CHAPTER VII

THE SECOND AGE OF POETRY

The fifties, the sixties, and the seventies were, all over Europe, the epoch of Parnassian poetry. In England, Tennyson was pouring out his "fervent and faultless melodies," Matthew Arnold was playing his plaintive harp, and the Pre-Raphaelites were weaving their tapestried dreams; in France, Gautier was carving his cameos, Banville's Harlequins and Columbines were dancing on a Watteau-like stage in the silver twilight of Corot, Baudelaire was at work on his sombre bronze, Sully-Prudhomme twanged his ivory lyre, and Leconte de Lisle was issuing his golden coinage. It was, in poetry, the epoch of art for art's sake.

Russian poetry did not escape the universal tendency; but in Russia everything was conspiring to put poetry, and especially that kind of poetry, in the shade. In the first place, events of great magnitude were happening--the wide reforms, the emancipation of the serfs, the growth of Nihilism, which was the product of the disillusion at the result of the reforms: in the second place, criticism under the influence of Chernyshevsky, Pisarev, and Dobrolyubov was entirely realistic and positivist, preaching not art for life's sake only, but the absolute futility of poetry; and, in the third place, work of the supremest kind was being done in narrative fiction; in the fourth place, no prophet-poet was forthcoming whose genius was great enough to voice national aspirations. All this tended to put poetry in the shade, especially as such poets as did exist were, with one notable exception, Parnassians, whose talent dwelt aloof from the turbid stream of life, and who sought to express the adventures of their souls, which were emotional and artistic, either in dreamy music or in exquisite shapes and colours. This neglect of verse lasted right up until the end of the seventies. When, however, in the eighties, the wave of political crisis reached its climax and, after the assassination of Alexander II, rolled back into a sea of stagnant reaction, the poets, who had been hitherto neglected, and quietly singing all the while, were discovered once more, and the shares in poetry continued to rise as time went on; thus the poets of the sixties reaped their due meed of appreciation.

A proof of how widespread and deep this neglect was is that TYUTCHEV, whose work attracted no attention whatever until 1854, and met with no wide appreciation until a great deal later, was four years younger than Pushkin, and a man of thirty when Goethe died. He went on living until 1873, and can be called the first of the Parnassians. Politically, he was a Slavophile, and sang the "resignation" and "long-suffering" of the Russian people, which he preferred to the stiff-neckedness of the West. But the value of his work lies less in his Slavophile aspirations than in its depth of thought and lyrical feeling, in the contrast between the gloomy forebodings of his imagination and the sunlike images he gives of nature. His verse is like a spring day, dark with ominous thunderclouds, out of which a rainbow and a shaft of sunlight fall on a dewy orchard and light it with a silvery smile. His verse is, on the one hand, full of foreboding and terror at the fate of man and the shadow of nothingness, and, on the other hand, it twitters like a bird over the freshness and sunshine of spring. He sings the spring again and again, and no Russian poet has ever sung the glory, the mystery, the wonder, and the terror of night as he has done; his whole work is compounded of glowing pictures of nature and a world of longing and of unutterable dreams.

The dreamy dominion of the Parnassian age, on whose threshold Tyutchev stood, was to be disturbed by the notes of a harsher and stronger music.

NEKRASOV (1821-77), Russia's "sternest painter," and certainly one of her best, drew his inspiration direct from life, and sang the sufferings, the joys, and the life of the people. He is a Russian Crabbe; nature and man are his subjects, but nature as the friend and foe of man, as a factor, the most important factor in man's life, and not as an ideal storehouse from which a Shelley can draw forms more real than living man, nurslings of immortality, or a Wordsworth reap harvests of the inward eye. He called his muse the "Muse of Vengeance and of Grief." He is an uncompromising realist, like Crabbe, and idealizes nothing in his pictures of the peasant's life. Like Crabbe, he has a deep note of pathos, and a keen but not so minute an eye for landscape.

On the other hand, he at times attains to imaginative sublimity in his descriptions, as, for instance, in his poem called _The Red-nosed Frost_, where King Frost approaches a peasant widow who is at work in the winter forest, and freezes her to death. As Daria is gradually freezing to death, the frost comes to her like a warrior; and his semblance and attributes are drawn in a series of splendid stanzas. He sings to her of his riches that no profusion can decrease, and of his kingdom of silver and diamonds and pearls: then, as she freezes, she dreams of a hot summer's day, and of the rye harvest and of the familiar songs--

"Away with the song she is soaring, She surrenders herself to its stream, In the world there is no such sweet singing As that which we hear in a dream."

