d. The side-counter-timbers, which terminate the ship abaft within the

quarter gallery.

e e. Two pieces of dead wood, one afore, and another abaft, fayed on the keel.

In vessels of war, the general dimensions are established by authority of officers appointed by the government to superintend the building of ships. In the merchants service, the extreme breadth, length of the keel, depth in the hold, height between-decks and in the waste, are agreed on by contract; and from these dimensions the shipwright is to form a draught suitable to the trade for which the ship is designed.

In projecting the draught of a vessel of war, the first article to be considered is her length. As all ships are much longer above than below, it is also necessary to distinguish the precise part of her height from which her length is taken: this is usually the lower gun-deck, or the load water-line. It has been already observed, that water-lines are described longitudinally on a ship’s bottom by the surface of the water in which she floats, and that the line which determines her depth under the water is usually termed the load-water-line. In this draught it will be particularly necessary to leave sufficient distance between the ports.

The next object is to establish the breadth by the midship-beam. Although there is great difference of opinion about proportioning the breadth to the length, yet it is most usual to conform to the dimensions of ships of the same rate. After the dimensions of the breadth and length are determined, the depth of the hold must be fixed, which is generally half the breadth: but the form of the body should be considered on this occasion; for a flat floor will require less depth in the hold than a sharp one. The distance between the decks must also be settled.

We may then proceed to fix the length of the keel, by which we shall be enabled to judge of the rake of the stem and stern-post. The rake is known to be the projection of the ship at the height of the stem and stern-post, beyond the ends of the keel afore and abaft; or the angle by which the length is increased as the fabric rises. To these we may also add the height of the stem and wing transom.

After these dimensions are settled, the timbers may be considered which form the sides of the ship. A frame of timbers, which appears to be one continued piece, is composed of one floor-timber, U, whose arms branch outward to both sides of the ship; (See plate I. PIECES _of the_ HULL) two or three futtocks V V, and a top-timber, W. The futtocks are connected to the upper arms of the floor-timbers on each side of the ship, and serve to prolong the timber in a vertical direction: and the top-timbers are placed at the upper part of the futtocks for the same purpose. All these being united, and secured by cross-bars, form a circular enclosure, which is called a frame of timbers, _couple d’un vaisseau_. And as a ship is much broader at the middle than at the extremities, the arms of the floor-timber will form a very obtuse angle at the extreme breadth; but this angle decreases in proportion to the distance of the timbers from the midship-frame, so that the foremost and aftmost ones will form a very acute angle. Floor-timbers of the latter sort are usually called crutches.

Shipwrights differ extremely in determining the station of the midship-frame; some placing it at the middle of the ship’s length, and others further forward. They who place it before the middle, alledge, that if a ship is full forward, she will meet with no resistance after she has opened a column of water; and that the water so displaced will easily unite abaft, and by that means force the ship forward; besides having more power on the rudder, in proportion to its distance from the center of gravity: this also comes nearer the form of fishes, which should seem the most advantageous for dividing the fluid.

When the rising of the midship-floor-timber is decided, we may then proceed to describe the rising-line of the floor, on the stern-post abaft, and on the stem afore.

The height of the lower-deck is the next thing to be considered: it is determined in the middle by the depth of the hold; and some builders make it no higher than the stem; but they raise it abaft as much above its height in the middle, as the load-water-mark, or draught of water abaft, exceeds that afore. With regard to the height between decks, it is altogether arbitrary, and must be determined by the rate of the ship, and the service she is designed for.

It is also necessary to remember the sheer of the wales, and to give them a proper _hanging_; because the beauty and stateliness of a ship greatly depend upon their figure and curve, which, if properly drawn, will, make her appear airy and graceful on the water.

We come now to consider the upper-works, and all that is above water, called the dead-work: and here the ship must be narrower, so that all the weight lying above the load-water-line will thereby be brought nearer the middle of the breadth, and of course the ship will be less strained by the working of her guns, &c. But although some advantages are acquired by diminishing the breadth above water, we must be careful not to narrow her too much; as there must be sufficient room left on the upper-deck for the guns to recoil. The security of the masts should likewise be remembered, which requires sufficient breadth to spread the shrouds. A deficiency of this sort may indeed be in some measure supplied by enlarging the breadth of the channels.

With regard to the qualities required in the construction of a ship, to fit her for the various purposes of navigation, the reader is referred to the article BOTTOM.

We shall now proceed to explain the sheer draught, or plane of _elevation_, of a sixty gun ship; wherein we have been attentive to make the same letters refer to the same objects, as in the explanation of the PIECES, as above; at least when the same objects are in both figures; a conduct we shall invariably pursue throughout this work, although it seems to have been forgot by our predecessors. Thus in all the plates of ship-building, the keel, whether separate or joined, is represented by A, the stern-post by B, the stem by C, the beams by D; unless where those objects do not _all_ appear, and then something else is placed instead thereof. Thus in plate III. of the deck, where the keel cannot be seen, the main hatchway is represented by A, as not being inserted in any figure wherein the keel appears.

A A. The keel, whose upper edge is prolonged by the dotted line p q, upon the extremities of which are erected perpendiculars which determine the height of the wing transom, K, and length of the gun-deck, K C.

A B. The stern-post.

A C. The stem.

D D. The quarter-gallery, with its windows.

E F. The quarter-pieces, which limit the stern on each side.

F. The taffarel, or upper piece of the stern.

F G. Profile of the stern, with its galleries.

H. The gun ports.

I. The channels, with their dead-eyes and chain-plates.

K. The wing-transom.

K G. The counter.

L B. The deck-transom.

M N O. The first, second, and third transoms, of which O K is the third or lowest.

_m_ O L P. The direction of the fashion-piece, having its breadth canted aft towards the stern.

Q R. The main skeeds, for hoisting in the boats clear of the ship’s side. L Q Z. The main wale, with its sheer afore and abaft.

D R X. The channel wales, parallel to the main wale.

S U S. The sheer rail, parallel to the wales.

T _t_. The rudder.

A t F. The rake of the stern.

V W V. The waist-rail.

P _i i_. The drift-rails abaft; and _i_ a, the drift-rails forward.

T U C. The water-line.

X X. The rails of the head.

Y. The knee of the head, or cutwater.

Z Z. The cheeks of the head.

a a. The cat-head.

M ⊕ C. The rising line of the floor.

_k_ _u_ C. The cutting-down line, which limits the thickness of all the floor-timbers, and likewise the height of the dead-wood afore and abaft.

⊕ _u_ U W. The midship-frame.

_a_, _b_, _c_, _d_, _e_, _f_, _g_, _h_. The frames or timbers in the fore-body of the ship, i. e. before the midship frame.

1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9. The timbers in the after-body, or which are erected abaft the midship-frame.

As the eye of a spectator is supposed in this projection to view the ship’s side in a line perpendicular to the plane of elevation, it is evident that the convexity will vanish, like that of a cylinder or globe, when viewed at a considerable distance; and that the frames will consequently be represented by strait lines, except the fashion-piece abaft and the knuckle-timber forward.

It has been already observed, that the plane of projection may be defined a vertical delineation of the curves of the timbers upon the plane of the midship-frame, which is perpendicular to that of the elevation. It is necessary to observe here, that the various methods by which these curves are described, are equally mechanical and arbitrary. In the latter sense, they are calculated to make a ship fuller or narrower according to the service for which she is designed, and in the former they are drawn according to those rules which the artist has been implicitly taught, to follow, or which his fancy or judgment has esteemed the most accurate and convenient. They are generally composed of several arches of a circle, reconciled together by moulds framed for that purpose. The radii of those arches therefore are of different lengths, according to the breadth of the ship in the place where such arches are swept; and they are expressed on the plane of projection either by horizontal or perpendicular lines; the radii of the breadth sweeps being always in the former, and the radii of the floor sweeps in the latter direction. These two arches are joined by a third, which coincides with both, without intersecting either. The curve of the top-timber is either formed by a mould which corresponds to the arch of the breadth-sweep, or by another sweep, whose center and radius are without the plane of projection. The breadth of the ship at every top-timber is limited by an horizontal line drawn on the floor-plane, called the half-breadth of the top-timbers. The extreme breadth is also determined by another horizontal line on the floor-plane; and the lines of half-breadth are thus mutually transferable, from the projection and floor-planes, to each other.

The necessary data by which the curves of the timbers are delineated then are, the perpendicular height from the keel, the main or principal breadth, and the top-timber breadth: for as a ship is much broader near the middle of her length than towards the ends, so she is broader in the middle of her height than above and below; and this latter difference of breadth is continued throughout every point of her length. The main breadth of each frame of timbers is therefore the ship’s breadth nearly in the middle of her height in that part: and the top-timber breadth is the line of her breadth near the upper ends of each timber. It has been already observed, that as both sides of a ship are alike, the artificers only draw one side, from which both sides of the ship are built: therefore the timbers abaft the midship frame are exhibited on one side of the plane of projection, and the timbers before it on the other.

Plane of PROJECTION, Plate I.

A. The keel.

B C. The line which expresses the upper-edge of the keel, from which the height of each timber, and height of its different breadths are measured.

B D and C E, perpendiculars raised on the line B C, to limit the ship’s extreme breadth and height amid-ships; or, in other words, to limit the breadth and height of the midship-frame.

A F. A perpendicular erected from the middle of the keel to bisect the line of the ship’s breadth in two equal parts.

F * 9. The half-breadth line of the aftmost top-timber; being the uppermost horizontal line in this figure.

Note. The seven lines parallel to, and immediately under this, on the right side of the line A F, are all top-timber half-breadths, abaft the midship-frame; the lowest of which coincides with the horizontal line D E.

The parallel horizontal lines nearly opposite to these, on the left side of the line A F, represent the top-timber half-breadths in the fore-body, or the half-breadths of the top-timbers before the midship-frame.

G, H, I, Q, R, S, T. The radii of the breadth-sweeps abaft the midship-frame; those of the breadth-sweeps in the fore-body, or before the midship-frame, are directly opposite on the right side.

⊕ A ⊕. The midship-frame, from the extreme breadth downwards.

1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9. The out-lines of timbers abaft the midship-frame, in different parts of their height.

_a_, _b_, _c_, _d_, _e_, _f_, _g_, _h_. The outlines of the timbers before the midship-frame, in different parts of their height, h being the foremost, or knucke-timber.

K _i_. The wing-transom, whose ends rest upon the fashion-piece.

L. The deck-transom, parallel to, and under the wing-transom.

M N O. The lower-transoms, of which O k is the third and lowest,

_m_ _k_ P. The dotted line, which expresses the figure of the fashion-piece, without being canted aft.

P. The upper-part, or top-timber of the fashion-piece.

_n_, _o_, _p_, _q_, _r_, _s_. The radii of the floor-sweeps, abaft the midship-frame: those before the midship-frame are on the opposite side of the line A F, to which they are all parallel.

1st R^d. 2d R^d. 3d R^d. 4th R^d. The diagonal ribbands abaft the midships.

_t_, _u_, _x_, _y_. The same ribbands expressed in the fore-body.

It has been remarked above, that the horizontal plane is composed of water-lines and ribbands; it also contains the main and top-timber breadth-lines, or the longitudinal lines by which the main-breadth and top-timber-breadth are limited in every point of the ship’s length. The horizontal curve of the transoms and harpins are also represented therein, together with the planes of the principal timbers; the cant of the fashion-piece, the length of the rake afore and abaft, the projection of the cat-heads, and the curve of the upper-rail of the head, to which curves of the lower ones are usually parallel.

HORIZONTAL PLANE. Plate I.

B A C. The line of the ship’s length, passing through the middle of the stem and stern-post.

B. The upper-end of the stern-post.

C. The upper-end of the stem.

B F. The length of the rake abaft.

D W X. The top-timber-breadth-line, or the line which limits the breadth of each top-timber.

D F. The breadth of the aftmost timber at the taffarel.

B K. The wing-transom.

B L P. The horizontal curve of the deck-transom.

M M. The horizontal curve, or _round-aft_, of the first transom.

M N. The horizontal curve of the second transom: it is prolonged into a water-line, N 8 7.

_k_ O. The horizontal curve of the third transom, which is also prolonged into another water-line, O, _n_, U, _p_, Q.

_m_ O P. The plane of the fashion-piece, as canted aft.

⊕ W U. The plane of the midship-frame.

_a_, _b_, _c_, _d_, _e_, _f_, _h_. The planes of the timbers before the midship-frame.

1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9. The planes of the timbers abaft the midship-frame.

X X. The figure of the upper-rail of the head.

C Y. The projection of the knee of the head.

The Third horizontal ribband, is marked on the plate.

a a. The projection of the cat-head.

* * * * *

Thus we have endeavoured briefly to explain the nature and uses of the principal draughts used in the construction of a ship, which reciprocally correspond with each other in the dimensions of length, breadth, and depth. Thus the plane of elevation is exactly of the same length with the horizontal or floor-plane. The several breadths of the timbers in the floor-plane and that of the projection are mutually transferable; and the real height of the timbers in the projection, exactly conforms to their height in the elevation. Thus let it be required to transfer the height of the wing-transom from the elevation to the projection:

Extend the compasses from the point K, in the elevation, down to the dotted line prolonged from the upper-edge of the keel, and setting the other foot in the point _p_, then shall the line K _p_ be the perpendicular height of the wing transom: transfer this from the middle of the line B A C, in the projection, to the point K in the perpendicular A F, then will A K be the height of the wing-transom in the plane of projection: and thus the height of all the transoms may be laid from the former upon the latter.

