Chapter 49

[372] See above, p. 348.

[373] Baber claimed to be descended from an earlier invader, the famous Timur (or Tamerlane), who died in 1405. The so-called Mongol (or Mogul) emperors were really Turkish rather than Mongolian in origin. A very interesting account of them and their enlightenment may be found in Holden, _The Mogul Emperors of Hindustan_ (Charles Scribner's Sons, $2.00).

[374] Reference, Perkins, _France under Louis XV_, Vol. I, Chapter XI.

[375] Reference, Green, _Short History of the English People_, pp. 776-786.

[376] See below, p. 568.

[377] The interior customs lines roughly coincided with the boundaries of the region of the great salt tax. See accompanying map.

[378] The figures indicate the various prices of a given amount of salt.

[379] See above, p. 366.

[380] Reference, Lowell, _Eve of the French Revolution_, Chapter III.

[381] See above, Chapter XVIII.

[382] Only a very small portion of the nobility were descendants of the ancient and illustrious families of France. The king could grant nobility to whom he would; moreover, many of the government offices, especially those of the higher judges, carried the privileges of nobility with them.

[383] Reference, Lowell, _Eve of the French Revolution_, Chapter XIII.

[384] See above, § 192.

[385] See Lowell, _Eve of the French Revolution_, pp. 116-118.

[386] See the account of Voltaire's defense of Calas in Perkins, _Louis XV_, Vol. II, pp. 198 _sqq._

[387] See above, p. 500.

[388] Turgot, the leading economist of the time, argues that it would be quite sufficient if "the government should always protect the natural liberty of the buyer to buy, and of the seller to sell. For the buyer being always the master to buy or not to buy, it is certain that he will select among the sellers the man who will give him at the best bargain the goods that suit him best. It is not less certain that every seller, it being his chief interest to merit preference over his competitors, will sell in general the best goods and at the lowest price at which he can make a profit in order to attract customers. The merchant or manufacturer who cheats will be quickly discredited and lose his custom without the interference of government."

[389] Reference, Lowell, _Eve of the French Revolution_, Chapter II.

[390] Turgot succeeded in inducing the king to abolish the guilds and the forced labor on the roads, but the decrees were revoked after Turgot's dismissal. For an admirable short account of Turgot's life, ideas, and reforms, see Say, _Turgot_ (McClurg, 75 cents).

[391] See _Readings_, Chapter XXIV.

[392] Reference, Lowell, _Eve of the French Revolution_, pp. 238-242.

[393] See above, pp. 131-132.

[394] Reference, H. Morse Stephens, _The French Revolution_, Vol. I, pp. 13-15, 20-24.

[395] Pronounced kă-yā'.

[396] Examples of the _cahiers_ may be found in _Translations and Reprints_, Vol. IV, No. 5.

[397] Reference, Lowell, _Eve of the French Revolution_, Chapter XXI.

[398] Reference, Stephens, _The French Revolution_, Vol. I, pp. 128-145.

[399] Reference, Stephens, _The French Revolution_, Vol. I, Chapter VI.

[400] This decree may be found in _Translations and Reprints_, Vol. I, No. 5.

[401] Reference, Stephens, _French Revolution_, Vol. I, Chapter VII.

[402] See above, p. 568.

[403] The text of the Civil Constitution of the Clergy may be found in _Translations and Reprints_, Vol. I, No. 5.

[404] Reference, Mathews, _The French Revolution_, Chapter XII.

[405] The formerly despotic king is represented as safely caged by the National Assembly. When asked by Marie Antoinette's brother what he is about, Louis XVI replies, "I am signing my name,"--that is, he had nothing to do except meekly to ratify the measures which the Assembly chose to pass.

[406] By June, 1791, there were four hundred and six of these affiliated clubs.

[407] A committee of the Convention was appointed to draw up a new republican calendar. The year was divided into twelve months of thirty days each. The five days preceding September 22, at the end of the year, were holidays. Each month was divided into three _decades_, and each "tenth day" (_décadi_) was a holiday. The days were no longer dedicated to saints, but to agricultural implements, vegetables, domestic animals, etc.

[408] In former times it had been customary to inflict capital punishment by decapitating the victim with the sword. At the opening of the Revolution a certain Dr. Guillotin recommended a new device, which consisted of a heavy knife sliding downward between two uprights. This instrument, called after him, the guillotine, which is still used in France, was more speedy and certain in its action than the sword in the hands of the executioner.

[409] Reference, for the conduct of the terrorists and the executions at Paris, Nantes, and Lyons: Mathews, _The French Revolution_, Chapter XVII.

It should not be forgotten that very few of the people at Paris stood in any fear of the guillotine. The city during the Reign of Terror was not the gloomy place that we might imagine. Never did the inhabitants appear happier, never were the theaters and restaurants more crowded. The guillotine was making away with the enemies of liberty, so the women wore tiny guillotines as ornaments, and the children were given toy guillotines and amused themselves decapitating the figures of "aristocrats." See Stephens, _French Revolution_, Vol. II, pp. 343-361.

