to the Expressionist's creed, as we have seen, the end of art is to utter and communicate emotion. The fullest and finest emotions are those one human being feels towards another. Every sympathy is an enrichment of life, every antipathy a negation. It follows then, that, for the Unanimist, Love is the fulfilling of his Law.
It is a beautiful and life-giving faith, felt and with a perfect sincerity expressed towards all nature by the Indian poet Tagore, and towards humanity especially by M. Vildrac in his _Book of Love_ ("Livre d'Amour"). He tells us in his "Commentary" how to-day the poet, sitting at home with pen and paper before him, feels that he is pent in, stifled by himself. He had been about to re-tell the old, old story of himself, to set himself once more on the stage of his poem--the same old dusty self tricked out, costumed anew. Suddenly he knows the figure to be tawdry and shameful. He is hot all over when he looks at it; he must out into the air, into the street, out of the stuffy museum where so long he has stirred the dead egotist ashes, out into the bigger life, the life of his fellows; he must live, with them, by them, in them.
"I am weary of deeds done inside myself, I am weary of voyages inside myself, And of heroism wrought by strokes of the pen, And of a beauty made up of formulæ.
"I am ashamed of lying to my work, Of my work lying to my life, And of being able to content myself, By burning sweet spices, With the mouldering smell that is master here."
Again, in "The Conquerors," the poet dreams of the Victorious One who has no army, the Knight who rides afoot, the Crusader without breviary or scrip, the Pilgrim of Love who, by the shining in his eyes, draws all men to him, and they in turn draw other men until, at last:
"The time came in the land, The time of the Great Conquest, When the people with this desire Left the threshold of their door To go forth towards one another.
"And the time came in the land When to fill all its story There was nothing but songs in unison, _One round danced about the houses_, One battle and one victory."
And so our tale ends where it began, with the Choral Dance.
FOOTNOTES:
[54] _Ethics_, X, 4.
[55] H. Bergson, _Life and Consciousness_, Huxley Lecture, May 29, 1911.
[56] Religion is here used as meaning the worship of some form of god, as the practical counterpart of theology.
[57] Mr. D.S. MacColl.
[58] D.S. MacColl, _Nineteenth Century Art_, p. 21. (1902.)
[59] It is interesting to find, since the above was written, that the Confession of Faith published in the catalogue of the Second Post-Impressionist Exhibition (1912, p. 21) reproduces, consciously or unconsciously, Tolstoy's view: _We have ceased to ask, "What does this picture represent?" and ask instead, "What does it make us feel?"_
BIBLIOGRAPHY
For Ancient and Primitive Ritual the best general book of reference is:
FRAZER, J.G. _The Golden Bough_, 3rd edition, 1911, from which most of the instances in the present manual are taken. Part IV of _The Golden Bough_, i.e. the section dealing with _Adonis, Attis, and Osiris_, should especially be consulted.
Also an earlier, epoch-making book:
ROBERTSON SMITH, W. _Lectures on the Religion of the Semites_, 1889 [3rd edition, 1927]. For certain fundamental ritual notions, _e.g._ sacrifice, holiness, etc.
[For Egyptian and Babylonian ritual: _Myth and Ritual_, edited by S.H. HOOKE, 1933.]
For the Greek Drama, as arising out of the ritual dance: Professor GILBERT MURRAY'S _Excursus on the Ritual Forms preserved in Greek Tragedy_ in J.E. HARRISON'S _Themis_, 1912, and pp. 327-40 in the same book; and for the religion of Dionysos and the drama, J.E. HARRISON'S _Prolegomena_, 1907, Chapters VIII and X. For the fusion of the ritual dance and hero-worship, see W. LEAF, _Homer and History_, 1915, Chapter VII. For a quite different view of drama as arising wholly from the worship of the dead, see Professor W. RIDGEWAY, _The Origin of Tragedy_, 1910. An important discussion of the relation of _tragedy_ to the winter festival of the _Lenaia_ appears in A.B. COOK'S _Zeus_, vol. i, sec. 6 (xxi) [1914].
[More recent works on Greek drama: A.W. PICKARD-CAMBRIDGE, _Dithyramb_, _Tragedy and Comedy_, 1927; G. THOMSON, _Aeschylus and Athens_, 1941.]
For Primitive Art:
HIRN, Y. _The Origins of Art_, 1900. The main theory of the book the present writer believes to be inadequate, but it contains an excellent collection of facts relating to Art, Magic, Art and Work, Mimetic Dances, etc., and much valuable discussion of principles.
GROSSE, E. _The Beginnings of Art_, 1897, in the Chicago Anthropological Series. Valuable for its full illustrations of primitive art, as well as for text.
[BOAS, F., _Primitive Art_, 1927.]