Again, let it be required to transfer the main-breadth of the midship-frame from the projection to the horizontal plane: Set one foot of the compasses in the point ⊕ on the perpendicular C E, and extend the other along the main-breadth-sweep ⊕ G, till it touches the perpendicular A F parallel to C E: lay this distance upon the horizontal plane from the point u in the line of the ship’s length, B A C, along the plane of the midship-frame to the point ⊕; so shall the line ⊕ W U be the breadth of the midship-frame on the horizontal plane.

Thus also the top-timber-breadth, or the distance of each top-timber from the middle of the ship’s breadth, may be in the same manner transferred, by extending the compasses from the line B A C, in the horizontal plane, to the top-timber breadth-line, upon any particular timber, as 1, 2, 3, &c. which will give its proper dimensions thereon.

In the same manner the breadths of all the timbers may be laid from the projection to the horizontal plane, and _vice versa_, from that to the projection. Thus the height of each timber may also be transferred from the elevation to the projection, &c.

The principal utility of these draughts therefore is to exhibit the various curves of the ship’s body, and of the pieces of which it is framed, in different points of view, which are either transverse or longitudinal, and will accordingly present them in very different directions. Thus the horizontal curves of the transoms and water-lines are represented on the floor-plane, all of which are nearly streight lines in the elevation and projection; and thus the vertical curves of the timbers are all exhibited on the projection, although they appear as streight lines in the elevation and floor plane.

Before this article is closed, it may be necessary to remark, that the various pieces represented in plate I. as well as the lines in the draughts which have not been already defined, are copiously explained in their proper places; as it would have been contrary to the plan of this work to have given a more enlarged description of them here.

That the reader, however, might be better enabled to comprehend the scope of this article, it was judged necessary to give a general sketch of naval architecture itself; to collect into one point of view the most material draughts by which a ship is constructed, and to describe, as concisely as possible, the several parts of which they are composed.

The principal parts of a ship also, which are here reduced into a narrow compass, will be represented at large in different places of this work, to illustrate those explanations whither it may be necessary to refer, in order to understand the subject more clearly. Thus the stern, the quarter, the midship-frame, the bow and head, of a ship of 74 guns, are exhibited on a scale of ¼ of an inch to a foot; by which all the subordinate parts may be distinctly viewed, and their combination and arrangement sufficiently understood.

ARMED-SHIP, _vaisseau armé en guerre_, a vessel occasionally taken into the service of the government in time of war, and employed to guard some particular coast, or attend on a fleet. She is therefore armed and equipped in all respects like a ship of war, and commanded by an officer of the navy, who has the rank of master and commander. All ships of this sort are upon the establishment of the king’s sloops, having a lieutenant, master, purser, surgeon, &c.

ASHORE, (from _a_ and _shore_) on the shore, or land, as opposed to aboard.

A ship is said to be ASHORE, _echoué_, when she has run upon the ground, or on the sea-coast, either by design or accident.

ASTERN, _au derriere_, (from _a_ and _steorn_, Sax.) any distance behind a ship, as opposed to _a-head_, which is before her. Thus, when south is _a-head_, or on the line to which the stem is directed, north will be _astern_.

ATHWART, _par le travers_, (from _a_ and _twert_, Dan. transverse) when used in navigation, implies across the line of the course; as, we discovered a fleet at day-break standing _athwart_ us, i. e. steering across our way.

ATHWART-HAUSE, the situation of a ship when she is driven by the wind, tide, or other accident, across the fore-part of another. This phrase is equally applied when the ships bear against each other, or when they are at a small distance; the transverse position of the former to the latter being principally understood.

ATHWART _the fore-foot_, a phrase employed to denote the flight of a cannon-ball, as fired from one ship across the line of another’s course, to intercept the latter, and compel her to shorten sail till the former approaches near enough to examine her. The _fore-foot_ is the lower part of the stem; so that the shot flying across it is said to be fired _athwart the fore-foot_.

ATHWART-SHIPS, reaching across the ship, from one side to the other.

ATRIP (_trepor_, Fr. _trippen_, Dutch) is applied differently to the anchor and the sails. The anchor is _atrip_, _derangée_, when it is drawn out of the ground in a perpendicular direction, either by the cable or buoy-rope. The top-sails are said to be _atrip_, when they are hoisted up to the mast-head, or to their utmost extent.

AVERAGE, in commerce _avarie_, (_averagium_, Lat.) the accidents and misfortunes which happen to ships and their cargoes, from the time of their loading and sailing, till their return and unlading. It is divided into three kinds. 1. The simple or particular _average_, which consists in the extraordinary expences incurred for the ship alone, or for the merchandise alone; such is the loss of anchors, masts, and rigging, occasioned by the common accidents at sea; the damages which happen to merchandises by storms, capture, shipwreck, wet, or rotting; all which must be borne and paid by the thing that suffered the damage. 2. The large and common average, being those expences incurred, and damages sustained, for the common good and security, both of the merchandise and vessels, consequently to be borne by the ship and cargo, and to be regulated upon the whole. Of this number are the goods or money given for the ransom of the ship and cargo; things thrown overboard for the safety of the ship; the expences of unlading, or entering into a river or harbour, and the provisions and hire of the sailors when the ship is put under embargo. 3. The small averages, which are expences for towing and piloting the ship out of, or into harbours, creeks, or rivers; one third of which must be charged to the ship, and two thirds to the cargo.

AVERAGE is more particularly used for a certain contribution that merchants make proportionably towards their losses. It also signifies a small duty which the merchants, who send goods in another man’s ship, pay to the master, for his care of them, over and above the freight. Hence it is expressed in the bills of lading, paying so much freight for the said goods, with damage and average accustomed.

AWEIGH, _a quitté_ (of _a_ and _weigh_) the state of the anchor when it is drawn out of the ground in a perpendicular direction, by the application of mechanical powers, as a capstern or windlass, to the cable within the ship; so that aweigh is synonimous to _atrip_.

AWNING, _tendelet_, (from _aulne_, Fr.) a canopy of canvass extending over the decks of a ship in hot weather, for the convenience of the officers and crew, and to preserve the decks from being cracked or split, _ebaroui_, by the heat of the sun: The awning is supported by a range of light posts, called stanchions, which are erected along the ship’s side on the right and left; it is also suspended in the middle by a complication of small cords, called a crowfoot. See the article CROWFOOT.

AZIMUTH-COMPASS, an instrument employed to discover the magnetical azimuth or amplitude of any heavenly object. This operation is performed at sea, to find the exact variation of the magnetical needle. The compass will be described in its proper place: it is, however, necessary here to explain the additional contrivance by which it is fitted to take the magnetical azimuth, or amplitude of the sun or stars, or the bearings of head-lands, ships, and other objects at a distance.

The brass edge, originally designed to support the card, and throw the weight thereof as near the circumference as possible, is itself divided into degrees and halves; which may be easily estimated into smaller parts if necessary. The divisions are determined by means of a cat-gut line stretched perpendicularly with the box, as near the brass edge as may be, that the parallax arising from a different position of the observer may be as little as possible.

There is also added an index at the top of the inner-box, which may be fixed on or taken off at pleasure, and serves for all altitudes of the object. It consists of a bar, equal in length to the diameter of the inner-box, each end being furnished with a perpendicular stile, with a slit parallel to the sides thereof; one of the slits is narrow, to which the eye is applied, and the other is wider, with a small cat-gut stretched up the middle of it, and from thence continued horizontally from the top of one stile to the top of the other. There is also a line drawn along the upper surface of the bar. These four, viz. the narrow slit, the horizontal cat-gut thread, the perpendicular one, and the line on the bar, are in the same plane, which disposes itself perpendicularly to the horizon when the inner-box is at rest and hangs free. This index does not move round, but is always placed on, so as to answer the same side of the box.

The sun’s azimuth is known to be an angle contained between the meridian and the center of the sun. When this is required, and his rays are strong enough to cast a shadow, the box is turned about till the shadow of the horizontal thread, or if the sun be too low, till that of the perpendicular thread, in one stile, or the slit through the other, falls upon the line in the index bar, or vibrates to an equal distance on each side of it, the box being gently touched if it vibrates too far: at the same time they observe the degree marked upon the brass edge of the cat-gut line. In counting the degree for the azimuth, or any other angle that is reckoned from the meridian, the outward circle of figures upon the brass edge is used; and the situation of the index, with respect to the card and needle, will always direct upon what quarter of the compass the object is placed.

But if the sun does not shine out sufficiently strong, the eye is placed behind the narrow slit in one of the stiles, and the wooden box turned about till some part of the horizontal, or perpendicular thread appears to intersect the center of the sun, or vibrate to an equal distance on each side of it; smoked glass being used next the eye, if the sun’s light is too strong. In this method another observer is necessary, to note the degree cut by the nonius, at the same time the first gives notice that the thread appears to split the object.

Plate II. fig. 20. is a perspective view of the compass, when in order for observation; the point of view being the center of the card, and the distance of the eye two feet.

A B. is the wooden box in which it is usually contained.

K. is a cat-gut line drawn from the inside of the box for determining the degree upon the brass edge.

L, M, N, O. is the index bar with its two stiles, and cat-gut threads, which being taken off from the top of the box, is placed in two pieces P Q, notched properly to receive it.

The other parts of the figure, with their references, are explained in the article COMPASS.

B.

BACK _of the post_. See the article STERN-POST.

To BACK _an anchor_, _empeneller_, to carry out a small anchor, as the stream or kedge, ahead of the large one, by which the ship usually rides, in order to support it, and prevent it from loosening, or _coming home_, in bad ground. In this situation, the latter is confined by the former, in the same manner that the ship is restrained by the latter.

_To BACK astern_, in rowing, _scier à culer_, is to manage the oars in a direction contrary to the usual method, so as that the boat or vessel impressed by their force, shall retreat, or move with her stern foremost, instead of advancing.

_To BACK the sails_, is to arrange them in a situation that will occasion the ship to retreat or move astern. This operation is particularly necessary in narrow channels, when a ship is carried along sideways by the strength of the tide or current, and it becomes requisite to avoid any object that may intercept her course, as shoals, or vessels under sail, or at anchor: it is also necessary in a naval engagement, to bring a ship back, so as to lie opposite to her adversary, when she is too far advanced in the line. See ABACK.

BACK-BOARD, a piece of board of a semicircular figure, placed transversely in the after-part of a boat, like the back of a chair, and serving the passengers to recline against whilst sitting in the stern-sheets. See BOAT.

BACK-STAYS, _cale haubans_, (from _back_ and _stay_) long ropes reaching from the topmast-heads to the starboard and larboard sides of the ship, where they are extended to the channels: they are used to support the top-masts, and second the efforts of the shrouds, when the mast is strained by a weight of sail in a fresh wind.

They are usually distinguished into breast-back-stays and after-back-stays; the intent of the former being to sustain the top-mast when the force of the wind acts upon the ship sideways, or, according to the sea-phrase, when the ship sails upon a wind; and the purpose of the latter is to enable it to carry sail when the wind is further aft.

There are also back-stays for the top-gallant-masts, in large ships, which are fixed in the same manner with those of the top-masts.

A pair of back-stays is usually formed of one rope, which is doubled in the middle, and fastened there so as to form an eye, which passes over the mast-head, from whence the two ends hang down, and are stretched to the channels by dead-eyes and laniards. See DEAD-EYES, &c.

The figure of the back-stays, and their position, is exhibited in the article RIGGING, to which the reader is further referred.

BADGE, _bouteille, fausse galerie_, in ship-building, a sort of ornament, placed on the outside of small ships, very near the stern, containing either a window, for the convenience of the cabin, or the representation of it: it is commonly decorated with marine figures, martial instruments, or such like emblems. See QUARTER.

To BALANCE, (_balancer_, Fr.) to contract a sail into a narrower compass, in a storm, by retrenching or folding up a part of it at one corner; this method is used in contradistinction to _reefing_, which is common to all the principal sails; whereas balancing is peculiar to few, such as the mizen of a ship, and the main-sail of those vessels, wherein it is extended by a boom. See BOOM and REEF.

The BALANCE of the mizen, _fanon_, is thus performed: the mizen-yard is lowered a little, then a small portion of the sail is rolled up at the _peek_, or upper corner, and fastened to the yard about one fifth inward from the outer end, or yard-arm, toward the mast. See MIZEN.

A boom-main-sail is balanced, after all its reefs are taken in, by rolling up a similar portion of the hindmost, or aftmost lower-corner, called the _clue_, and fastening it strongly to the boom, having previously wrapped a piece of old canvas round the part (which is done in both cases) to prevent the sail from being fretted by the cord which fastens it.

BALLAST, _lest_, (_ballaste_, Dut. _ballastro_, Span.) a certain portion of stone, iron, gravel, or such like materials, deposited in a ship’s hold, when she has either no cargo, or too little to bring her sufficiently low in the water. It is used to counter-ballance the effort of the wind upon the masts, and give the ship a proper stability, that she may be enabled to carry sail without danger of over-turning.

There is often great difference in the proportion of ballast required to prepare ships of equal burthen for a voyage; the quantity being always more or less, according to the sharpness or flatness of the ship’s bottom, which seamen call the _floor_.

The knowledge of ballasting a ship with propriety, is certainly an article that deserves the attention of the skilful mariner; for although it is known that ships in general will not carry a sufficient quantity of sail, till they are laden so deep that the surface of the water will nearly glance on the extreme breadth amidships; yet there is more than this general knowledge required; since, if she has a great weight of heavy ballast, as lead, iron, &c. in the bottom, it will place the center of gravity too low in the hold; and although this will enable her to carry a great sail, she will nevertheless sail very heavily, and run the risk of being dismasted by her violent rolling.

To ballast a ship, therefore, is the art of disposing those materials so that she may be duly poised, and maintain a proper equilibrium on the water, so as neither to be too _stiff_, nor too _crank_, qualities equally pernicious; as in the first, although the ship may be fitted to carry a great sail, yet her velocity will not be proportionably increased; whilst her masts are more endangered by her sudden jerks and excessive labouring: and in the last, she will be incapable of carrying sail, without the risk of oversetting.