His longest and most ambitious work was a kind of popular epic, _Who is Happy in Russia?_ written in short lines which have the popular ring and accent. Some peasants start on a pilgrimage to find out who is happy in Russia. They fly on a magic carpet, and interview representatives of the different classes of society, the pope, the landowner, the peasant woman, each new interview producing a whole series of stories, sometimes idyllic and sometimes tragic, and all showing their genius as intimate pictures of various phases of Russian life. Here, again, the analogy with Crabbe suggests itself, for Nekrasov's tales, taking into consideration the difference between the two countries, have a marked affinity, both in their subject matter, their variety, their stern realism, their pathos, their bitterness, and their observation of nature, with Crabbe's stories in verse.

Two of Nekrasov's long poems tell the story in the form of reminiscence,--and here again the naturalness and appropriateness of the diction is perfect,--of the Russian women, Princess Volkonsky and Princess Trubetzkoy, who followed their husbands, condemned to penal servitude for taking part in the Decembrist rising, to Siberia. Here, again, Nekrasov strikes a note of deep and poignant pathos, all the more poignant from the absolute simplicity with which the tales are told. Nekrasov towers among the Parnassians of the time and has only one rival, whom we shall describe presently.

The Parnassians are represented by three poets, MAIKOV (1821-97), FET (1820-98), and POLONSKY (1820-98), all three of whom began to write about the same time, in 1840; none of these three poets was didactic, and all three remained aloof from political or social questions.

Maikov is attracted by classical themes, by Italy and also by old ballads, but his strength lies in his plastic form, his colour, and his pictures of Russian landscape; he writes, for instance, an exquisite reminiscence of a day's fishing when he was a boy.

The quality of Fet's muse, in contrast to Maikov's concrete plasticity, is illusiveness; his lyrics express intangible dreams and impressions; delicate tints and shadows tremble and flit across his verse, which is soft as the orient of a pearl; and his fancy is as delicate as a thread of gossamer: he lives in the borderland between words and music, and catches the vague echoes of that limbo.

"The world in shadow slipped away And, like a silent dream took flight, Like Adam, I in Eden lay Alone, and face to face with night."

He sings about the southern night amidst the hay; or again about the dawn--

"A whisper, a breath, a shiver, The trills of the nightingale, A silver light and a quiver And a sunlit trail. The glimmer of night and the shadows of night In an endless race, Enchanted changes, flight after flight, On the loved one's face. The blood of the roses tingling In the clouds, and a gleam in the grey, And tears and kisses commingling-- The Dawn, the Dawn, the Day!"

Polonsky's verse, in contrast to Fet's gentle epicurean temperament, his delicate half-tones and illusive whispers, is made of sterner stuff; and, in contrast to Maikov's sculptural lines, it is pre-eminently musical, and reflects a fine and charming personality. His area of subjects is wide; he can write a child's poem as transparent and simple as Hans Andersen--as in his conversation between the sun and the moon--or call up the "glory that was Greece," as in the poem when his "Aspasia" listens to the crowds acclaiming Pericles, and waits in rapturous suspense for his return--an evocation that Browning would have envied for its life and Swinburne for its sound.

But neither Maikov, Fet, nor Polonsky, exquisite as much of their writing is, produced anything of the calibre of Nekrasov, even in their own province; that is to say, they were none of them as great in the artistic field as he was in his didactic field. Compared with him, they are minor poets. There is one poet of this epoch who does rival Nekrasov in another field, and that is COUNT ALEXIS TOLSTOY (1817-75), who was also a Parnassian and remained aloof from didactic literature; yet, under the pseudonym of Kuzma Prutkov, he wrote a satire, a collection of platitudes, that are household words in Russia; also a short history of Russia in consummately neat and witty satirical verse. As well as his satires, he wrote an historical novel, _Prince Serebryany_, and more important still, a trilogy of plays, dealing with the most dramatic epoch of Russian history, that of Ivan the Terrible. The trilogy, written in verse, consists of the "Death of Ivan the Terrible," "The Tsar Feodor Ivanovitch" and "Tsar Boris." They are all of them acting plays, form part of the current classical repertory, and are effective, impressive and arresting when played on the stage.

But it is as a poet and as a lyrical poet that Alexis Tolstoy is most widely known. Versatile with a versatility that recalls Pushkin, he writes epical ballads on Russian, Northern, and even Scottish themes, and dramatic poems on Don Juan, St. John Damascene, and Mary Magdalene; and, besides these, a whole series of personal lyrics, which are full of charm, tenderness, music and colour, harmonious in form and transparent. No Russian poet since Pushkin has written such tender love lyrics, and nobody has sung the Russian spring, the Russian summer, and the Russian autumn with such tender lyricism. His poem on the early spring, when the fern is still tightly curled, the shepherd's note still but half heard in the morning, and the birch trees just green, is one of the most tender, fresh, and perfect expressions of first love, morning, spring, dew, and dawn in the world's literature. His songs have inspired Tchaikovsky and other composers. The strongest and highest chord he struck is in his St. John Damascene; this contains a magnificent dirge for the dead which can bear comparison even with the _Dies Iræ_ for majesty, solemn pathos, and plangent rhythm.