For the Theory of Art:
TOLSTOY, L. _What is Art?_ Translated by Aylmer Maude, in the Scott Library.
FRY, ROGER E. _An Essay in Æsthetics_, in the _New Quarterly_, April 1909, p. 174.
This is the best general statement of the function of Art known to me. It should be read in connection with Mr. Bullough's article, quoted on p. 129, which gives the psychological basis of a similar view of the nature of art. My own theory was formulated independently, in relation to the development of the Greek theatre, but I am very glad to find that it is in substantial agreement with those of two such distinguished authorities on æsthetics. For my later conclusions on art, see _Alpha and Omega_, 1915, pp. 208-220.
[CAUDWELL, C., _Illusion and Reality_, 1937.]
For more advanced students:
DUSSAUZE, HENRI. _Les Règles esthétiques et les lois du sentiment_, 1911.
MÜLLER-FREIENFELS, R. _Psychologie der Kunst_, 1912.
INDEX
Abstraction, 224
Adonis, rites of, 19, 20, 54-56 ----, gardens of, 149 ----, as tree spirit, 149
Æschylus, 47
Aesthete, not artist, 214-215
Agon, 15
Anagnorisis, or recognition, 15
Anthesteria, spring festival of, 147-149
Apollo Belvedere, 171
Aristotle on art, 198
Art and beauty, 213 ---- and imitation, 230 ---- and morality, 215 ---- and nature, 198 ---- and religion, 225 ----, emotional factor in, 26 ----, social elements in, 241-248
Ascension festival, 69
Bear, Aino festival, 92-99
Beast dances, 45, 46
Beauty and art, 211
Bergson on art, 134
Birth, rites of new, 104-113
Bouphonia, 91-92
Bull-driving in spring, 85 ----, festival at Magnesia, 87
Cat's-cradle, as magical charm, 66
Censor, function of, 216
Charila, spring festival, 80
Chorus in Greek drama, 121-128
Dancing, a work, 30-31 ----, magical, 31-35 ----, commemorative, 44
Daphnephoros, 186
Death and winter, 67-72
Dikè as _way of life_, 116
Dionysis, 12, 150
Dionysis as Holy Child, 103 ---- as tree god, 102 ---- as young man, 113-115
Dithyramb, 75-89
Drama and Dromenon, 35-38
Easter, in Modern Greece, 73
Eiresione, 114
Epheboi, Athenian, 12
Euchè, meaning of, 25
Expressionists, 232
Futurists, 232
Ghosts as fertilizers, 149
Homer, influence on drama, 145-166
Horæ or seasons, 116
Idol and ideal, 227
Impressionism, 231
Imitation, 21-23 ----, ceremonies in Australia, 64
Individualism, 241
Initiation ceremonies, 64, 106-113
Jack-in-the-Green, 60, 187, 190
Kangaroos, dance of, 46
Landscape, art of, 199-201
Maeterlinck, 200
May-day at Cambridge, 57
May, queen of the, 57-61 ----, king of the, 193
Mime, meaning of, 47
Mimesis, 43-47
Music, function of, 233
New birth, 106-113
Olympian gods, 202
Orchestra, meaning of, 123-127
Osiris, rites of, 15-23, 51
Ox-hunger, 81
Panathenaia, 178
Panspermia, 148
Parthenon frieze, 176
Peisistratos, 146
Peplos of Athena, 180
Pericles on religion, 178
Personification and conception, 70-73
Plato on art, 21-23
Pleasure not joy, 213
Post-impressionists, 238
Prayer discs, 24
Presentation, meaning of, 53
Psychical distance, 129-134
Representation, 34-41
Resurrection, rites of, 100
Rites, periodicity of, 52
Ritual forms in drama, 188-189
Santayana on art, 220
Semelè, bringing up of, 81
Spring song at Saffron Walden, 59 ---- at Athens, 77
Stage or scene, 142-145
Summer, bringing in of, 67-71
Tammuz, rites of, 18-20
Tělětē, _rite of growing up_, 112
Theatre, 10-13, 136
Themis, as ritual custom, 117
Theoria and theory, 248
Threshing-floor at dancing-place, 124
Tolstoy on art, 132, 238-241
Totemism and beast dances, 46, 47
Tragedy, ritual forms in, 119-122 ----, origin of, 76
Tug of war, among Esquimaux, 62
Unanimism, 249-252
Vegetation spirit, 72
Winter, carrying out of, 68-72
Wool, sacred, 12
World-soul, 246
Wreaths, festival of, 189 ----, at Greek weddings, 190
Zola on art, 242
* * * * *
Printed in Great Britain by The Camelot Press Ltd., London and Southampton
End of Project Gutenberg's Ancient Art and Ritual, by Jane Ellen Harrison