Stiffness in ballasting, is occasioned by disposing a great quantity of heavy ballast, as lead, iron, &c. in the bottom, which naturally places the center of gravity very near the keel; and that being the center about which the vibrations are made, the lower it is placed, the more violent will be the motion of rolling.

Crankness, on the other hand, is occasioned by having too little ballast, or by disposing the ship’s lading so as to raise the center of gravity too high, which also endangers the mast in carrying sail when it blows hard: for when the masts lose their perpendicular height, they strain on the shrouds in the nature of a lever, which encreases as the sine of their obliquity; and a ship that loses her masts is in great danger of being lost.

The whole art of ballasting, therefore, consists in placing the center of gravity to correspond with the trim and shape of the vessel, so as neither to be too high nor too low; neither too far forward, nor too far aft; and to lade the ship so deep, that the surface of the water may nearly rise to the extreme breadth amidships; and thus she will be enabled to carry a good sail, incline but little, and ply well to the windward. See the article TRIM.

BANIAN-DAYS, a cant term among common sailors, denoting those days on which they have no flesh-meat: it seems to be derived from the practice of a nation amongst the eastern Indians, who never eat flesh.

BANK, _banc, atterrissement_, (_banc_, Sax.) an elevation of the ground, or bottom of the sea, which is often so high as to appear above the surface of the water, or at least so little beneath it, as to prevent a ship from floating over it: in this sense, bank amounts nearly to the same as shallows, flats, &c. The shelves that abound with rocks under water, are distinguished by other names, as reefs, ridges, keys, &c.

An exact knowledge of the banks, their extent, and the different depths of water in which they lie, constitutes a very essential portion of the science of a pilot, or master of a ship. If the vessel be large, and draws much water, great attention will be necessary to avoid them. If, on the contrary, she is small, the same banks afford a sure asylum, where she may brave the largest ships, which dare not follow her to so dangerous a retreat. Many small vessels have eluded the pursuit of a superior enemy by means of this hospitable barrier.

BANKS on the sea-coast are usually marked by beacons or buoys. In charts they are distinguished by little dots, as ridges of rocks are characterised by crosses. The principal banks in the Western Ocean, are those of Newfoundland, and the Bahama-Bank: the most remarkable one in Newfoundland is called the Grand Bank, which is of a vast extent, being nearly two hundred miles in length, and stretching north and south: its usual depth is from twenty to eighty fathoms: and this is the great scene of the cod-fishery, which is so material an article in European commerce.

BANK _of oars_, a seat or bench of rowers in a galley.

BANKER, a vessel employed in the cod-fishery on the Banks of Newfoundland.

BAR _of a port or haven_, a shoal or bank of sand, gravel, &c. thrown up by the surge of the sea, to the mouth of a river or harbour, so as to endanger, and sometimes totally prevent the navigation.

BARCA-LONGA, a large Spanish fishing-boat, navigated with lug-sails, and having two or three masts: these are very common in the Mediterranean. See VESSEL.

BARGE (_bargie_, Dutch) a vessel or boat of state, furnished with elegant apartments, canopies, and cushions; equipped with a band of rowers, and decorated with flags and streamers: they are generally used for processions on the water, by noblemen, officers of state, or magistrates of great cities. Of this sort we may naturally suppose the famous barge or galley of Cleopatra, which, according to Shakespeare,

———————‘Like a burnish’d throne Burnt on the water; the poop was beaten gold; Purple her sails, and so perfumed, that The winds were love-sick with them: the oars were silver, Which to the tune of flutes kept stroke, and made The water which they beat to follow faster, As amorous of their strokes—— ——At the helm A seeming mermaid steer’d: the silken tackles Swell’d with the touches of those flower-soft-hands That yarely form’d their office.’——

There are likewise other barges of a smaller kind, for the use of admirals and captains of ships of war. These are of a lighter frame, and may be easily hoisted into, and out of the ships to which they occasionally belong. See BOAT.

BARGE, _cabotiere_, is also the name of a flat-bottomed vessel of burthen, for lading and discharging ships, and removing their cargoes from place to place in a harbour.

BARK (_barca_, low Lat.) a general name given to small ships: it is however peculiarly appropriated by seamen to those which carry three masts without a mizen top-sail. Our northern mariners, who are trained in the coal-trade, apply this distinction to a broad-sterned ship, which carries no ornamental figure on the stem or prow.

BARNICLE, _cravan_, a species of shell-fish, often found sticking to the bottoms of ships, rocks, &c.

BARRICADE (_barricada_, Span.) a strong wooden rail, supported by several little pillars or stanchions, and extending, as a fence, across the foremost part of the quarter-deck. In a vessel of war, the intervals between the pillars are commonly filled with cork, junks of old cable, or matts of platted cordage. In the upper-part, there is a double rope-netting, supported by double cranes of iron, extending about a foot above the rail; and between the two parts of the netting are stuffed a number of hammocks, filled with the seamens bedding, to intercept and prevent the execution of small-shot fired by swivel guns, carabines, or muskets, in the time of battle.

BARS _of the Capstern and Windlass_. See those articles.

BASIN _of a dock_, (_bassin_, Fr.) a place where the water is confined by double flood-gates, and thereby prevented from running out at the tide of ebb. The use of it is to contain ships whilst repairing, either before they enter, or after they come out of the dock.

BASIN, _paradis_, also implies some part of a haven, which opens from a narrow channel into a wide and spacious reservoir for shipping.

BATTENS _of the hatches_, a sort of long narrow laths, scantlings of wooden stuff, or streight hoops of casks. They are nailed along the edges of tarpaulings, which are pieces of tarred canvas, of sufficient breadth and length to cover the hatches at sea; the battens serve to confine the edges of the tarpaulings close down to the sides of the hatches, to prevent the water, which may rush over the decks in a storm, from penetrating into the lower apartments of the ship.

BAY, _baye_, a gulf or inlet of the sea-coast, comprehended between two promontories, or capes of land, where shipping frequently ride at anchor, sheltered from the wind and sea.

BEACON, _balise_, (_beacon_, Sax.) a post or stake erected over a shoal or sand-bank, as a warning to seamen to keep their ships at a distance.

BEAK-HEAD, _coltis_, a name given to a ship’s head whose forecastle is square or oblong, a circumstance common to all vessels of war which have two or more decks of guns. In smaller ships, the forecastle is nearly shaped like a parabola, whose vertex, or angular point, lies immediately over the stem.

The strong, projecting, pointed beaks used by the antients in time of battle, have been intirely rejected since the use of gun-powder.

BEAMS, _baux_, (_beam_, Sax. a tree) strong thick pieces of timber, stretching across the ship from side to side, to support the decks, and retain the sides at their proper distance.

The BEAMS of ships of war are usually formed of three pieces scarfed together; as appears in plate III. They are sustained at each end by thick planks in the ship’s side, called clamps, upon which they rest. They are also firmly connected to the timbers of the ship by means of strong knees, and sometimes by standards. See MIDSHIP-FRAME.

It is necessary that the beams, as represented in the midship-frame, should have a greater height in the middle than at the two ends, to carry the water more readily off from the decks, and to diminish the recoil of the guns, which will thereby more easily return into their places.

The longest of these is called the _midship-beam_; it is lodged in the midship-frame, or between the widest frame of timbers. At about two thirds of the height from the keel to the lower-deck, are laid a range of beams, to fortify the hold, and support a platform called the orlop, which contains the cables and stores of the ship.

There are usually twenty-four beams on the lower-deck of a ship of seventy-four guns, and to the other decks additional ones in proportion, as the ship lengthens above.

_On the_ BEAM, implies any distance from the ship on a line with the beams, or at right angles with the keel: thus, if the ship steers or points northward, any object lying east or west, is said to be on the starboard or larboard _beam_. Thus also,

_Before the_ BEAM, is an arch of the horizon comprehended between the line that crosses her length at right angles, and some object at a distance before it, or between the line of the beam, and that point of the compass which she stems. Thus if a ship, steering west, discovers an island on the right, three points _before the beam_, the island must bear N W b N from the ship. See the article BEARING.

BEAN-COD, a small fishing-vessel, or pilot-boat, common on the sea-coasts and in the rivers of Portugal. It is extremely sharp forward, having its stem bent inward above into a great curve: the stem is also plated on the fore-side with iron, into which a number of bolts are driven, to fortify it, and resist the stroke of another vessel, which may fall athwart-hause. It is commonly navigated with a large lateen sail, which extends over the whole length of the deck, and is accordingly well fitted to ply to windward.

BEAR-A-HAND! a phrase of the same import with make haste, dispatch, quick, &c.

BEARING, in navigation, _gissement_, an arch of the horizon intercepted between the nearest meridian and any distant object, either discovered by the eye, or resulting from the sinical proportion; as in the first case, at 4 P. M. Cape Spado, in the isle of Candia, bore S by W. by the compass.

In the second, the longitudes and latitudes of any two places being given, and consequently the difference of latitude and longitude between them, the bearing from one to the other is discovered by the following analogy:

As the meridional difference of latitude Is to the difference of longitude: So is radius To the tangent bearing.

BEARING is also the situation of any distant object, estimated from some part of the ship according to her position. In this sense, an object so discovered, must be either ahead, astern, abreast, on the bow, or on the quarter.

These BEARINGS, therefore, which may be called mechanical, are on the beam, before the beam, abaft the beam, on the bow, on the quarter, ahead, or astern. If the ship sails with a side-wind, it alters the names of such bearings in some measure, since a distant object on the beam is then said to be to leeward, or to windward; on the lee quarter, or bow; and on the weather quarter or bow.

BEARING-UP, or BEARING-away, _arriver_, in navigation, the act of changing the course of a ship, in order to make her run before the wind, after she had sailed some time with a side-wind, or close-hauled: it is generally performed to arrive at some port under the lee, or to avoid some imminent danger occasioned by a violent storm, leak, or enemy in sight.

This phrase, which is absurd enough, seems to have been derived from the motion of the helm, by which this effect is partly produced; as the helm is then borne _up_ to the windward, or weather side of the ship. Otherwise, it is a direct contradiction in terms, to say that a ship _bears up_, when she goes before the wind; since the current of the wind, as well as that of a river, is always understood to determine the situation of objects or places within its limits. In the first sense we say, up to windward and down to leeward; as in the latter we say, up or down the river. This expression, however, although extremely improper, is commonly adopted in the general instructions of our navy, printed by authority, instead of bearing down, or bearing away.

BEATING, in navigation, the operation of making a progress at sea against the direction of the wind, in a zig-zag line, or traverse, like that in which we ascend a steep hill. As this method of sailing will be particularly explained under the term TACKING, the reader is referred to that article.

_To_ BECALM, _derober_, (from _calme_, Dut.) to intercept the current of the wind, in its passage to a ship, with any contiguous object, as a shore above her sails, a high sea behind, or some other ship. At this time the sails remain in a state of rest, and are consequently deprived of their power to govern the motion of the ship.

BECKETS, _bille_, imply in general any thing used to confine loose ropes, tackles, oars, or spars, in a convenient place, where they may be disposed out of the way till they are wanted. Hence, beckets are either large hooks, or short pieces of rope, with a knot in one end and an eye in the other, or formed like a circular wreath; or they are wooden brackets; and, probably, from a corruption and misapplication of this last term, arose the word becket, which seems often to be confounded with bracket.

_Put the tacks and sheets in the_ BECKETS! the order to hang up the weather main and fore-sheet, and the lee main and fore-tack, to a little knot and eye-becket on the foremost main and fore-shrouds, when the ship is close-hauled, to prevent them from hanging in the water.

BED, a flat thick piece of timber, usually formed of the rough staves of casks, or such like materials, to be lodged under the quarters of casks containing any liquid, and stowed in a ship’s hold. The use of the beds is to support the cask, and keep the bilge, or middle-part of it, from bearing against the ship’s floor, or against the body upon which it rests, lest the staves should give way and break in the place where they are weakest: or lie in a wet place, so as to rot in the course of the voyage. See the article STOWING.

BED _of a river_, _lit._, the bottom of the channel in which the stream or current usually flows.

BED _of a cannon_. See CARRIAGE.

_To_ BELAY, _amarrer_, (from _beleygen_, Belg.) to fasten a rope, by winding it several times round a cleat, belaying-pin, or kevel: this term is peculiar to small ropes, and chiefly the running-rigging, there being several other expressions used for large ropes, as bitting, bending, making fast, stoppering, &c. See those articles.

BEND, _avuste_, (probably from _bindan_, Sax. to bind) the knot by which one rope is fastened to another, hence

_To_ BEND, is to fasten one rope to another, of which there are several methods.

BENDING _the cable_, the operation of clinching, or tying the cable to the ring of its anchor.

BENDING _a sail_, fastening it to its yard or stay. See the articles SAIL, STAY, and YARD.

BENDS, the thickest and strongest planks in a ship’s side. See WALES, by which name they are more properly called.

BETWEEN-DECKS, _entre-pont_, the space contained between any two decks of a ship.

BEVELLING, in ship-building, the art of hewing a timber with a proper and regular curve, according to a mould which is laid on one side of its surface.