His pictures of landscapes have a peculiar charm. The following is an attempt at a translation--

"Through the slush and the ruts of the highway, By the side of the dam of the stream, Where the fisherman's nets are drying, The carriage jogs on, and I dream.

I dream, and I look at the highway, At the sky that is sullen and grey, At the lake with its shelving reaches, And the curling smoke far away.

By the dam, with a cheerless visage Walks a Jew, who is ragged and sere. With a thunder of foam and of splashing, The waters race over the weir.

A boy over there is whistling On a hemlock flute of his make; And the wild ducks get up in a panic And call as they sweep from the lake.

And near the old mill some workmen Are sitting upon the green ground, With a wagon of sacks, a cart horse Plods past with a lazy sound.

It all seems to me so familiar, Although I have never been here, The roof of that house out yonder, And the boy, and the wood, and the weir.

And the voice of the grumbling mill-wheel, And that rickety barn, I know, I have been here and seen this already, And forgotten it all long ago.

The very same horse here was dragging Those sacks with the very same sound, And those very same workmen were sitting By the rickety mill on the ground.

And that Jew, with his beard, walked past me, And those waters raced through the weir; Yes, all this has happened already, But I cannot tell when or where."

The people also produced a poet during this epoch and gave Koltsov a successor, in the person of NIKITIN; his themes are taken straight from life, and he became known through his patriotic songs written during the Crimean War; but he is most successful in his descriptions of nature, of sunset on the fields, and dawn, and the swallow's nest in the grumbling mill. Two other poets, whose work became well known later, but passed absolutely unnoticed in the sixties, were SLUCHEVSKY, a philosophical poet, whose verse, excellent in description, suffers from clumsiness in form, and APUKHTIN, whose collected poems and ballads, although he began to write in 1859, were not published until 1886. Apukhtin is a Parnassian. The bulk of his work, though perfect in form, is uninteresting; but he wrote one or two lyrics which have a place in any Russian Golden Treasury, and his poems are largely read now.

In the eighties, a reaction against the anti-poetical tendency set in, and poets began to spring up like mushrooms. Of these, the most popular and the most remarkable is NADSON (1862-87); he died when he was twenty-four, of consumption. Since then his verse has gone through twenty-one editions, and 110,000 copies have been sold; ten editions were published in his own lifetime. And there are innumerable musical settings by various composers to his lyrics. His verse inaugurates a new epoch in Russian poetry, the distinguishing features of which are a great attention to form and _technique_, a Parnassian love of colour and shape, and a deep melancholy.

Nadson sings the melancholy of youth, the dreams and disillusions of adolescence, and the hopelessness of the stagnant atmosphere of reaction to which he belonged. This last fact accounted in some measure for his extraordinary popularity. But it was by no means its sole cause; his verse is not only exquisite but magically musical, to an extent which makes the verse of other poets seem a stuff of coarser clay, and his pictures of nature, of spring, of night, and especially of night in the Riviera (with a note of passionate home-sickness), have the aromatic, intoxicating sweetness of syringa. Verse such as this, sensitive, ultra-delicate, morbid, nervous, and pessimistic, is bound to have the defects of its qualities, in a marked degree; one is soon inclined to have enough of its sultry, oppressive atmosphere, its delicate perfume, its unrelieved gloom and its music, which is nearly always not only in a minor key but in the same key. Nobody was more keenly aware of this than Nadson himself, and one of his most beautiful poems begins thus--

"Dear friend, I know, I know, I only know too well That my verse is barren of all strength, and pale, and delicate, And often just because of its debility I suffer And often weep in secret in the silence of the night."

And in another poem he writes his apology. He has never used verse as a toy to chase tedium; the blessed gift of the singer has often been to him an unbearable cross, and he has often vowed to keep silent; but, if the wind blows, the Æolian harp must needs respond, and streams of the hills cannot help rushing to the valley if the sun melts the snow on the mountain tops. This apologia more than all criticism defines his gift. His temperament is an Æolian harp, which, whether it will or no, is sensitive to the breeze; its strings are few, and tuned to one key; nevertheless some of the strains it has sobbed have the stamp of permanence as well as that of ethereal magic.

