An Introduction to the History of Western Europe

Chapter 47

Chapter 474,721 wordsPublic domain

[146] The bishops still constitute an important element in the upper houses of parliament in several European countries.

[147] For a satire of the thirteenth century on the papal court, see Emerton, _Mediæval Europe_, p. 475.

[148] It must not be forgotten that the monks were regarded as belonging to the clergy. For the various new orders of monks and the conditions in the monasteries, see Munro, _Mediæval History_, Chapter XII, and Jessopp, _Coming of the Friars_, Chapter III, "Daily Life in a Mediæval Monastery."

[149] See _Readings_, Chapter XVII.

[150] See _Readings_, Chapter XVII, for the beliefs of the Albigenses.

[151] Examples of these decrees are given in _Translations and Reprints_, Vol. III, No. 6.

[152] His son married an English lady, became a leader of the English barons, and was the first to summon the commons to Parliament. See above, pp. 146-147.

[153] For the form of relaxation and other documents relating to the Inquisition, see _Translations and Reprints_, Vol. III, No. 6.

[154] The whole rule is translated by Henderson, _Historical Documents_, p. 344.

[155] In Italy and southern France town life was doubtless more general.

[156] The peasants were the tillers of the soil. They were often called _villains_, a word derived from vill.

[157] The manner in which serfs disappeared in England will be described later.

[158] Reference, Munro, _Mediæval History_, Chapter XIV, where the subject of this chapter is treated in a somewhat different way.

[159] In Germany the books published annually in the German language did not exceed those in Latin until after 1680.

[160] Even the monks and others who wrote Latin in the Middle Ages were unable to follow strictly the rules of the language. Moreover, they introduced many new words to meet the new conditions and the needs of the time, such as _imprisonare_, imprison; _utlagare_, to outlaw; _baptizare_, to baptize; _foresta_, forest; _feudum_, fief, etc.

[161] See above, pp. 94-95.

[162]

"Bytuene Mershe and Avoril When spray beginneth to springe, The little foul (bird) hath hire wyl On hyre lud (voice) to synge."

[163] Of course there was no sharp line of demarcation between the people who used the one language and the other, nor was Provençal confined to southern France. The language of Catalonia, beyond the Pyrenees, was essentially the same as that of Provence. French was called _langue d'oïl_, and the southern language _langue d'oc_, each after the word used for "yes."

[164] The _Song of Roland_ is translated into spirited English verse by O'Hagan, London, 1880.

[165] The reader will find a beautiful example of a French romance of the twelfth century in an English translation of _Aucassin and Nicolette_ (Mosher, Portland, Me.). Mr. Steele gives charming stories of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries in _Huon of Bordeaux_, _Renaud of Montauban_, and _The Story of Alexander_ (Allen, London). Malory's _Mort d'Arthur_, a collection of the stories of the Round Table made in the fifteenth century for English readers, is the best place to turn for these famous stories.

[166] An excellent idea of the spirit and character of the troubadours and of their songs may be got from Justin H. Smith, _Troubadours at Home_ (G.P. Putnam's Sons, New York). See _Readings_, Chapter XIX.

[167] Reference, Henderson, _Short History of Germany_, Vol. I, pp. 111-121.

[168] See Steele's _Mediæval Lore_ for examples of the science of the Middle Ages. For the curious notions of the world and its inhabitants, see the _Travels_, attributed to Sir John Mandeville. The best edition is published by The Macmillan Company, 1900. See _Readings_, Chapter XIX.

[169] The word _miniature_, which is often applied to them, is derived from _minium_, i.e., vermilion, which was one of the favorite colors. Later the word came to be applied to anything small. See the frontispiece for an example of an illuminated page from a book of hours.

[170] So called because it was derived from the old Roman basilicas, or buildings in which the courts were held.

[171] In France as early as the twelfth century.

[172] Notice flying buttresses shown in the picture of Canterbury cathedral, p. 208.

[173] See _Readings_, Chapter XIX.

[174] The origin of the bachelor's degree, which comes at the end of our college course nowadays, may be explained as follows: The bachelor in the thirteenth century was a student who had passed part of his examinations in the course in "arts," as the college course was then called, and was permitted to teach certain elementary subjects before he became a full-fledged master. So the A.B. was inferior to the A.M. then as now. After finishing his college course and obtaining his A.M., the young teacher often became a student in one of the professional schools of law, theology, or medicine, and in time became a master in one of these sciences. The words _master_, _doctor_, and _professor_ meant pretty much the same thing in the thirteenth century.

[175] An example of the scholastic method of reasoning of Thomas Aquinas may be found in _Translations and Reprints_, Vol. III, No. 6.

[176] Reference, Green, _Short History of the English People_, pp. 161-169.

[177] See above, p. 147.

[178] See above, pp. 127-128 and 130.

[179] See above, pp. 131-132.

[180] Formerly it was supposed that gunpowder helped to decide the battle in favor of the English, but if siege guns, which were already beginning to be used, were employed at all they were too crude and the charges too light to do much damage. For some generations to come the bow and arrow held its own; it was not until the sixteenth century that gunpowder came to be commonly and effectively used in battles.

[181] For the account of Crécy by Froissart, the celebrated historian of the fourteenth century, see _Readings_, Chapter XX.

[182] See above, pp. 131-132.

[183] Reference, Adams, _Growth of the French Nation_, pp. 116-123.

[184] For an example of the Statutes of Laborers, see _Translations and Reprints_, Vol. II, No. 5, and Lee, _Source-book of English History_, pp. 206-208.

[185] For extracts, see _Readings_, Chapter XX.

[186] For description of manor, see above, pp. 234-235.

[187] For this younger line of the descendants of Edward I, see genealogical table below, p. 297.

[188] See above, p. 287.