‘In order to hew any piece of timber to its proper bevel, it will be necessary, first, to make one side fair, and out of winding; a term used to signify that the side of a timber should be a plane. If this side be uppermost, and placed horizontally, or upon a level, it is plain, if the timber is to be hewed square, it may be done by a plummet and line; but if the timber is not hewed square, the line will not touch both the upper and lower edge of the piece; or if a square be applied to it, there will be wood wanting either at the upper or lower side. This is called within or without a square. When the wood is deficient at the under-side, it is called under-bevelling; and when it is deficient in the upper-side, it is called standing-bevelling: and this deficiency will be more or less according to the depth of the piece; so that before the proper bevellings of the timbers are found, it will be sometimes very convenient to assign the breadth of the timbers; nay, in most cases it will be absolutely necessary, especially afore and abaft: though the breadth of two timbers, or the timber and room, which includes the two timbers and the space between them, may be taken without any sensible error, as far as the square body goes. For as one line represents the moulding-side of two timbers, the fore-side of the one being supposed to unite with the aft-side of the other; the two may be considered as one intire piece of timber.’ _Murray’s Ship-building._

BIGHT, _balant_, (_bygan_, Sax. to bend) the double part of a rope when it is folded, in contradistinction to the end: as, her anchor hooked the _bight_ of our cable, i.e. caught any part of it between the ends. The _bight_ of his cable has swept our anchor; that is, the double part of the cable of another ship, as she ranged about, has entangled itself under the stock or fluke of our anchor.

BIGHT, _anse_, is also a small bay between two points of land.

BILANDER, _bilandre_, Fr. a small merchant-ship with two masts.

The BILANDER is particularly distinguished from other vessels of two masts by the form of her main-sail, which is a sort of trapezia, the yard thereof being hung obliquely on the mast in the plane of the ship’s length, and the aftmost or hinder end peeked or raised up to an angle of about 45 degrees, and hanging immediately over the stern; while the fore end slopes downward, and comes as far forward as the middle of the ship. To this the sail is bent or fastened; and the two lower corners, the foremost of which is called the tack, and the aftmost the sheet, are afterwards secured, the former to a ring-bolt in the middle of the ship’s length, and the latter to another in the taffarel. The main-sails of larger ships are hung across the deck instead of along it, being fastened to a yard which hangs at right angles with the mast and the keel.

Few vessels, however, are now rigged in this method, which has probably been found more inconvenient than several others. See SHIP. It may not be improper to remark, that this name, as well as brigantine, has been variously applied in different parts of Europe to vessels of different sorts.

BILGE, (supposed from _bilik_, Sax. a storm) that part of the floor of a ship, on either side of the keel, which approaches nearer to an horizontal than to a perpendicular direction, and on which the ship would rest if laid on the ground: or more particularly, those parts of the bottom which are opposite to the heads of the floor-timbers amidships on each side of the keel. Hence, when a ship receives a fracture in this place, she is said to be _bilged_.

BILL _of lading_, _connoissement_, an acknowledgment signed by the master of a ship, and given to a merchant, containing an account of the goods which the former has received from the latter, &c. with a promise to deliver them at the intended place for a certain sum of money. Each bill of lading must be treble; one for the merchant who ships the goods, another to be sent to the person to whom they are consigned, and the third to remain in the hands of the master of the said ship. It must, however, be observed, that a bill of lading is only used when the goods sent on board a ship are but part of the cargo; for when a merchant loads a vessel entirely on his own account, the deed passed between him and the master of the ship is called charter-party. See _Charter-party_.

BINACLE, a wooden case or box, which contains the compasses, log-glasses, watch-glasses, and lights to shew the compass at night.

As this is called _bittacle_ in all the old sea-books, even by mariners, it appears evidently to be derived from the French term _habitacle_, (a small habitation) which is now used for the same purpose by the seamen of that nation.

The BINACLE (plate I. fig. 4.) is furnished with three apartments, with sliding shutters: the two side ones, a b, have always a compass in each, d, to direct the ship’s way, while the middle division, c, has a lamp or candle, with a pane of glass on either side to throw a light upon the compass in the night, whereby the man who steers may observe it in the darkest weather, as it stands immediately before the helm on the quarter-deck.

There are always two binacles on the deck of a ship of war, one being designed for the man who steers, and the other for the person who superintends the steerage, whose office is called _conning_, or _cunning_.

BIRTH, or BERTH, _eviteé_, the station in which a ship rides at anchor, either alone or in a fleet; or the distance between the ship and any adjacent object; comprehending the extent of the space in which she ranges at the length of her cables; as, _she lies in a good birth_, i. e. in a convenient situation, or at a proper distance from the shore and other vessels; and where there is good anchoring-ground, and shelter from the violence of the wind and sea.

BIRTH, _appartement_, also signifies the room or apartment where any particular number of the officers or ship’s company usually mess and reside. In a ship of war there is commonly one of these between every two guns.

_To_ BITE, _mordre_, to hold fast in the ground; expressed of the anchor.

BITS, _bittes_, (_bitol_, Sax.) a frame composed of two strong pieces of timber, fixed perpendicularly in the fore-part of a ship, whereon to fasten her cables as she rides at anchor. See b b, PIECES _of the_ HULL.

These pieces being let down through square mortises cut in the decks above and below, are bolted and fore-locked to the ship’s beams. There are several bits in a ship, the principal of which are those for the cables: their upper ends commonly reach about four or five feet above the lower deck, over which the cable passes. They are supported on the fore part by strong standards; one arm of which is bolted to the deck, and the other to the bits: and on the after part is fixed a strong beam of timber, g, (plate I. PIECES _of the_ HULL) parallel to the deck, and at right angles with the bits, to which it is bolted and forelocked. The ends of this beam, which is called the cross-piece, reach about two or three feet beyond the bits, whose upper-ends are nearly two feet above the cross-piece. The cable being passed once round about these bits, may be gradually slackened at pleasure; without which it would be impossible to prevent it from running out with the utmost rapidity, when the ship rides a great strain, which is always the case in a storm, or an impetuous tide. In ships of war there are usually two pair of cable bits, and when they are both used at once, the cable is said to be double-bitted. The plan of the bits, with their cross-pieces and standards, are represented in Plate III. where b b are the bits, e their standards, and g the cross-piece.

_To_ BIT _the cable_, is to put it round the bits, in order to fasten it, or slacken it gradually, which last is called _veering away_.

The other bits are of a smaller kind, but constructed nearly in the same manner. They are used to fasten the top-sail-sheets, or the ropes by which the lower corners of the top-sails are extended.

BLACK-STRAKES, a range of planks immediately above the wales in a ship’s side: they are always covered with a mixture of tar and lamp-black, forming an agreeable variety with the white bottom beneath, and the scraped planks of the side, covered with melted turpentine or varnish of pine, above. All the yards are likewise daubed with this mixture, which not only preserves them from the heat of the sun and the weather, but gives them a fine gloss, which makes a good appearance contrasted with the white varnish on the masts.

BLADE. See the article OAR.

BLOCK, _poulie_, a machine known in mechanics by the name of pully, and used for various purposes in a ship, particularly to increase the mechanical power of the ropes employed in contracting, dilating, or traversing the sails. The ends of these ropes, being arranged in certain places upon the deck, may thus be readily found whenever they are wanted. The blocks, which are for these purposes disposed in various places upon the masts, yards, and sails, and amongst the rigging, are also of various sizes, shapes, and powers, according to the effect they are calculated to produce. They are single, double, or treble, being so denominated from the number of wheels they contain. There are even some of five, six, and seven fold, but these are only employed to raise or move some very weighty bodies, and are not used about the yards or sails. We shall begin by describing the most simple, and afterwards proceed to those which are more complicated.

A common single block is composed of three parts; the shell, the sheave, and the pins. The shell, _arcasse_, approaches nearest to the figure of a long spheroid, somewhat flatted in the middle. Between the two flat sides it is hollowed so as to receive a narrow cylindrical wheel called the sheave, _rouet_, formed of lignum vitæ, or other hard wood; and thro’ the centre of this sheave is bored a round hole, to admit of a pin, which is driven through two corresponding holes in the middle of the shell, perpendicular to the hollow space within. The pin thus becomes the axis of the wheel or sheave, which completes the wooden work of the machine. Thus formed, it is bound with a sort of rope-ring, which is closely fitted to a notch passing round the surface of the shell, and over both ends of the pin: and by this ring, or wreath, which is called a block-strop, they are suspended upon the masts, shrouds, &c.

The complicated blocks, or those which contain a number of wheels, either have all the wheels to run upon one axis, (see plate I.) or have their shells so formed that the wheels are one above another. In the former shape they approach nearest the figure of a cylinder, and in the latter appear like two or more single blocks joined together endways.

In plate I. fig. 7. a, represents a single block, and b, c, two double ones, of different kinds, without strops. Fig. e, f, two double tackle-blocks iron bound, the lower one, f, being fitted with a swivel, g, a double iron-bound block with a large hook, h, a snatch-block, i, a top-block, k, a voyal-block, and l, a clue-garnet-block. See SNATCH-BLOCK, TACKLE, and VOYAL.

The Cat-block (plate II. fig. 15.) is employed to draw the anchor up the cat-head. See the article CAT.

The swivel in the iron-bound block is to turn it, that the several parts of the rope of which the tackle is composed may not be twisted round each other, which would greatly diminish the mechanical power.

The top-block is used to hoist up or lower down the top-masts, and is for this purpose hooked in an eye-bolt driven into the cap. See CAP.

The clue-garnet blocks are used to draw the clues, or lower-corners of the _courses_, up to the yard, and are consequently fastened to the clues of those sails. See CLUE-GARNET. The use of the shoulder on the lower-end, is to prevent the strop from being fretted or chafed by the motion of the sail, as the ship rolls or pitches.

BOARD, in navigation, (_bordée_, Fr.) the space comprehended between any two places where the ship changes her course by tacking; or the line over which she runs between tack and tack, when she is turning to windward, or sailing against the direction of the wind. See the articles BEATING and TACKING.

_She makes a good_ BOARD, i. e. sails nearly upon a streight line, without deviating to leeward when she is close-hauled. See CLOSE-HAULED.

BOARDING, _abordage_, an assault made by one ship upon another, by entering her in battle with a detachment of armed men; either because the efforts of the artillery and musquetry have proved ineffectual, or because she may have a greater number of men, and be better equipped for this attack than the enemy who defends herself against it.

This stratagem, however, is chiefly practised by privateers upon merchant-ships, who are not so well provided with men, and rarely attempted in the royal navy; the battle being generally decided in men of war by the vigorous execution of a close cannonade.

An officer should maturely consider the danger of boarding a ship of war before he attempts it; and be well assured that his adversary is weakly manned: for perhaps he wishes to be boarded, and if so, a great slaughter will necessarily follow.

The swell of the sea ought also to be considered, because it may run so high as to expose both the ships to the danger of sinking.

There is perhaps very little prudence in boarding a ship of equal force; and when it is attempted, it may be either to windward or to leeward, according to the comparative force or situation of the ships. If there be any swell, or sea, it may be more adviseable to lay the enemy aboard on the lee-side, as the water is there the smoothest; besides, if the boarder is repulsed in that situation, he may more easily withdraw his men, and stand off from his adversary. But as the weather-ship can generally fall to leeward at any time, it is perhaps more eligible to keep to windward, by which she will be enabled to rake her antagonist, or fire the broadside into her stern as she crosses it, in passing to leeward, which will do great execution amongst her men, by scouring the whole length of the deck.

Boarding may be performed in different places of the ship, according to the circumstances, preparation and position of both: the assailant having previously selected a number of men armed with pistols and cutlasses. A number of powder-flasks, or flasks charged with gun-powder and fitted with a fuse, are also provided, to be thrown upon the enemy’s deck immediately before the assault. Besides this, the boarder is generally furnished with an earthen shell, called a stink-pot, which on that occasion is suspended from his yard-arms or bow-sprit-end. This machine is also charged with powder, mixed with other inflammable and suffocating materials, with a lighted fuse at the aperture. Thus prepared for the action, and having grappled his adversary, the boarder displays his signal to begin the assault. The fuses of the stink-pot and powder-flasks being lighted, they are immediately thrown upon the deck of the enemy, where they burst and catch fire, producing an intolerable stench and smoke, and filling the deck with tumult and distraction. Amidst the confusion occasioned by this infernal apparatus, the detachment provided rush aboard sword in hand, under cover of the smoke, on their antagonist, who is in the same predicament with a citadel stormed by the besiegers, and generally overpowered, unless he is furnished with extraordinary means of defence, or equipped with close-quarters, to which he can retreat with some probability of safety. See the article CLOSE-QUARTERS.

BOAT (_bæt_, Sax. _boot_, Belg.) a small open vessel, conducted on the water by rowing or sailing. The construction, machinery, and even the names of boats, are very different, according to the various purposes for which they are calculated, and the services on which they are to be employed.

Thus they are occasionally slight or strong; sharp or flat-bottomed; open or decked; plain or ornamented; as they may be designed for swiftness or burthen; for deep or shallow water; for sailing in a harbour or at sea; and for convenience, or pleasure.

The largest boat that usually accompanies a ship is the long-boat, _chaloupe_, which is generally furnished with a mast and sails: those which are fitted for men of war, may be occasionally decked, armed, and equipped, for cruising short distances against merchant-ships of the enemy, or smugglers, or for impressing seamen, &c.

The barges are next in order, which are longer, slighter, and narrower: they are employed to carry the principal sea-officers, as admirals, and captains of ships of war, and are very unfit for sea. See the article BARGE.

Pinnaces exactly resemble barges, only that they are somewhat smaller, and never row more than eight oars; whereas a barge properly never rows less than ten. These are for the accommodation of the lieutenants, &c.

Cutters of a ship, _bateaux_, are broader, deeper, and shorter than the barges and pinnaces; they are fitter for sailing, and are commonly employed in carrying stores, provisions, passengers, &c. to and from the ship. In the structure of this sort of boats, the lower-edge of every plank in the side over-lays the upper-edge of the plank below, which is called by shipwrights clinch-work.

Yawls, _canots_, are something less than cutters, nearly of the same form, and used for similar services; they are generally rowed with six oars.