The poets that come after Nadson belong to the present day; there are many, and they increase in number every year. The so-called "decadent" school were influenced by Shelley, Verlaine, and the French symbolists; but there is nothing which is decadent in the ordinary sense of the word in their verse. Their influence may not be lasting, but they are factors in Russian literature, and some of them, SOLOGUB, BRUSOV, BALMONT, and IVANOV, have produced work which any school would be glad to claim. This is also true of ALEXANDER BLOCH, one of the most original as well as one of the most exquisite of living Russian poets.

CONCLUSION

With the death of Turgenev and Dostoyevsky, the great epoch of Russian literature came to an end. A period of literary as well as of political stagnation began, which lasted until the Russo-Japanese War. This was followed by the revolutionary movement, which, in its turn, produced a literary as well as a political chaos, the effect of which and of the manifold reactions it brought about are still being felt. It was only natural, if one considers the extent and the quality of the productions of the preceding epoch, that the soil of literary Russia should require a rest.

As it is, one can count the writers of prominence which the epoch of stagnation produced on one's fingers--CHEKHOV, GARSHIN, KOROLENKO, and at the end of the period MAXIME GORKY, and apart from them, in a by-path of his own, MEREZHKOVSKY. Of these Chekhov and Gorky tower above the others. Chekhov enlarged the range of Russian literature by painting the middle-class and the _Intelligentsia_, and brought back to Russian literature the note of humour; and Gorky broke altogether fresh ground by painting the vagabond, the artisan, the tramp, the thief, the flotsam and jetsam of the big town and the highway, and by painting in a new manner.

Gorky's work came like that of Mr. Rudyard Kipling to England, as a revelation. Not only did his subject matter open the doors on dominions undreamed of, but his attitude towards life and that of his heroes towards life seemed to be different from that of all Russian novelists before his advent; and yet the difference between him and his forerunners is not so great as it appears at first sight. It is true that his rough and rebellious heroes, instead of playing the Hamlet, or of finding the solution of life in charity and humility or submission, are partisans of the survival of the fittest with a vengeance, the survival of the strongest fist and the sharpest knife; yet are these new heroes really so different from the uncompromising type that we have already seen sharing one half of the Russian stage, right through the story of Russian literature, from Bazarov back to Peter the Great, and on whose existence was founded the remark that Peter the Great was one of the ingredients in the Russian character? Put Bazarov on the road, or Lermontov, or even Peter the Great, and you get Gorky's barefooted hero.

Where Gorky created something absolutely new was in the surroundings and in the manner of life which he described, and in the way he described them; this is especially true of his treatment of nature: for the first time in Russian prose literature, we get away from the "orthodox" landscape of convention, and we are face to face with the elements. We feel as if a new breath of air had entered into literature; we feel as people accustomed to the manner in which the poets treated nature in England in the eighteenth century must have felt when Wordsworth, Byron, Shelley and Coleridge began to write.

Chekhov worked on older lines. He descends directly from Turgenev, although his field is a different one. He, more than any other writer and better than any other writer, painted the epoch of stagnation, when Russia, as a Russian once said, was playing itself to death at _vindt_ (an older form of _Bridge_). The tone of his work is grey, and indeed resembles, as Tolstoy said, that of a photographer, by its objective realism as well as by its absence of high tones; yet if Chekhov is a photographer, he is at the same time a supreme artist, an artist in black and white, and his pessimism is counteracted by two other factors, his sense of humour and his humanity; were it not so, the impression of sadness one would derive from the sum of misery which his crowded stage of merchants, students, squires, innkeepers, waiters, schoolmasters, magistrates, popes, officials, make up between them, would be intolerable. Some of Chekhov's most interesting work was written for the stage, on which he also brought Scenes of Country Life, which is the sub-title of the play _Uncle Vanya_. There are the same grey tints, the same weary, amiable, and slack people, bankrupt of ideals and poor in hope, whom we meet in the stories; and here, too, behind the sordid triviality and futility, we hear the "still sad music of humanity." But in order that the tints of Chekhov's delicate living and breathing photographs can be effective on the stage, very special acting is necessary, in order to convey the quality of atmosphere which is his special gift. Fortunately he met with exactly the right technique and the appropriate treatment at the Art Theatre at Moscow.