[410] The date of Robespierre's fall is generally known as the 9th Thermidor, the day and month of the republican calendar.

[411] There were about forty billions of francs in assignats in circulation at the opening of 1796. At that time it required nearly three hundred francs in paper money to procure one in specie.

[412] See above, pp. 326-327.

[413] Reference, Rose, _Life of Napoleon_, Vol. I, Chapter VIII.

[414] Reference, Rose, _Revolutionary and Napoleonic Era_, pp. 95, 96, 104-108, 114, 115.

[415] Reference, Rose, _Life of Napoleon_, Vol. I, pp. 144-148.

[416] Reference, _Ibid._, Chapter X.

[417] See above, § 134.

[418] Reference, Rose, _Revolutionary and Napoleonic Era_, pp. 132-133.

[419] The roads were dilapidated and the harbors filled with sand; taxes were unpaid, robbery prevailed, and there was a general decay in industry. A manufacturer in Paris who had employed sixty to eighty workmen now had but ten. The lace, paper, and linen industries were as good as destroyed.

[420] See above, pp. 572-573, 579-580.

[421] Reference, Rose, _Life of Napoleon_, Vol. I, Chapter XII.

[422] Reference, Rose, _Revolutionary and Napoleonic Era_, pp. 148-163.

[423] See _Translations and Reprints_, Vol. II, No. 2.

[424] See above, p. 604.

[425] See above, p. 581.

[426] That is, a blockade too extensive to be really carried out by the ships at the disposal of the power proclaiming it.

[427] Reference, Rose, _Life of Napoleon_, Vol. II, pp. 197-207. For documents relating to the blockade and "the Continental system," see _Translations and Reprints_, Vol. II, No. 2.

[428] See _Readings_, Chapter XXXVIII.

[429] Napoleon was never content with his achievements or his glory. On the day of his coronation, December, 1806, he complained to his minister Decrès that he had been born too late, that there was nothing great to be done any more. On his minister's remonstrating he added: "I admit that my career has been brilliant and that I have made a good record. But what a difference is there if we compare ours with ancient times. Take Alexander the Great, for example. After announcing himself the son of Jupiter, the whole East, except his mother, Aristotle, and a few Athenian pedants, believed this to be true. But now, should I nowadays declare myself the son of the Eternal Father, there isn't a fishwife who would not hiss me. No, the nations are too sophisticated, there is nothing great any longer possible."

[430] "It depends upon you alone," he said to the Spanish in his proclamation of December 7, "whether this moderate constitution that I offer you shall henceforth be your law. Should all my efforts prove vain, and should you refuse to justify my confidence, then nothing remains for me but to treat you as a conquered province and find a new throne for my brother. In that case I shall myself assume the crown of Spain and teach the ill-disposed to respect that crown, for God has given me power and will to overcome all obstacles."

[431] Reference, Rose, _Revolutionary and Napoleonic Era_, pp. 193-201. Louis Bonaparte, the father of Napoleon III, and the most conscientious of the Bonaparte family, had been so harassed by his imperial brother that he had abdicated as king of Holland.

[432] Reference, Rose, _Life of Napoleon_, Vol. II, Chapter XXXII.

[433] See above, p. 544.

[434] This decree may be found in _Translations and Reprints_, Vol. II, No. 2.

[435] Reference, Rose, _Revolutionary and Napoleonic Era_, pp. 335-361.

[436] The son of Louis XVI had been imprisoned and maltreated by the terrorists. He died while still a boy in 1795, but nevertheless takes his place in the line of French kings as Louis XVII.

[437] Compare the accompanying map with that below, pp. 666-667.

[438] This document may be found in _Translations and Reprints_, Vol. I, No. 3.

[439] Reference, Andrews, _Modern Europe_, Vol. I, Chapter IV.

[440] Observe the boundary of the German Confederation as indicated on the map, pp. 626-627, above. Important portions of the German constitution of 1815 are given in _Translations and Reprints_, Vol. I, No. 3.

[441] For the Carlsbad Resolutions, see _Translations and Reprints_, Vol. I, No. 3.

[442] Reference, Andrews, _Modern Europe_, Vol. I, pp. 229-257.

[443] The island of Sardinia had, in 1720, been given to the duke of Savoy, who was also ruler of Piedmont. The duke thereupon assumed the title of king of Sardinia, but Piedmont, with Turin as its capital, remained, nevertheless, the most important part of the kingdom of Sardinia.

[444] Reference, Andrews, _Modern Europe_, Vol. I, pp. 205-212.

[445] Reference, Fyffe, _History of Modern Europe_ (Popular Edition, 1896), Chapter XV.

[446] See above, p. 449.