The above boats more particularly belong to men of war; as merchant-ships seldom have more than two, viz. a long-boat and yawl: when they have a third, it is generally calculated for the countries to which they trade, and varies in its construction accordingly.

Merchant-ships employed in the Mediterranean find it more convenient to use a lanch, which is longer, more flat-bottomed, and better adapted every way to the harbours of that sea than a long-boat. See LANCH.

A wherry, _diligence_, is a light sharp boat, used in a river or harbour for carrying passengers from place to place.

Punts, _flette_, are a sort of oblong flat-bottomed boats, nearly resembling floating stages; they are used by shipwrights and caulkers, for breaming, caulking, or repairing a ship’s bottom.

A moses is a very flat broad boat, used by merchant-ships amongst the Caribbee-islands, to bring hogsheads of sugar off from the sea-beach to the shipping which are anchored in the roads.

A felucca is a strong passage-boat used in the Mediterranean, from ten to sixteen banks of oars. The natives of Barbary often employ boats of this sort as cruisers.

For the larger sort of boats, see the articles CRAFT, CUTTER, PERIAGUA, and SHALLOP.

Of all the small boats, a Norway yawl seems to be the best calculated for a high sea, as it will often venture out to a great distance from the coast of that country, when a stout ship can hardly carry any sail.

_Trim the_ BOAT! _barque-droit!_ the order to sit in the boat in such a manner as that she shall float upright in the water, without leaning to either side.

_To bale the_ BOAT, is to throw out the water which remains in her bottom or the well-room.

_Moor the_ BOAT! the order to fasten a boat with two ropes, so as that the one shall counter-act the other.

For a representation of some of the principal boats of a ship of war, see plate III. where fig. 1. exhibits the elevation, or side view, of a ten-oared barge; a a, its keel; b, the stern-post; c, the stem; b c, the water-line, which separates what is under the surface of the water from what is above it; e, the row-locks, which contain the oars between them; f, the top of the stern; g, the back-board; f g, the place where the cockswain stands or sits while steering the boat; l, the rudder, and m, the tiller, which is of framed iron.

Fig. 2. represents the plan of the same barge, where d is the ‘thwarts, or seats where the rowers sit to manage their oars; f, i, h, the stern-sheets; i k, the benches whereon the passengers sit in the stern-sheets: the rest is explained in fig. 1.

Fig 3. is a stern view of the same barge, with the projection of all the timbers in the after-body; and fig. 4, a head view, with the curves of all the timbers in the fore-body.

Having thus explained the different views of the barge, the reader will easily comprehend the several corresponding parts in the other boats; where fig. 5 is the plan, and fig. 6 the elevation of a twelve-oared cutter that rows double banked: which, although seldom employed unless in capital ships, because requiring twelve rowers, is nevertheless a very excellent boat, both for rowing and sailing. Fig. 7 and 8 are the head and stern of this boat.

Fig. 9 is the plan of a long-boat, of which fig. 10 is the elevation, 11 the stern-view, and 12 the head-view.

BOAT-HOOK, an iron hook with a sharp point on the hinder part thereof, to stick into a piece of wood, a ship’s-side, &c. It is stuck upon a long pole or shaft, (pl. III. fig. 1 n.) by the help of which a person in the boat may either hook any thing to confine the boat in a particular place, or push her off by the sharp point attached to the back of the hook.

BOATSWAIN, _Contre-maitre_, the officer who has the boats, sails, rigging, colours, anchors, and cables committed to his charge.

It is the duty of the boatswain particularly to direct whatever relates to the rigging of a ship, after she is equipped from a royal dock-yard. Thus he is to observe that the masts are properly supported by their shrouds, stays, and back-stays, so that each of those ropes may sustain a proportional effort when the mast is strained by the violence of the wind, or the agitation of the ship. He ought also to take care that the blocks and running-ropes are regularly placed, so as to answer the purposes for which they are intended; and that the sails are properly fitted to their yards and stays, and well furled or reefed when occasion requires.

It is likewise his office to summon the crew to their duty; to assist with his mates in the necessary business of the ship; and to relieve the watch when it expires. He ought frequently to examine the condition of the masts, sails, and rigging, and remove whatever may be judged unfit for service, or supply what is deficient: and he is ordered by his instructions to perform this duty _with as little noise as possible_.

BOB-STAY, _sous-barbe_, a rope used to confine the bowsprit of a ship downward to the stem, or cut-water. It is fixed by thrusting one of its ends through a hole bored in the fore-part of the cut-water for this purpose, and then splicing both ends together so as to make it two-fold, or like the link of a chain: a _dead-eye_ is then seized into it, and a _laniard_ passing through this and communicating with another dead-eye upon the bowsprit, is drawn extremely tight by the help of mechanical powers. See BOWSPRIT.

The use of the bob-stay, is to draw down the bowsprit, and keep it steddy; and to counter-act the force of the stays of the fore-mast, which draw it upwards. The bowsprit is also fortified by shrouds from the bows on each side; which are all very necessary, as the foremast and the upper-part of the main-mast are stayed and greatly supported by the bowsprit. For this reason, the bob-stay is the first part of a ship’s rigging which is drawn tight to support the masts. To perform this task more effectually, it is usual to suspend a boat, anchor, or other weighty body, at the bowsprit-end, to press it downwards during this operation.

BOLSTERS, a sort of small cushions or bags, filled with tarred canvas, laid between the collars of the stays and the edge of some piece of wood on which they lie: they are used to preserve the stays from being chafed or galled by the motion of the masts, as the ship rocks or pitches at sea.

BOLT-ROPE, _ralingue_, a rope to which the edges or skirts of the sails are sewed, to strengthen, and prevent them from rending. Those parts of the bolt-rope which are on the perpendicular or sloping edges, are called leech-ropes; that at the bottom, the foot-rope; and that on the top or upper edge, the head-rope. Stay-sails, whose heads are formed like an acute angle, have no head-rope. To different parts of the bolt-rope are fastened all the ropes employed to contract or dilate the sails. The figure and position of the bolt-rope is exhibited in the plate referred to from the article SAIL.

BOMB. See the articles MORTAR and SHELL.

BOMB-VESSEL, a small ship particularly calculated to throw bombs into a fortress. They are said to be invented by M. Reyneau, and to have been first put in action at the bombardment of Algiers. Till then it had been judged impracticable to bombard a place from the sea. See a particular description of these ships in the article KETCH.

BOOM, _estacade_, _barre_, (from _boom_, a tree, Dutch) in marine fortification, a strong chain or cable, on which are fastened a number of poles, bars, &c. extending athwart the mouth of a harbour or river, to prevent the enemies ships of war from entering. It may be occasionally sunk, or drawn up to the surface of the water, by capsterns, and other mechanical powers.

BOOMS, _boute dehors_, certain long poles run out from different places in the ship to extend the bottoms of particular sails. Of these there are several sorts; as the jib-boom, studding-sail-booms, ring-tail-boom, driver-boom, main-boom, and square-sail-boom; the two last, however, are only appropriated to small ships of one or two masts. See JIB, &c.

BOOT-TOPPING, the act of cleaning the upper-part of a ship’s bottom, or that part which lies immediately under the surface of the water, and daubing it over with tallow, or with a _coat_ or mixture of tallow, sulphur, resin, &c.

BOOT-TOPPING is chiefly performed where there is no dock, or other commodious situation for breaming or careening; or when the hurry of a voyage renders it inconvenient to have the whole bottom properly trimmed and cleansed of the filth which gathers to it in the course of a sea-voyage. It is executed by making the ship lean to one side, as much as they can with safety, and then scraping off the grass, slime, shells, or other material, that adheres to the bottom, on the other side, which is elevated above the surface of the water for this purpose, and accordingly daubed with the coat of tallow and sulphur. Having thus finished one side, they make the ship lean to the other side, and perform the same operation, which not only preserves the bottom from the worm, but makes the ship slide smoothly through the water. See CAREEN and DOCK.

BORE. See the article CANNON.

BOTH SHEETS AFT, _entre deux écoutes_, the situation of a ship that sails right afore the wind, or with the wind right astern.

BOTTOM, _carene_, (_botm_, Sax. _bodem_, Belg.) as a sea-term, is either used to denote the bottom of a ship, or that of the water: thus in the former sense we say, a clean or a foul bottom; a British, French, or Dutch bottom: and in the latter sense, a rocky, sandy, or oozy bottom.

The bottom of a ship, as we have described in the article _Naval_ ARCHITECTURE, comprehends all that part which is under water when the ship is laden; the figure of it must therefore be determined by the qualities required in the ship, and the purposes for which the is designed.

It has been remarked, that a ship of war should carry her lowest tier of cannon sufficiently above the surface of the water to be used when necessary. If this quality is neglected, a small ship will have the advantage of a large one, inasmuch as the latter cannot open her lower battery in a fresh side-wind, without being exposed to extreme danger, by receiving a great quantity of water in at her ports between-decks.

A ship should be duly poised, so as not to dive or pitch heavily, but go smoothly and easily through the water, rising to the waves when they run high, or when the vessel has reduced her sail to the storm. If she is deficient in this article, the seas will frequently burst aboard, and strain the decks or carry away the boats. The masts are also greatly endangered from the same cause.

A ship should sail well when large, or before the wind; but particularly when _close-hauled_, or sailing with a side-wind. She should also be enabled in the latter situation to keep her wind, without deviating much to leeward; to work and tack easily, and lie in a turbulent sea without straining violently.

Many of our shipwrights have considered it extremely difficult, if not impracticable, to make a ship carry her cannon well, bear a competent sail, and advance swiftly through the water; because a very full bottom is necessary to acquire the two first qualities; whereas a sharp floor is better fitted to procure the latter. But when it is remembered, that a full ship will carry a much greater force of sail than a sharp one, a good artist may form the body so as to unite all these three qualities with the additional one of steering easily, by paying a proper attention to the following general rules.

To make a ship carry a good sail. A flat floor-timber somewhat long, or the lower-futtocks pretty round, a streight upper-futtock, the top-timber to throw out the breadth aloft; at any rate to carry the main-breadth as high as the lower-deck. Now if the rigging be well adapted to such a body, and the upper-works lightened as much as possible, so that the whole contributes to lower the center of gravity, there will be no reason to doubt of the ship’s carrying a good sail.

To make a ship steer well, and answer the helm readily. If the fashion-pieces be well formed, the tuck, or spreading-parts under the stern, carried pretty high; the midship-frame well forward; a considerable additional depth in the draught of water abaft more than forward; a great rake forward and none abaft; a snug quarter-deck and forecastle: all these will greatly facilitate the steerage; and a ship that sails well will always steer easily.

To make a ship carry her guns well out of the water. A long floor-timber, and not of great rising; a very full midship-frame, and low tuck, with light upper-works.

To make a ship go smoothly through the water, and prevent her from pitching heavily. A long keel, a long floor, not to rise too high afore and abaft; but the area, or space contained in the fore-body, according to the respective weight it is destined to carry: all these are necessary to make a ship pass easily through the sea.

To make a ship keep a good wind and drive little to leeward. A good length by the keel; not too broad, but pretty deep in the hold, which will occasion her to have a short floor-timber and a very great rising. As such a ship will meet with great resistance in driving sideways, and feel very little, in advancing or going ahead, she will fall very little to leeward.

Being thus furnished with the methods to qualify a ship for the different purposes of navigation, the only difficulty remains to apply them properly in the construction, which must, in a great measure, be left to the judgment of the artist. The whole art then is evidently to form the body in such a manner, as that none of these qualities shall be entirely destroyed; and in giving the preference to that which is principally required in the service for which the ship is destined. As it therefore appears possible to unite them all in one vessel so that each of them may be easily discerned, a neglect of this circumstance ought to be attributed to the incapacity of the shipwright, who has not studied the principles of his art with proper application. See _Naval_ ARCHITECTURE, BUILDING, and SHIP.

BOTTOMRY, _bomerie_, (from _bottom_) a contract for borrowing money on the keel or bottom of a ship; so that the commander binds the ship herself, that if the money be not paid at the time appointed, the creditors shall have the ship.

BOTTOMRY is also where a person lends money to a merchant or adventurer who wants it in traffic, and the lender is to be paid a much greater sum at the return of the ship, standing to the hazard of the voyage. Although the interest on this account be greater than the law commonly allows, it is yet not esteemed usury; because the money being supplied at the lenders risk, if the ship perishes, he shares in the loss thereof.

BOW, _epaule_, in ship-building, the rounding part of a ship’s side forward, beginning at the place where the planks arch inwards, and terminated where they close at the stem or prow. See the article Head, where the bow of a ship is represented at large. It is proved by a variety of experiments, that a ship with a narrow bow is much better calculated for sailing swiftly, than one with a broad bow; but is not so well fitted for a high sea, into which she always _pitches_, or plunges, her fore-part very deep, for want of sufficient breadth to repel the volume of water, which she so easily divides in her fall. The former of these is called by seamen a _lean_, and the latter a _bluff_ bow.

“The bow which meets with the least resistance in a direct course, not only meets with the least resistance in oblique courses, but also has the additional property of driving the least to leeward; which is a double advantage gained by forming the bow so as to give it that figure which will be the least opposed in moving through any medium.” _Bouguer’s Traité du Navire._

_On the_ BOW, in navigation, an arch of the horizon, comprehended between some distant object, and that point of the compass which is right-ahead, or to which the ship’s stem is directed. This phrase is equally applicable, when the object is beheld from the ship, or discovered by trigonometrical calculation: as, we saw a fleet at day-break bearing three points _on the starboard bow_; that is, three points, from that part of the horizon which is right ahead, towards the right hand. See also the article BEARING.

BOWER. See the article ANCHOR.