Chekhov died in 1904, soon after the Russo-Japanese War had begun. Apart from the main stream and tradition of Russian fiction and Russian prose, Merezhkovsky occupies a unique place, a place which lies between criticism and imaginative historical fiction, not unlike, in some respects--but very different in others--that which is occupied by Walter Pater in English fiction. His best known work, at least his best known work in Europe, is a prose trilogy, "The Death of the Gods" (a study of Julian the apostate), "The Resurrection of the Gods" (the story of Leonardo da Vinci), and "The Antichrist" (the story of Peter the Great and his son Alexis), which has been translated into nearly every European language. This trilogy is an essay in imaginative historical reconstitution; it testifies to a real and deep culture, and it is lit at times by flashes of imaginative inspiration which make the scenes of the past live; it is alive with suggestive thought; but it is not throughout convincing, there is a touch of Bulwer Lytton as well as a touch of Goethe and Pater in it. Merezhkovsky is perhaps more successful in his purely critical work, his books on Tolstoy, Dostoyevsky and Gogol, which are infinitely stimulating, suggestive, and original, than in his historical fiction, although, needless to say, his criticism appeals to a far narrower public. He is in any case one of the most brilliant and interesting of Russian modern writers, and perhaps the best known outside Russia.

During the war, a writer of fiction made his name by a remarkable book, namely KUPRIN, who in his novel, _The Duel_, gave a vivid and masterly picture of the life of an officer in the line. Kuprin has since kept the promise of his early work. At the same time, LEONID ANDREEV came forward with short stories, plays, a description of war (_The Red Laugh_), moralities, not uninfluenced by Maeterlinck, and a limpid and beautiful style in which pessimism seemed to be speaking its last word.

In 1905 the revolutionary movement broke out, with its great hopes, its disillusions, its period of anarchy on the one hand and repression on the other; out of the chaos of events came a chaos of writing rather than literature, and in its turn this produced, in literature as well as in life, a reaction, or rather a series of reactions, towards symbolism, æstheticism, mysticism on the one hand, and towards materialism--not of theory but of practice--on the other. But since these various reactions are now going on, and are vitally affecting the present day, the revolutionary movement of 1905 seems the right point to take leave of Russian literature. In 1905 a new era began, and what that era will ultimately produce, it is too soon even to hazard a guess.

Looking back over the record of Russian literature, the first thing which must strike us, if we think of the literature of other countries, is its comparatively short life. There is in Russian literature no Middle Ages, no Villon, no Dante, no Chaucer, no Renaissance, no _Grand Siècle_. Literature begins in the nineteenth century. The second thing which will perhaps strike us is that, in spite of its being the youngest of all the literatures, it seems to be spiritually the oldest. In some respects it seems to have become over-ripe before it reached maturity. But herein, perhaps, lies the secret of its greatness, and this may be the value of its contribution to the soul of mankind. It is--

"Old in grief and very wise in tears":

and its chief gift to mankind is an expression, made with a naturalness and sincerity that are matchless, and a love of reality which is unique,--for all Russian literature, whether in prose or verse, is rooted in reality--of that grief and that wisdom; the grief and wisdom which come from a great heart; a heart that is large enough to embrace the world and to drown all the sorrows therein with the immensity of its sympathy, its fraternity, its pity, its charity, and its love.

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE

1113. _The Chronicle of Nestor._

1692. First play produced in Russia, Gregory. Simeon Polotsky's _The Prodigal Son_ acted.

1703. The first Russian newspaper, _The Russian News_, appears.

1725. Death of Peter the Great. Foundation of the Academy of Science.

1744. Death of Kantemir.

1750. Death of Tatishchev.

1755. University of Moscow founded.

1762. Accession of Catherine the Great.

1765. Death of Lomonosov.

1790. Radishchev's _Journey Through Russia_ published.

1796. Death of Catherine the Great.

1800. First edition of _The Story of the Raid of Prince Igor_ published.

1802. Zhukovsky translates Gray's _Elegy_. Death of Radishchev.

1806. Krylov's first fables published.

1816. Death of Derzhavin. _History of the Russian State_, by Karamzin, published.

1819. University of St. Petersburg founded.

1820. Pushkin's _Ruslan and Ludmila_ published.

1823. Griboyedov's _Misfortune of Being Clever_ circulated. First Canto of _Eugene Onegin_ published.

1825. The Decembrist Attempt.

1826. Rileev hanged. Death of Karamzin.

1827. Pushkin's _Gypsies_ published.

1829. Death of Griboyedov. Pushkin's _Poltava_ published.

1831. Pushkin's _Boris Godunov_ published. Complete version of _Eugene Onegin_ published.

1832. Gogol's _Evening on the Farm near the Dikanka_ published.

1834. Gogol's _Mirgorod_ published.

1835. Gogol's _Revisor_ produced on the stage.

1836. Chaadaev's letters published.

1837. Death of Pushkin.

1841. Death of Lermontov.

1842. Death of Koltsov. Gogol's _Dead Souls_ published.

1844. Death of Krylov.

1847. Gogol's correspondence published. Turgenev's _Sportsman's Sketches_ published. Death of Belinsky.

1849. Dostoyevsky imprisoned.

1856-7. Saltykov's _Government Sketches_ appear.