[447] See above, p. 600.

[448] See map, p. 649, below.

[449] The Slavic inhabitants of Bohemia.

[450] Reference, Andrews, _Modern Europe_, Vol. II, Chapter III.

[451] He ruled until 1861 as regent for his brother, Frederick William IV, who was incapacitated by disease.

[452] Reference, Fyffe, _Modern Europe_, pp. 954-957.

[453] Andrews, _Modern Europe_, Vol. 2, pp. 173-180.

[454] In 1869 Spain was without a king, and the crown was tendered to Leopold of Hohenzollern, a very distant relative of William I of Prussia. This greatly excited the people of Paris, for it seemed to them only an indirect way of bringing Spain under the influence of Prussia. The French minister of foreign affairs declared that the candidacy was an attempt to "reëstablish the empire of Charles V." In view of this opposition, Leopold withdrew his acceptance of the Spanish crown early in July, 1870, and Europe believed the incident to be at an end. The French ministry, however, was not satisfied with this, and demanded that the king of Prussia should pledge himself that the candidacy should never be renewed. This William refused to do. The account of the demand and refusal was given in such a way in the German newspapers that it appeared as if the French ambassador had insulted King William. The Parisians, on the other hand, thought that their ambassador had received an affront, and demanded an immediate declaration of war.

[455] Reference, Fyffe, _Modern Europe_, pp. 988-1002.

[456] Alsace had, with certain reservations,--especially as regarded Strasburg and the other free towns,--been ceded to the French king by the treaty of Westphalia (see above, p. 473). Louis XIV disregarded the reservations and seized Strasburg and the other towns (1681) and so annexed the whole region to France. The duchy of Lorraine had upon the death of its last duke fallen to France in 1766. It had previously been regarded as a part of the Holy Roman Empire. In 1871 less than a third of the original duchy of Lorraine, together with the fortified city of Metz, was ceded back to Germany.

[457] The monarchical party naturally fell into two groups. One, the so-called _legitimists_, believed that the elder Bourbon line, to which Louis XVI and Charles X had belonged, should be restored in the person of the count of Chambord, a grandson of Charles X. The _Orleanists_, on the other hand, wished the grandson of Louis Philippe, the count of Paris, to be king. In 1873 the Orleanists agreed to help the count of Chambord to the throne as Henry V, but that prince frustrated the plan by refusing to accept the national colors,--red, white, and blue,--which had become so endeared to the nation that it appeared dangerous to exchange them for the white of the Bourbons.

[458] See above, p. 75.

[459] See above, pp. 514, 517-518, 535.

[460] See above, p. 640.

[461] Herzegovina is a small province lying between Bosnia and the Adriatic. Both Bosnia and Herzegovina appear on the map as a part of Austria, to which they now belong, to all intents and purposes. See map, p. 649, above.

[462] In 1885 South Bulgaria (formerly known as Eastern Roumelia) proclaimed itself annexed to Bulgaria. The Sultan, under the influence of the western powers, permitted the prince of Bulgaria to extend his power over South Bulgaria.

[463] See above, pp. 351-352.

[464] See _The Progress of the Century_, Harper Bros., pp. 181-188, 232-242.

[465] Reference, for the development of the inventions, Cheyney, _Industrial History of England_, pp. 199-216.

[466] See above, p. 488.

[467] See above, p. 500.

[468] See above, p. 553.

[469] Reference, Cheyney, _Industrial History of England_, pp. 224-239.

[470] For factory legislation in England, see Cheyney, _Industrial History_, pp. 244-262.

[471] Reference, Cheyney, _Industrial History_, pp. 277-293.

[472] England, like the continental countries, has gradually, during the nineteenth century, conceded the right to vote to almost all adult males. Before 1832 a great part of the members of the House of Commons were chosen, not by the voters at large but by a few individuals, who controlled the so-called "rotten boroughs." These boroughs had once been important enough to be asked by the king to send representatives to Parliament, but had sunk into insignificance, or even disappeared altogether. Meanwhile great manufacturing cities like Birmingham, Manchester, and Sheffield had grown up, and as there had been no redistribution of representatives after the time of Charles II, these large cities were unrepresented in Parliament. This evil was partially remedied by the famous _Reform Act_ of 1832. At the same time the amount of property which one must hold in order to be permitted to vote was reduced. In 1867 almost all of the workingmen of the cities were granted the franchise by permitting those to vote who rented a lodging costing at least fifty dollars a year. This doubled the number of voters. In 1885 the same privilege was granted to the country people.

[473] See above, p. 492.

[474] See Sir Charles Dilke on "War," in _The Progress of the Century_, 333 _sqq._

[475] The works here enumerated are those referred to in the notes throughout the volume. They would form a valuable and inexpensive collection for use in a high school. The prices given are in most instances subject to a discount, often as high as twenty-five per cent.

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