BOWLINE, _bouline_, a rope fastened near the middle of the leech, or perpendicular edge of the square sails, by three or four subordinate parts, called bridles. It is only used when the wind is so unfavourable that the sails must be all braced sideways, or _close-hauled_ to the wind: in this situation the bowlines are employed to keep the weather, or windward, edges of the principal sails tight forward and steddy, without which they would be always shivering, and rendered incapable of service. See the articles BRIDLE, CLOSE-HAULING, and SAIL.

_To check the_ BOWLINE, is to slacken it, when the wind becomes large.

_To_ BOWSE, _palanquer_, to draw on any body with a tackle, or complication of pullies, in order to remove it, or otherwise alter its state or situation: this is chiefly practised when such alteration or removal cannot be conveniently effected without the application of mechanical powers. This term is pronounced _bowce_.

BOWSPRIT, _beaupré_, (from _bow_ and _sprit_) a large boom or mast, which projects over the stem, to carry sail forward, in order to govern the fore part of a ship, and counter-act the force of the sails extended behind, or, in the _after_ part. It is otherways of great use, as being the principal support of the fore-mast, by confining the _stays_ whereby it is secured, and enabled to carry sail: these are great ropes stretching from the mast-head to the middle of the bowsprit, where they are drawn tight. See the articles STAY and DEAD-EYE.

BOXES _of the pump_. See the article PUMP.

BOX-HAULING, in navigation, a particular method of veering a ship, when the swell of the sea renders tacking impracticable. It is performed by putting the helm _a-lee_, to throw the head up to windward, where meeting with great resistance from the repeated shocks of the waves on the weather bow, it _falls off_, or turns to leeward, with a quicker effort, and without advancing. The aftermost sails are at this time diminished, or perhaps altogether deprived of their force of action, for a short time, because they would otherwise counteract the sails forward, and prevent the ship from turning. They are, however, extended as soon as the ship, in veering, brings the wind on the opposite quarter, as their effort then contributes to assist her motion of wheeling.

BOX-HAULING is generally performed when the ship is too near the shore to have room for veering in the usual way. See VEERING.

BOXING, an operation in sailing somewhat similar to box-hauling. It is performed by laying the head-sails, or the sails in the fore-part of the ship, aback, to receive the greatest force of the wind in a line perpendicular to their surfaces, in order to throw the ship’s head back into the line of her course, after she had inclined to windward of it by neglect of the helmsman, or otherwise.

BRACE, _bras_, a rope employed to wheel, or traverse the sails upon the mast, in a direction parallel to the horizon, when it is necessary to shift the sails that they may correspond with the direction of the wind and the course of the ship. Braces are, for this purpose, fastened to the extremities of the yards, which are called the _yard-arms_.

All the braces of the yards are double, except those of the top-gallant, and spritsail-topsail yards. The mizen-yard is furnished with _fangs_, or vangs, in the room of braces. See the article MIZEN.

BRACKETS, _consoles_, short crooked timbers resembling knees. They are fixed under the galleries and frame of a ship’s head, to support the gratings.

BRAILS, _cargues_, (_breuils_, Fr.) certain ropes passing through pullies on the mizen-mast, and afterwards fastened, in different places, on the hinder, or aftmost ridge of the sail, in order to truss it up to the mast, as occasion requires. See MIZEN.

BRAILS, is likewise a general name given to all the ropes which are employed to _haul up_, or collect to their yards, the bottoms, lower corners, and skirts of the other great sails, for the more ready _furling_ them whenever it is necessary. The operation of thus drawing them together, is called brailing them up, or hauling them up in the brails. See the article SAIL.

BRAKE, _brimbale_, the handle, or lever, by which a common ship-pump is usually managed. It operates by means of two iron bolts thrust through the inner end of it; one of which resting across two cheeks or ears, in the upper-end of the pump, serves as a fulcrum for the brake, supporting it between the cheeks. The other bolt connects the extremity of the brake to the pump-spear, which draws up the _box_ or piston, charged with the water in the tube. See the article PUMP.

BREADTH, _largeur_, the measure of a ship from side to side in any particular place: it is usually distinguished into extreme-breadth, _ligne du fort_, main-breadth, and top-timber-breadth. See the explanation of the plane of projection, in the article _Naval_ ARCHITECTURE.

As the sides of the ship are formed by a variety of ribs, called timbers, and the areas of those timbers being of different breadths above and below, it is necessary to distinguish them in the construction, in order to form their several curves, and fix the corresponding pieces with more accuracy and precision. The part of every timber which encloses the greatest space from the middle-line of the ship’s length, is therefore called the _main_-breadth; and the distance between the upper-part of the same timber and the middle-line of the ship’s length, is called the top-timber-breadth.

As the ship is also broader at the midship-frame than in any other point of her length, the distance between her sides in the main-breadth of that timber, is called the extreme-breadth of the ship.

BREADTH-SWEEP, the radius of the arch which forms part of the curve of a ship’s timber; as explained in the horizontal plane. See _Naval_ ARCHITECTURE.

BREAKERS, _brisans_, a name given by sailors to those billows that break violently over rocks lying under the surface of the sea. They are distinguished both by their appearance and sound, as they cover that part of the sea with a perpetual foam, and produce a hoarse and terrible roaring, very different from what the waves usually have in a deeper bottom.

When a ship is unhappily driven amongst breakers, it is hardly possible to save her, as every billow that heaves her upwards, serves to dash her down with additional force, when it breaks over the rocks or sands beneath it.

BREAKING-BULK, the act of beginning to unlade a ship; or of discharging the first part of the cargo.

_To_ BREAK-UP, _déchirer_, to rip off the planks of a ship, and take her to pieces, when she becomes old and unserviceable.

BREAK-WATER, the hulk, or hull, of some old ship or vessel, sunk at the entrance of a small harbour, to break off, and diminish the force of the waves, as they advance towards the vessels moored within.

BREAK-WATER is also a sort of small buoy, fastened to a large one in the water, when the buoy-rope of the latter is not long enough to reach from the anchor, lying on the bottom, to the surface of the water. The use of this break-water is therefore to shew where the buoy swims. See BUOY.

_To_ BREAM, _chauffer_ (from _broom_) to burn off the filth, such as grass, ooze, shells, or sea-weed, from a ship’s bottom, that has gathered to it in a voyage, or by lying long in a harbour. This operation is performed by holding kindled furze, faggots, or such materials, to the bottom, so that the flame incorporating with the pitch, sulphur, &c. that had formerly covered it, immediately loosens and throws off whatever filth may have adhered to the planks. After this, the bottom is covered anew with a composition of sulphur, tallow, &c. which not only makes it smooth and slippery, so as to divide the fluid more readily, but also poisons and destroys those worms which eat through the planks in the course of a voyage. Breaming may be performed either when the ship lies aground after the tide has ebbed from her, by _docking_, or by _careening_, which see; as also COAT and STUFF.

BREAST-FAST, a sort of hawser, or large rope, employed to confine a ship sideways to a wharf or key, or to some other ship; as the head-fast confines her forward, and the stern-fast, abaft.

BREAST-HOOKS, _guirlandes_, (from _breast_ and _hook_) are thick pieces of timber, incurvated into the form of knees, and used to strengthen the fore-part of the ship, where they are placed at different heights directly across the stem, so as to unite it with the bows on each side.

The breast-hooks are strongly connected to the stem and hawse-pieces by tree-nails, and by bolts, driven from without, through the planks and hawse-pieces, and the whole thickness of the breast-hooks, upon whose inside those bolts are forelocked, or clinched, upon rings. They are usually about one third thicker, and twice as long, as the knees of the decks which they support.

There are generally four or five of these pieces in the hold between the kelson and the lower-deck, in the form of R, (plate I. PIECES _of the_ HULL), upon the uppermost of which the planks of that deck are rabitted. There are two placed between the lower and the second decks, in the form of S, (plate I.), one of which is immediately beneath the hawse-holes, and the other under the second deck, whose planks are inlaid thereon, and upon which the inner-end of the bowsprit frequently rests.

The fore-side of the breast-hook, which is convex, is formed so as to correspond with the place in which it is stationed, that is to say, it conforms exactly to the interior figure of that part of the bow where it ought to be fayed: accordingly the branches, or arms, of the breast-hooks, make a greater angle as they are more elevated above the keel, whilst the lower ones are more incurvated, and are almost figured like the crotches.

As it is not necessary that the inner, or concave side of these pieces, should retain a regular form, the artificers frequently let them remain as thick as possible, to give additional support to the ship’s fore-part, where she sustains the whole shock of resistance in dividing the fluid, or in plunging down into it.

It is evident that the connexion and solidity of the ship in this place will be reinforced in proportion to the strength and extent of the breast-hooks, so that they may cover a greater number of the head-timbers.

BREAST-WORK, _fronteau_, a sort of balustrade or fence, composed of rails or mouldings, and frequently decorated with sculpture. It is used to terminate the quarter-deck and poop at the fore-ends, and to inclose the forecastle both before and behind.

BREECHING, _brague_, (from _breech_) a rope used to secure the cannon of a ship of war, and prevent them from recoiling too much in the time of battle.

It is fixed by fastening the middle of it to the hindmost knob or cascabel of the gun, which sailors call the pomiglion, or pummelion; the two ends of it are afterwards inserted through two strong rings on the sides of the carriage, and fastened to other bolts in the ship’s sides.

The breeching is of sufficient length to let the muzzle of the cannon come within the ship’s side to be charged.

The use of the breeching, as it checks the recoil of the cannon, is shewn in plate III. DECK, where it is expressed by e e, passing through the ring-bolts, f, on the side of the carriage, g, being fastened to the cascabel, h. It is also exhibited in the MIDSHIP-FRAME, where it is employed to lash the cannon when it is _housed_ during the course of a voyage. See the article CANNON.

BREWING, the appearance of a collection of black and tempestuous clouds arising gradually from a particular part of the hemisphere, as the fore-runner of a storm.

BRIDLES, the upper-part of the moorings laid in the king’s harbours to ride ships or vessels of war. See the article MOORINGS.

BRIDLES _of the bowline_, _pattes_, the legs by which the bowline is fastened to different places on the edge or skirt of a large sail.

We have already explained the use of the _bowline_; that it is employed to confine or keep steddy the windward or weather edges of the principal sails when they are braced for a side-wind. For as the current of air enters the cavity of the sail in a direction nearly parallel to its surface, it follows that the ridge of the sail must necessarily be shaken by the wind, unless it is kept tight forward; but as a single rope has not been found sufficient to confine the whole skirt of the sail, inasmuch as it only draws upon one part thereof, it became necessary to apply bridles or legs spreading out from the bowline. They are represented in the figures annexed to the article SAIL.

BRIG, or BRIGANTINE, a merchant-ship with two masts. This term is not universally confined to vessels of a particular construction, or which are masted and rigged in a method different from all others. It is variously applied, by the mariners of different European nations, to a peculiar sort of vessel of their own marine.

Amongst English seamen, this vessel is distinguished by having her main-sail set nearly in the plane of her keel; whereas the main-sails of larger ships are hung athwart, or at right angles with the ship’s length, and fastened to a yard which hangs parallel to the deck: but in a brig, the foremost edge of the main-sail is fastened in different places to hoops which encircle the main-mast, and slide up and down it as the sail is hoisted or lowered: it is extended by a _gaff_ above, and by a boom below.

_To_ BRING _by the lee_. See _To_ BROACH-TO.

_To_ BRING-TO, in navigation, _caposer_, to check the course of a ship when she is advancing, by arranging the sails in such a manner as that they shall counter-act each other, and prevent her either from retreating or moving forward. In this situation the ship is said to lie-by, or lie-to, having, according to the sea-phrase, some of her sails _aback_, to oppose the force of those which are _full_; or having them otherwise shortened by being _furled_, or _hauled up in the brails_.

BRINGING-TO, is generally used to detain a ship in any particular station, in order to wait the approach of some other that may be advancing towards her: or to retard her course occasionally near any port in the course of a voyage.

_To_ BRING-UP, a provincial phrase peculiar to the seamen in the coal-trade, signifying to anchor, &c.

_To_ BROACH-TO, in navigation, to incline suddenly to windward of the ship’s course when she sails with a large wind; or, when she sails directly before the wind, to deviate from the line of her course, either to the right or left, with such rapidity as to bring the ship’s side unexpectedly to windward, and expose her to the danger of oversetting.

It is easy to conceive that a ship will carry much more sail before the wind than when she makes a progress with her side to its direction; because when the current of wind acts nearly endways on her hull, the pressure of it on the masts must be considerably diminished as she yields to its impulse and flies before it; and that if she carries a great sail at this time, it can only press her fore-part lower down in the water. But if, when she carries a great extension of sail, her side is suddenly brought to the wind, it may be attended with the most fatal consequences, as the whole force of it then pours like a torrent into the cavities of the sails. The masts therefore unavoidably yield to this strong impression, acting like levers on the ship sideways, so as nearly to overturn her, unless she is relieved by some other event, which may be also extremely pernicious, such as the sails rending to pieces, or the masts being carried away.

It is generally occasioned by the difficulty of steering the ship; by the negligence or incapacity of the helmsman; or by some disaster happening to the helm or its machinery, which renders it incapable of governing the ship’s course.

The difference between broaching-to and bringing _by the lee_, may be thus defined. Suppose a ship with a great sail set is steering south, having the wind N.N.W. then is west the _weather_, and east the _lee-side_.

If by some deficiency in the steerage her head turns round to the westward, so as that her sails are all taken aback on the weather-side before she can be made to return to the course from which she has deviated, she is said to _broach-to_.

If otherwise her head, from the same cause, has declined so far eastward as to lay her sails aback on that side which was the lee-side, it is called bringing her by the lee.