1859. Ostrovsky's _Storm_ produced. Goncharov's _Oblomov_ published.

1860. Turgenev's _Fathers and Sons_ published.

1861. Emancipation of the Serfs.

1862. Pisemsky's _Troubled Sea_ published.

1863. Chernyshevsky's _What is to be Done?_ published.

1865. Leskov's _No Way Out_ published.

1865-1872. Tolstoy's _War and Peace_ appeared.

1866. Dostoyevsky's _Crime and Punishment_ published.

1868. Dostoyevsky's _Idiot_ published.

1875. Death of Count Alexis Tolstoy.

1875-6. Tolstoy's _Anna Karenina_ published.

1877. Death of Nekrasov.

1881. Death of Dostoyevsky.

1883. Death of Turgenev.

1886. Death of Ostrovsky.

1887. Death of Nadson.

1889. Death of Saltykov.

1900. Death of Soloviev. Production of Chekhov's _Chaika_ (Seagull).

1904. Production of Chekhov's _Cherry Orchard_. Death of Chekhov.

1910. Death of Tolstoy.

INDEX

Acton, Lord, 146

Ainsworth, Harrison, 82

Aksakov, Ivan, 154

----, Serge, 154 f.

Alexander I, 9, 30 f., 44, 124, 169

---- II, 52, 153, 160, 179, 227

Alexis, Tsar, 23

Andreev, Leonid, 248

_Anna Karenina_, Tolstoy's, 205 f.

Apukhtin, 238

Arnold, Matthew, 123, 146, 226

Atheism and Socialism, 150 f.

Bakunin, 179, 180

Balfour, Mr. A. J., 182

Balmont, 242

Bariatinsky, Prince, 101

Batyushkov, 58

Baudelaire, 226

Beaconsfield, Lord, 146

Belinsky, 142, 150

_Bell, The_, Herzen edits, 151, 153, 180

Bloch, Alexander, 242

_Bogoiskateli_, 198, 199

Brontë, Charlotte, 222

----, Emily, 46

Brückner, Prof., 144, 145, 147, 214

Brusov, 242

Bulgaria, 12

Bulgaria, liberation of, 170, 171

Bürger's _Leonore_ translated into Russian, 52

Burns, Robert, 125

Byron, 61 f., 66, 67, 71, 72 (footnotes), 73, 98, 119, 123, 146

Byzantium, Emperor of, 11

Catherine I, 18 (footnote)

---- II, 27, 32, 33, 80, 155

Chaadaev, 148

Chekhov, 243, 244 f.

Chernyshevsky, 180, 181, 227

Chesterton, Mr. G. K., 182

Christianity of the East, 11

_Chronicle of Kiev_, the, 15 f.

_Chronicle of Nestor_, the, 15 f.

Church, the, influence on Russian literature, 11, 21

Constantine, 44

Corot, 226

Crabbe, Nekrasov and, 229 f.

Crimean War, the, 160, 202, 238

Danilevsky, 180

Daudet, 172

"Decembrist" rising, the, 44, 45, 61, 92

Delvig, Baron, 101

Demetrius, 21, 67

Derzhavin, 29, 56

Diderot, 27

Dobrolyubov, 180, 181, 227

Donne, John, 97

Dostoyevsky, 96, 99, 109, 143, 145, 160, 161, 164, 167, 173, 180, 192, 196 f., 200, 210 f., 220 f.

Eastern and Western Churches, schism of, 13, 22, 182, 183

Eliot, Sir Charles, 13

Elizabeth, Empress, 26

Emancipation of the serfs, the, 160, 227

Falconet's equestrian statue of Peter the Great, 85

Fet, 232 f.

Flaubert, 162, 204

French influence in Russia, 26

French Revolution, the, 27, 40, 159

Gagarin, Prince, 150

Garshin, 243

Gautier, 226

German influence in Russia, 26

Goethe, death of, 228

----, Pushkin's resemblance to, 92 f.

Gogol, Nicholas, 126 f., 190

Goncharov, 143, 176 f.

Gorky, Maxime, 164, 243, 244 f.

Gray's _Elegy_, Russian translations of, 52, 53

Gregory, Protestant pastor of the Sloboda, 23

Griboyedov, 45 f., 126, 191

Grigoriev, 179, 180

Grigorovich, 194, 195

Grimm's Fairy Tales, 84

Haumant, M., 168

Heckeren-Dantes' duel with Pushkin, 90

Heine, 98

Herzen, Alexander, 143, 150 f., 180

Hoffmann, 127

Homyakov, 154

Hugo, Victor, 117, 118, 172

Ivan III, 20, 21, 24

---- IV ("The Terrible"), 24, 67, 235

Ivanov, 242

_Jane Eyre_ cited, 222

Kantemir, Prince, 27

Karakozov, 153

Karamzin, 18, 32 f., 141

Katkov, 180, 182

Keats, 146

_Kidnapped_ (Stevenson's), 129

Kiev, destruction of, 19; rebuilding of, 21

----, the mother of Russian culture, 10 f.