BROADSIDE, _bordee_, in a naval engagement, the whole discharge of the artillery on one side of a ship of war above and below; as,

We poured a broadside into the enemy’s ship, i. e. discharged all the ship’s cannon on one side upon her.

She brought her broadside to bear on the castle; that is, disposed the ship so as to point all her cannon to it within point-blank range.

A squall of wind laid the ship on her broadside; that is, pressed her down in the water, so as nearly to overturn her.

BROKEN-BACKED, _arcqué_, the state or quality of a ship, which is so loosened in her frame, either by age, weakness, or some great strain, as to droop at each end.

This circumstance is more common amongst French than the English or Dutch ships, owing partly to their great length, and to the sharpness of the floor, whose breadth is not sufficiently carried from the middle towards each end; and partly from being frequently obliged to have a great weight in both ends, when they are empty in the middle, at the time of discharging one cargo and taking in another. See CAMBERING.

BUCCANEER, a name given to certain piratical rovers of various European nations, who formerly infested the Spanish coasts in America, and, under pretence of traffic with the inhabitants, frequently seized their treasure, plundered their houses, and committed many other depredations.

_Ship_-BUILDING may be defined the manner of constructing ships, or the work itself, as distinguished from naval architecture, which we have rather considered as the theory or art of delineating ships on a plane, and to which this article may properly be understood as a supplement.

The pieces by which this complicated machine is framed, are joined together in various places, by scarfing, rabitting, tenanting, and scoring. See those articles.

During the construction of a ship, she is supported in the dock, or upon a wharf, by a number of solid blocks of timber placed at equal distances from, and parallel to, each other, as may be seen in the article LANCHING; she is then said to be on the stocks.

The first piece of timber laid upon the blocks is generally the keel; I say _generally_, because, of late, a different method has been adopted in some of the royal dock-yards, by beginning with the floor-timbers; the artists having found that the keel is often apt to rot during the long period of building a large ship of war. The pieces of the keel, as exhibited in plate I. are scarfed together, and bolted, forming one entire piece, A A. which constitutes the length of the vessel below. At one extremity of the keel is erected the _stem_. It is a strong piece of timber incurvated nearly into a circular arch, or, according to the technical term, _compassing_, so as to project outwards at the upper-end, forming what is called the _rake_ forward. In small vessels this is framed of one piece, but in large ships it is composed of several pieces scarfed and bolted together, as expressed in the explanation of plate I. PIECES _of the_ HULL, and in those terms separately. At the other extremity of the keel, is elevated the stern-post, which is always of one entire strait piece. The heel of it is let into a mortise in the keel, and having its upper-end to hang outwards, making an obtuse angle with the keel, like that of the stem: this projection is called the _rake_ abaft. The stern-post, which ought to support the stern, contains the iron-work or hinges of the rudder, which are called _googings_, and unites the lower-part of the ship’s sides abaft. See the connexion of those pieces in the ELEVATION, pl. I.

Towards the upper-end of the stern-post, and at right angles with its length, is fixed the middle of the _wing-transom_, where it is firmly bolted. Under this is placed another piece parallel thereto, and called the deck-transom, upon which the after-end of the lower-deck is supported. Parallel to the deck-transom, and at a proper distance under it, another piece is fixed to the stern-post, called the first transom, all of which serve to connect the stern-post to the _fashion pieces_. Two more transoms, called the second and third, are also placed under these, being likewise attached to the fashion pieces, into which the extremities of all the transoms are let, as exhibited in plate X. fig. 1. The fashion-pieces are formed like the other timbers of the ship, and have their heels resting on the upper-part of the kelson, at the after extremity of the floor ribbands.

All these pieces, viz. the transoms, the fashion-pieces, and their top-timbers, being strongly united into one frame, are elevated upon the stern-post, and the whole forms the structure of the stern, upon which the galleries and windows, with their ornaments, are afterwards built,

The stem and stern-post being thus elevated upon the keel, to which they are securely connected by knees and arched pieces of timber bolted to both; and the keel being raised at its two extremities by pieces of dead-wood, the midship _floor-timber_ is placed across the keel, whereto it is bolted through the middle. The floor-timbers before and abaft the midship-frame are then stationed in their proper places upon the keel; after which the _kelson_, which, like the keel, is composed of several pieces scarfed together, is fixed across the middle of the floor-timbers, to which it is attached by bolts driven through the keel, and clinched on the upper-part of the kelson. The futtocks are then raised upon the floor-timbers, and the _hawse-pieces_ erected upon the cant-timbers in the fore-part of the ship. The top-timbers on each side are next attached to the head of the futtocks, as already explained in the article _naval_ ARCHITECTURE. The frames of the principal timbers being thus completed, are supported by ribbands, as exhibited in the plate referred to from the article RIBBANDS.

The ribs of the ship being now stationed, they proceed to fix on the planks, of which the wales are the principal, being much thicker and stronger than the rest; as is represented in the MIDSHIP-FRAME. The harpins, which may be considered as a continuation of the wales at their fore-ends, are fixed across the hawse-pieces, and surround the fore-part of the ship. The planks that inclose the ship’s sides are then brought about the timbers, and the _clamps_, which are of equal thickness with the wales, fixed opposite to the wales within the ship; these are used to support the ends of the beams, and accordingly stretch from one end of the ship to the other. The _thick stuff_, or strong planks of the bottom within-board, are then placed opposite to the several scarfs of the timbers, to reinforce them throughout the ship’s length. The planks employed to line the ship, called the _ceiling_, or _foot-waling_, is next fixed in the intervals between the thick-stuff of the hold. The _beams_ are afterwards laid across the ship to support the decks, and are connected to the side by lodging and hanging knees; the former of which are exhibited in their proper stations in plate III. F. and the hanging ones, together with the breadth, thickness, and position of the keel, floor-timbers, futtocks, top timbers, wales, clamps, thick-stuff, planks within and without, beams, decks, &c. are seen in the MIDSHIP-FRAME.

The cable-bits being next erected, the _carlings_ and _ledges_, which are represented in plate III. and described in their proper places, are disposed between the beams to strengthen the deck. The _water-ways_ are then laid on the ends of the beams throughout the ship’s length, and the spirketting fixed close above them. The upper-deck is then planked, and the _string_ placed under the _gunnel_ or _plansheer_ in the waist. The disposition of those latter pieces on the timbers, viz. the water-ways, spirketting, upper-deck, string, and gunnel, are also represented in the MIDSHIP-FRAME.

They proceed next to plank the quarter-deck and forecastle, and to fix the _partners_ of the masts and capsterns with the _coamings_ of the hatches. The _breast-hooks_ are then bolted across the stem and bow within-board, the _step_ of the fore-mast placed on the kelson; and the _riders_, exhibited in the MIDSHIP-FRAME, fayed on the inside of the timbers to reinforce the sides in different places of the ship’s length. The _pointers_, if any, are afterwards fixed across the hold diagonally to support the beams; and the _crotches_ stationed in the after-hold to unite the half-timbers. The _steps_ of the main-mast and capsterns are next placed; the planks of the lower-decks and orlop laid; the _navel hoods_ fayed on the hawse-holes; and the _knee of the head_, or cutwater, connected to the stem. The figure of the head is then erected, and the _trail-board_ and cheeks fixed on the sides of the knee.

The _taffarel_ and _quarter pieces_, which terminate the ship abaft, the former above, and the latter on each side, are then disposed; and the stern and quarter galleries framed and supported by their brackets. The _pumps_, with their well, are next fixed in the hold; the _limber-boards_ laid on each side of the kelson, and the _garboard_ strake fixed on the ship’s bottom next to the keel without.

The hull being thus fabricated, they proceed to separate the apartments by _bulk-heads_, or partitions; to frame the _port-lids_; to fix the _catheads_ and _chess-trees_; to form the _hatchways_ and _scuttles_, and fit them with proper covers or _gratings_. They next fix the ladders whereby to mount or descend the different hatchways, and build the _manger_ on the lower deck, to carry off the water that runs in at the hawse-holes when the ship rides at anchor in a sea. The bread-room and magazines are then lined, and the _gunnel_, _rails_, and _gangways_, fixed on the upper part of the ship. The _cleats_, _kevels_, and _ranges_, by which the ropes are. fastened, are afterwards bolted or nailed to the sides. in different places.

The _rudder_, being fitted with its irons, is next hung to the stern-post; and the _tiller_, or bar, by which it is managed, let into a mortise at its upper-end. The _scuppers_, or leaden tubes, that carry the water off from the decks, are then placed in holes cut through the ship’s sides; and the _standards_, represented in the MIDSHIP-FRAME, bolted to the beams and sides above the decks to which they belong. The poop-lanthorns are last fixed upon their cranes over the stern, and the bilge-ways, or cradles, placed under the bottom, to conduct the ship steadily into the water whilst lanching.

As the various pieces, which have been mentioned above, are explained at large in their proper places, with references to their figures according to the plan of this work, it would have been superfluous to have entered into a more particular description of them here. It is perhaps necessary to observe, that as the theory ought always to precede the practice, this article would probably be much better understood by previously reading that of _Naval_ ARCHITECTURE, which may be considered as a proper introduction to it.

BUILT, _fabrique_, the particular form or structure of a ship, by which she is distinguished from others of a different class or nation. Thus a ship is said to be frigate-built, galley-built, a hag-boat, a pink, a cat, &c. or to be English-built, French-built, American-built, &c.

BULK-HEADS, certain partitions, or walls, built up in several places of a ship between two decks, either lengthwise or across, to form and separate the various apartments. Some of those which are built across the ship are remarkably strong. See the article CLOSE-QUARTERS.

BULL’S-EYE, _cosse_. a sort of small pulley in the form of a ring, having a rope spliced round the outer edge of it, (which is hollowed to admit of the rope) and a large hole in the middle for another rope to slide in. It is seldom used but for the main and fore bowline-bridles of some ships, particularly the colliers of Northumberland, &c. It is spliced in the outer-end of the bowline, and sliding along the bridle, to rest in the most apposite place, draws it tight above and below. This implement is more frequently used by Dutch than English seamen.

BUMKIN, or BOOMKIN, _boute-lof_, a short boom or bar of timber, projecting from each _bow_ of a ship, to extend the lower-edge of the fore-sail to windward; for which purpose there is a large block fixed on its outer end, through which the rope is passed that is fastened to the lower-corner of the sail to windward, called the _tack_; and this being drawn tight down, brings the corner of the sail close to the block, which being performed, the _tack_ is said to be _aboard_.

The bumkin is secured by a strong rope which confines it downward to the ship’s bow, to counter-act the strain it bears from the fore-sail above, dragging it upwards.

BUNT, the middle part, or cavity of the principal square sails, as the main-sail, fore-sail, top-sails, and top-gallant-sails. If one of those sails is supposed to be divided into four equal parts, from one side to the other, then may the two middle divisions, which comprehend half of the sail, be properly called the limits of the bunt.

BUNTINE, _etamine_, a thin woollen stuff, of which the colours and signals of a ship are usually formed.

BUNTLINES, _cargues fond_, are ropes fastened to the bottoms of the square sails, to draw them up to the yards: they are inserted through certain blocks above, or on the upper-part of the yard, whence passing down-wards on the fore-part of the sail, they are fastened below to the lower-edge in several places of the _bolt-rope_.

BUOY, (_bouée_, Fr.) a sort of close cask, or block of wood, fastened by a rope to the anchor, to determine the place where the anchor is situated, that the ship may not come too near it, to entangle her cable about the stock, or the flukes of it.

BUOYS are of various kinds; as,

_Can_-BUOYS; these are in the form of a cone, (see plate II. fig. 8.) and of this construction are all the buoys which are floated over dangerous banks and shallows, as a warning to passing ships, that they may avoid them. They are extremely large, that they may be seen at a distance, and are fastened by strong chains to the anchors which are sunk for this purpose at such places.

_Nun_-BUOYS, are shaped like the middle frustum of two cones, abutting upon one common base, (plate II. fig. 9.) being casks, which are large in the middle, and tapering, nearly to a point, at each end.

_Wooden_ BUOYS, are solid pieces of timber, sometimes in the shape of a cylinder, and sometimes of a nun-buoy; they are furnished with one or two holes, in which to fix a short piece of rope, whose two ends being spliced together make a sort of circle or ring called the strop.

_Cable_-BUOYS, common casks employed to buoy up the cable in different places from any rocky ground. In the harbour of Alexandria, in Egypt, every ship is moored with at least three cables, and has three or four of these buoys on each cable for this purpose.

BUOY-ROPE, the rope which fastens the buoy to the anchor: it should be little more than equal in length to the depth of the water where the anchor lies, as it is intended to float near, or immediately above the bed of it, that the pilot may at all times know the situation thereof. See plate I. fig. 6. b is the anchor, c the buoy-rope, and d the buoy floating on the surface of the water.

The BUOY-ROPE is often extremely useful otherways, in drawing up the anchor when the cable is broke. It should therefore be always of sufficient strength for this purpose, or else the anchor may be lost through negligence.

_Slings of the_ BUOY, the ropes which are fastened about it, and by which it is hung: they are curiously spliced round it, something resembling the braces of a drum.

_To stream the_ BUOY, is to let it fall from the ship’s side into the water, which is always done before they let go the anchor, that it may not be retarded by the buoy-rope as it sinks to the bottom.

BURTHEN, or BURDEN, _port_, (_byrthen_, Sax.) the weight or measure of any species of merchandize that a ship will carry when fit for sea.

To determine the burthen, or, in other words, the tonnage, of a ship, it is usual to multiply the length of the keel into the extreme breadth of the ship within-board, taken along the midship-beam, and multiply the product by the depth in the _hold_ from the plank joining to the _kelson_ upwards, to the main-deck, and divide the last product by 94, then will the quotient be the burden required, in tons.

BURTON, _bredindin_, a sort of small tackle, formed by two blocks or pullies, till the rope becomes three or four fold, and acquires an additional power in proportion.

It is generally employed to tighten the shrouds of the top-masts, but may be otherways used to move or draw along any weighty body in the _hold_, or on the _deck_, as anchors, bales of goods, large casks, &c.

BUSS, _buche_, (_busse_, Germ.) a ship of two masts, used by the English and Dutch in their herring fisheries. It is generally from fifty to seventy tons burthen; being furnished with two small sheds or cabins, one at the prow and the other at the stern; the former of which is employed as a kitchen.

BUTT, _about_, the end of any plank in a ship’s side which unites with the end of another, continuing its length: when a plank is loosened at the end by the ship’s weakness or labouring, she is said to have started or sprung a butt.

BUTTOCK, the convexity of a ship behind, under the stern; it is terminated by the counter above, and by the after part of the bilge below, by the rudder in the middle, and by the quarter on the side.

BUTTONS. See the article BONNET.

C.

CABIN, _cabane_, a room or apartment in a ship where any of the officers usually reside.

There are many of these in a large ship; the principal of which is designed for the captain, or commander. In ships of the line, this chamber is furnished with an open gallery in the ships stern, as also a little gallery on each quarter. The apartments where the inferior officers or common sailors sleep and mess, are usually called births; which see.

The bed-places built up for the sailors at the ships side in merchantmen, are also called cabins.

CABLE, (_cable_, Fr.) a large, strong rope of a considerable length, used to retain a ship at anchor in a road, bay, or haven.

Cables are of various sorts and sizes. In Europe they are usually manufactured of hemp; in Africa they are more frequently composed of bass, which is a sort of long straw or rushes; and in Asia of a peculiar sort of Indian grass.

Cables, of what thickness soever, are generally formed of three ropes twisted together, which are then called _strands_: each of these is composed of three smaller strands; and those last of a certain number of rope-yarns. This number is therefore greater or smaller in proportion to the size of the cable required.

There are some cables, however, manufactured of four strands; which are chiefly the production of Italy and Provence.

All ships ought to be furnished with at least three good cables; the _sheet_ cable, and the two _bowers_; best and small.

All cables ought to be one hundred and twenty fathoms in length; for which purpose the threads or yarns must be one hundred and eighty fathoms; inasmuch as they are diminished one third in length by twisting. Besides this length, it is necessary to splice at least two cables together, in order to double the length when a ship is obliged to anchor in deep water. For although it is not common to anchor in a greater depth than forty fathoms, yet if there is only one cable, and the ship rides in a storm and tempestuous sea, the anchor will of necessity sustain the whole weight and violent jerking of the ship, in a direction too nearly perpendicular. By this effort it will unavoidably be loosened from its hold, and dragged by the ship, which thus driven from her station, is in immediate danger of being wrecked on the nearest rocks or shallows; whereas it is evident, that if the cable, by its great length, were to draw more horizontally on the anchor, it would bear a much greater force. See ANCHOR.

The long cable is not so apt to break as the short one; because it will bear a great deal more stretching before it comes to the greatest strain: it therefore resembles a sort of spring, which may be very easily extended, and afterwards recovers its first state, as soon as the force which extended it is removed. Besides all this, a ship will ride much smoother with a long cable, and be less apt to _pitch_, or plunge deep in the water with her fore-part.

On the contrary, the short cable, being too nearly vertical to the anchor, cannot bear such a strain, because it is charged with a greater effort; and, as it will not bear stretching, may break at the first violent tug. The ship also rides with much greater difficulty, labours extremely, and often plunges all her fore-part under water.

By what has been said on this subject, we may see how very necessary it is to furnish a ship with sufficiency of cables, or what is called ground-tackle; and what an inconsiderate policy it is in merchants to expose their vessels to such evident dangers from the want of them. For we may venture to assert, without violation of truth, that many good ships have been lost only on account of a deficiency in this important article.

A cable ought neither to be twisted too much or too little; as in the former state it will be extremely stiff, and difficult to manage; and in the latter, it will be considerably diminished in its strength.

All cables are to each other as the cubes of their diameters.

The number of threads also, of which each cable is composed, being always proportioned to its length and thickness, the weight and value of it are determined by this number. Thus a cable of ten inches in circumference, ought to consist of four hundred and eighty-five threads; and weigh one thousand nine hundred and forty pounds: and on this foundation is calculated the following table, very useful for all persons engaged in marine commerce, who equip merchant-ships on their own account, or freight them for the account of others.

A table of the number of threads and weight of cables of different circumference.

Circumference in inches. Threads or rope-yarns. Weight in pounds. 9 393 1572 10 485 1940 11 598 2392 12 699 2796 13 821 3284 14 952 3808 15 1093 4372 16 1244 4976 17 1404 5616 18 1574 6296 19 1754 7016 20 1943 7772

_Stream_-CABLE, a hauser, or rope, something smaller than the bowers, and used to moor the ship in a river or haven, sheltered from the wind and sea, &c.

_To bit the_ CABLE. See the article BITS.

_To serve the_ CABLE, is to bind it round with ropes, leather, or other materials, to prevent it from being galled, or fretted in the hawse by friction.

_Heave in the_ CABLE! the order to draw it into the ship by winding about the capstern or windlass.

_Pay away the_ CABLE! slacken it, that it may run out of the ship. This phrase is the same with _veer away_ the cable. See the French term _cable_, and the phrases following it.

CABLE’S _length_, a measure of 120 fathoms, or of the usual length of the cable.

_To_ CALK, or CAULK, _calfater_, (probably from _calage_, Fr. hemp) to drive a quantity of oakum, or old ropes untwisted and drawn asunder, into the seams of the planks, or into the intervals where the planks are joined to each other in the ship’s decks or sides, in order to prevent the entrance of water. After the oakum is driven very hard into these seams, it is covered with hot melted pitch or resin, to keep the water from rotting it.

Amongst the ancients, the first who made use of pitch in calking, were the inhabitants of Phæacia, afterwards called Corsica. Wax and resin appear to have been commonly used previous to that period; and the Poles at this time use a sort of unctuous clay for the same purpose, on their navigable rivers.

CALL, _sifflet_, a sort of whistle, or pipe, of silver or brass, used by the boatswain and his mates to summon the sailors to their duty, and direct them in the different employments of the ship.

As the call can be sounded to various strains, each of them is appropriated to some particular exercise; such as hoisting, heaving, lowering, veering away, belaying, letting-go a tackle, &c. The act of winding this instrument is called _piping_, which is as attentively observed by sailors, as the beat of the drum to march, retreat, rally, charge, &c. is obeyed by soldiers.

CALM, the state of rest which appears in the air and sea when there is no wind stirring.

That tract of the Atlantic ocean, situated between the tropic of Cancer and the latitude of 29° north; or the space that lies between the _trade_ and the variable winds, is frequently subject to calms of very long duration: and hence it has acquired, amongst seamen, the name of the Calm Latitudes.

A long calm is often more fatal to a ship than the severest tempest, because if the ship is tight and in good condition, she may sustain the latter without much injury; whereas in a long calm, the provision and water may be entirely consumed, without any opportunity of obtaining a fresh supply. The surface of the sea in a continued calm is smooth and bright as a looking-glass.

CAMBERED-DECK, the deck or flooring of a ship is said to be cambered, or to lie cambering, when it is higher in the middle of the ship’s length, and droops towards the stem and stern, or the two ends. Also when it lies irregular; a circumstance which renders the ship very unfit for war. See the article BROKEN-BACKED.

CAN-BUOY. See BUOY.

CAN-HOOKS, an instrument used to sling a cask by the ends of the staves: it is formed by fixing a broad and flat hook at each end of a short rope, and the tackle by which the cask so slung may be hoisted or lowered, is hooked to the middle of the rope. See plate II. fig. 8 and 9. The canhooks commonly used ashore by brewers, &c. are all iron, the middle part being fitted with a chain in the place of a rope.

CANNON, a well known piece of artillery, mounted in battery on the decks of a ship, and used in all naval engagements.

This engine has already been so accurately described by a variety of authors, that it may seem unnecessary to give a particular description of it here. As it forms, however, so important an article in all the military operations of the marine, it cannot, consistently with our plan, be omitted in this place.

CANNON then may be defined a long, conical fire-arm of brass or iron, concave within, and smaller at the muzzle, or face, than at the opposite end.

The principal parts of a sea-cannon, as represented in plate VII. fig. 3, are, 1st. The breech, A C, and its button, or cascabel, A h, called by seamen the pomiglion. The breech is generally understood to be the solid metal from the bottom of the concave cylinder to the cascabel, which is the extremity of the cannon opposite to its muzzle.

2d. The trunnions, T, which project on each side like arms, and serve to support the cannon near the middle of its length: on these it may be poised, and held almost in _equilibrio_. As the metal is thicker at the breech than towards the mouth, the trunnions are placed nearer to that end than the other.

3d. The bore, or caliber, which is comprehended between the dotted lines, and particularly expressed in the longitudinal section of a thirty-two-pounder, fig. 15. This represents the interior or concave cylinder, wherein the powder and shot are lodged with which the cannon is charged: the entrance of the bore is called the mouth.

=Names of the other parts, including the above plate VII. fig. 3.=

A B, the length of the cannon. A E, the first reinforce. E F, the second reinforce. F B, the chace. H B, the muzzle. A o, the cascabel, or pomiglion. A C, the breech. C D, the vent-field. F I, the chace-girdle. r s, the base-ring and ogee. t, the vent-astragal and fillets. p q, the first reinforce-ring and ogee. v w, the second reinforce-ring and ogee. x, the chace-astragal and fillets. z, the muzzle-astragal and fillets. n, the muzzle-mouldings. m, the swelling of the muzzle, A i, the breech-mouldings.

The use of these machines is to discharge upon the enemy globes or balls of iron, called _shot_, which are therefore of various sizes, in proportion to the caliber of the cannon. The diameter of the ball is always somewhat less than the bore of the piece, that it may be discharged with the greater ease, and not damage the piece by rubbing it too forcibly in its passage; and the difference between these diameters is called the windage of the cannon.

The length of any cannon is always reckoned from the hind part of the base ring, or beginning of the cascabel, to the extremity of the muzzle. The second reinforce begins at the same circle where the first terminates; and the chace at the same circle where the second reinforce ends.

The first reinforce therefore includes the base ring; the ogee nearest thereto; the vent-field; the vent-astragal, and first reinforce-ring. The second reinforce contains the ogee next to the first reinforce-ring and the second reinforce-ring. The chace comprehends the ogee nearest to the second reinforce-ring; the chace-girdle and astragal; and the muzzle and astragal. The trunnions are always placed on the second reinforce, so as that the breech part of the cannon may weigh something more than the muzzle-part, to prevent the piece from starting up behind when it is fired.

A variety of experiments, made with great care and accuracy, prove that powder when on fire possesses at least 4000[2] times more space than when in grains. Therefore if we suppose that the quantity of powder with which a cannon is charged possesses one fourth of a cubical foot in grains, it will, when on fire, occupy the space of about 1000 cubical feet. The same experiments evince also that the powder when inflamed, is dilated equally round its center. One grain of powder fired in the center of different concentric circles, round which grains of powder are placed, shall therefore set fire to all those grains at once.

From this principle it necessarily follows, that powder, when fired in a cannon, makes at the same instant an equal effort on every part of the inside of the piece, in order to expand itself about its center every way, But as the resistance from the sides of the piece turns the action of the powder, so as to follow the direction of the bore of the cannon when it presses upon the ball, so as to force it outwards, it presses also on the breech of the cannon; and this gives the piece a motion backwards, that is called its _recoil_ which, as we have already observed, is restrained by the _breeching_ and the convexity of the decks. The recoil in some degree diminishes the action of the powder upon the shot. But this cannot be avoided; for, if the carriages were fixed so as not to give way to this motion, the action of the powder, or the effort that causes the recoil, would tear them to pieces in a very short time.

All pieces of artillery were formerly distinguished into the names of sakers, culverins, cannon, and demi-cannon; but at present their names are derived from the weight of the ball which they discharge: thus a piece that discharges a ball of twenty-four pounds, is called a twenty-four-pounder; and one that carries a shot of thirty-two pounds, a thirty-two-pounder; and so of the rest.

The metal of cannon is not equally thick in all parts, but is in some measure proportioned to the force of the powder which it is to resist. At the breech, where the effort is strongest, the thickness of the metal is equal to the diameter of the corresponding shot. At the first reinforce, where this begins to slacken, the thickness is somewhat less than at the breech: at the second, where the force is still further diminished, the thickness is more reduced than at the first: and, by the same rule, the chace has less thickness than the second reinforce. The thickness of the chace gradually diminishes from the trunnions to the mouth of the piece; so that if a cannon was without cascabel, trunnion, and mouldings, it would exactly resemble the frustum of a cone, or a cone deprived of the small end.

In a vessel of war, cannon are placed on a sort of wheeled sledge, called the _carriage_, of which fig. 16. plate VII. is the plan, and fig. 17. the elevation. This carriage is composed of two large pieces of plank, called sides or cheeks, connected together by means of cross-pieces, which are either bolts, axle-trees, or transoms. The two axle-trees are fixed across under the fore and hinder parts of the carriage, being supported at their extremities by solid wooden wheels called trucks. The transom is placed directly over the fore axle-tree, and exactly in the middle of the height of the cheeks or side-pieces. The height of the transom is equal to two diameters of the shot, and the breadth to one diameter.

Explanation of the iron-work, and different parts of a sea-carriage, as exhibited in the plan and elevation of a thirty-two pounder, pl. VII. fig. 16. and 17.

a. The cap-squares, commonly called clamps in the sea-service.

b. Eye-bolts, by which one end of the clamp is fixed to the carriage.