Kipling, Mr. Rudyard, 244

Koltsov, 124 f.

Korolenko, 243

Krylov, 34 f., 176 f.

Kuprin, 248

La Fontaine, 35 f.

Lang, Andrew, 128

Latin language taught in Moscow, 22

Le Maistre, Joseph, 148, 149

Leo X, 13

Lermontov, 102 f., 126

Leskov, vi, 189 f.

Lisle, Leconte de, 226

Literary criticism, 141

Liturgical books, revision of, 22

Lomonosov, Michael, 26, 29

Luther, 13

Lytton, Bulwer, 248

Maikov, 232

Maupassant, 128, 172

Meredith, George, 169, 172

Merezhkovsky, 147, 205, 243, 247 f.

Mérimée, 83, 141

Mill, John Stuart, 181

Mickiewicz, the Pole, 87

Montesquieu, 27

Morley, John, 146

Moscow, 10, 19, 21

Moscow Art Theatre, the, v, 221, 222, 247

----, European culture in, 23

_Moscow Journal_ founded by Karamzin, 32

Moscow, Pushkin's memorial at, 99, 220

----, schools in, 22

----, the fire of, 18

----, University of, 26

Mozart of Russian literature, the, 175

Musin-Pushkin, Count. _See_ Pushkin.

Musset, 118, 119

Mussorgsky, 67

Nadson, 239 f.

Napoleon, 30 f., 40, 111, 204

Nechaev, 218

Nekrasov, 229 f., 234

Nicholas, 44

Nicholas, Emperor, 160

Nicholas I, 103

Nihilism, 152, 163, 171, 173, 179, 217, 218, 227

Nikitin, 238

Norsemen in Russia, 10

_Odyssey_, the, Russian translation of, 52

Ostrovsky, 193 f.

Palæologa, Sophia, 21

Paris revolution of 1848, the, 159

Parnassian poetry, the epoch of, 226 f.

Pater, Walter, 247, 248

Paul, Emperor, 33

Peter the Great, 21, 24 f., 71, 85, 97

---- ---- of Poetry, the, 95

Petrashevsky and his followers, 159, 160

Pisarev, 180, 181, 227

Pisemsky, 191, 193

Poe, E. A., 86

Poland, 21, 24

Poland, the rising in, 180

Poles occupy Moscow, 24

Polevoy, 142

Polezhaev, 101

Polonsky, 232, 233 f.

Polotsky, Simeon, 22 f.

Preobrazhenskoe and its theatre, 23

Pre-Raphaelites, the, 226

Printing press, the first, 21

Propagandists of Western Ideas the, 148 f.

Prutkov, Kuzma. _See_ Tolstoy, Count Alexis.

Pugachev and the Cossack rising, 80

Pushkin vi, 18, 34, 41, 43, 50, 54 f., 109, 110, 123, 126, 132, 135, 138, 143, 162, 167, 220

Radishchev, 27 f.

Rakhmaninov, 81

Rimsky-Korsakov, 81

Rodionovna, Anna, 84, 85

Rome, Gogol settles in, 133

Rousseau, 27

Russia and political liberty, 148

----, Norsemen in, 10, 11

----, Tartar invasion of, 19, 24

----, the revolutionary movement of 1905, 243, 248, 249

Russian literature, beginnings of, 9 f.

---- ----, dawn of, 30 f.

---- ----, second renascence of, 159

---- ----, the age of prose, 126 f.

---- ----, the second age of poetry, 226 f.

---- newspaper, the first, 25

---- Nihilism. _See_ Nihilism.

---- trade centres, 10

Russia's national poet, 95

Russo-Japanese War, the, 243

Ryleev, 44

Sainte-Beuve, 146

St. Petersburg, 10

---- Jesuits, the, 148

----, the great floods of 1834, 85

Saltykov, Michael, vi, 184 f., 190 f.

Sand, George, 162

Schiller's _Maid of Orleans_, Russian translation of, 52

Schumann of Russian literature, the, 175

Seekers after God, 198

Serfs, emancipation of the, 160, 227

Shakespeare, Pushkin on, 65, 66

Shchedrin. _See_ Saltykov.

Siberia, Dostoyevsky at, 160, 213, 225

----, Radishchev at, 28

Slav race, the, 10 f.

Slavonic liturgy, introduction of, 12

Slavophiles, the, 143, 148, 152, 154, 159, 180, 228

Sluchevsky, 238

Socialism and Atheism, 150 f.

Society of Welfare, the, 43

Sologub, 242

Soloviev, Vladimir, 11, 93, 181 f.

Stebnitsky. _See_ Leskov.

Stendhal, 204

Stevenson, R. L., 127, 128, 129, 214

Strakhov, 180

Suffragettes, 163, 164

Sully-Prudhomme, 226

Suvorov, 30

Sviatoslav, 15, 16

Taine, 162

Tartar invasion of Russia, the, 19; the Tartar yoke thrown off, 24

Tatishchev, 26

Tchaikovsky, 80, 236

Tennyson, Lord, 165, 166, 226

Thackeray, 172

Tolstoy, Count Alexis, 234 f.

----, Count Leo, 134, 161, 164, 170, 196 f., 211, 246

Turgenev, Ivan, 64, 161 f., 192

Tyutchev, 154, 228

Universal church, Soloviev's views on, 182-183

University of Moscow, the, 26, 251

Venevitinov, 101

Vienna, Congress of, 40, 43

Vigny, Alfred de, 202

Vinci, Leonardo da, 67

Virgil of Russian prose, the, 175

Vladimir, Prince of Kiev, 11

Volkonsky, Princess, 150

Voltaire, 27

Volynsky, 147

Vyatka, Saltykov banished to, 185

Vyazemsky, Prince, 141

_War and Peace_, publication of, 202 f.

Wells, Mr., 164

Wilson, John, 81

Woman's Suffrage, 182. _Cf._ Suffragettes.

Wordsworth, 120, 123

Yakovlev. _Cf._ Herzen, Alexander.

Yazykov, 101

Zhukovsky, Basil, 51 f., 83

Zola, 74, 204

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11. _CONSERVATISM_

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96. _POLITICAL THOUGHT IN ENGLAND: FROM BACON TO HALIFAX_

By G. P. GOOCH, M.A.

IN PREPARATION

_ANCIENT EGYPT._ By F. LL. GRIFFITH, M.A.

_A SHORT HISTORY OF EUROPE._ By HERBERT FISHER, LL.D.

_THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE._ By NORMAN H. BAYNES.

_THE REFORMATION._ By President LINDSAY, LL.D.

_A SHORT HISTORY OF RUSSIA._ By Prof. MILYOUKOV.

_MODERN TURKEY._ By D. G. HOGARTH, M.A.

_FRANCE OF TO-DAY._ By ALBERT THOMAS.

_HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF SPAIN._ By J. FITZMAURICE-KELLY, F.B.A., Litt.D.

_LATIN LITERATURE._ By Prof. J. S. PHILLIMORE.

_ITALIAN ART OF THE RENAISSANCE._ By ROGER E. FRY.

_LITERARY TASTE._ By THOMAS SECCOMBE.

_SCANDINAVIAN HISTORY & LITERATURE._ By T. C. SNOW.

_THE MINERAL WORLD._ By Sir T. H. HOLLAND, K.C.I.E., D.Sc.

_A HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY._ By CLEMENT WEBB, M.A.

_POLITICAL THOUGHT IN ENGLAND: From Bentham to J. S. Mill._ By Prof. W. L. DAVIDSON.

_POLITICAL THOUGHT IN ENGLAND: From Herbert Spencer to To-day._ By ERNEST BARKER, M.A.

_THE CRIMINAL AND THE COMMUNITY._ By Viscount ST. CYRES.

_THE CIVIL SERVICE._ By GRAHAM WALLAS, M.A.

_THE SOCIAL SETTLEMENT._ By JANE ADDAMS and R. A. WOODS.

_GREAT INVENTIONS._ By Prof. J. L. MYRES, M.A., F.S.A.

_TOWN PLANNING._ By RAYMOND UNWIN.

London: WILLIAMS AND NORGATE _And of all Bookshops and Bookstalls._

Transcriber's Note

Minor punctuation errors and printer errors (omitted or transposed letters) have been repaired. Hyphenation has been made consistent.

The following amendments have also been made:

Page 22--mas amended to was--"... but in the interest of literature, it was a misfortune ..."

Page 192--be amended to he--"... disbelieved in Liberals, although he believed in Liberalism; ..."

Page 222--Brönte's amended to Brontë's--"These words, spoken by Charlotte Brontë's _Jane Eyre_, ..."

Page 251--Simon amended to Simeon--"1692. ... Simeon Polotsky's _The Prodigal Son_ acted."

End of Project Gutenberg's An Outline of Russian Literature, by Maurice Baring