[189] The title of Dauphin, originally belonging to the ruler of Dauphiny, was enjoyed by the eldest son of the French king after Dauphiny became a part of France in 1349, in the same way that the eldest son of the English king was called Prince of Wales.

[190] Reference, Green, _Short History_, pp. 274-281. For official account of the trial of Joan, see Colby, _Sources_, pp. 113-117.

[191] DESCENT OF THE RIVAL HOUSES OF LANCASTER AND YORK

[192] References, Green, _Short History_, pp. 281-293, 299-303.

[193] See _Readings_, Chapter XX.

[194] Reference, Adams, _Growth of the French Nation_, pp. 121-123, 134-135.

[195] See above, p. 128.

[196] See geneological table above, p. 282.

[197] See below, Chapter XXIII.

[198] Reference, Adams, _French Nation_, pp. 136-142.

[199] See _Readings_, Chapter XXI.

[200] The name recalled of course the long exile of the Jews from their land.

[201] See _Readings_, Chapter XXI.

[202] For statutes, see _Translations and Reprints_, Vol. II, No. 5, and Lee, _Source-book_, pp. 198-202.

[203] See above, p. 183.

[204] Reference, Green, _Short History_, pp. 235-244. For extracts, see _Readings_, Chapter XXI; _Translations and Reprints_, Vol. II, No. 5; Lee, _Source-book_, for the treatment of the Lollards, as the followers of Wycliffe were called, pp. 209-223.

[205] The eighth and last of these eastern councils, which were regarded by the Roman Church as having represented all Christendom, occurred in Constantinople in 869. In 1123 the first Council of the Lateran assembled, and since that five or six Christian congresses had been convoked in the West. But these, unlike the earlier ones, were regarded as merely ratifying the wishes of the pope, who completely dominated the assembly and published its decrees in his own name.

[206] See above, pp. 202-203.

[207] THE POPES DURING THE GREAT SCHISM

Gregory XI (1373-1378) Returns to Rome in 1377

_Roman Line_ _Avignon Line_

Urban VI (1378-1389) Clement VII (1378-1394) | | Boniface IX (1389-1404) Benedict XIII (1394-1417) | | Innocent VII (1404-1406) _Council of Pisa's Line_ | | | Gregory XII (1406-1415) Alexander V (1409-1410) | | | | | John XXIII (1410-1415) | | | | | | | | | | +------------------ Martin V (1417-1431) -----------------+

[208] See above, pp. 222-223.

[209] For examples of the general criticism of the abuses in the Church, see _Translations and Reprints_, Vol. III, No. 6.

[210] This decree, _Frequens_, may be found in _Translations and Reprints_, Vol. III, No. 6.

[211] On account of an outbreak of sickness the council was transferred to Florence.

[212] See above, p. 186.

[213] This word, although originally French, has come into such common use that it is quite permissible to pronounce it as if it were English,--_rẹ-nā'sens_.

[214] See above, p. 27.

[215] See above, pp. 198-199 and 243.

[216] See above, pp. 174 _sqq._

[217] In the year 1300 Milan occupied a territory scarcely larger than that of the neighboring states, but under the Visconti it conquered a number of towns, Pavia, Cremona, etc., and became, next to Venice, the most considerable state of northern Italy.

[218] A single example will suffice. Through intrigue and misrepresentation on the part of Gian Galeazzo Visconti, the Marquis of Ferrara became so wildly jealous of his nephew that he beheaded the young man and his mother, then burned his own wife and hung a fourth member of the family.

[219] See above, pp. 31-32.

[220] The translation of _The Banquet_ in Morley's "Universal Library" is very poor, but that of Miss Hillard (London, 1889) is good and is supplied with helpful notes.

[221] See the close of the fourth canto of the _Inferno_.

[222] See above, pp. 271-272.

[223] Copies of the _Æneid_, of Horace's _Satires_, of certain of Cicero's _Orations_, of Ovid, Seneca, and a few other authors, were apparently by no means uncommon during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. It seemed, however, to Petrarch, who had learned through the references of Cicero, St. Augustine, and others, something of the original extent of Latin literature, that treasures of inestimable value had been lost by the shameful indifference of the Middle Ages. "Each famous author of antiquity whom I recall," he indignantly exclaims, "places a new offense and another cause of dishonor to the charge of later generations, who, not satisfied with their own disgraceful barrenness, permitted the fruit of other minds and the writings that their ancestors had produced by toil and application, to perish through shameful neglect. Although they had nothing of their own to hand down to those who were to come after, they robbed posterity of its ancestral heritage."

[224] Petrarch's own remarkable account of his life and studies, which he gives in his famous "Letter to Posterity," may be found in Robinson and Rolfe, _Petrarch_, pp. 59-76.

[225] See above, pp. 45-46.

[226] Historians formerly supposed that it was only after Constantinople was captured by the Turks in 1453 that Greek scholars fled west and took with them the knowledge of their language and literature. The facts given above serve as a sufficient refutation of this oft-repeated error.

[227] In Whitcomb, _Source Book of the Italian Renaissance_, pp. 70 _sqq._, interesting accounts of these libraries may be found, written by Vespasiano, the most important book dealer of the time.

[228] Manuscript, _manu scriptum_, means simply written by hand.

[229] The closing lines (i.e., the so-called _colophon_) of the second edition of the Psalter which are here reproduced, are substantially the same as those of the first edition. They may be translated as follows: "The present volume of the Psalms, which is adorned with handsome capitals and is clearly divided by means of rubrics, was produced not by writing with a pen but by an ingenious invention of printed characters; and was completed to the glory of God and the honor of St. James by John Fust, a citizen of Mayence, and Peter Schoifher of Gernsheim, in the year of our Lord 1459, on the 29th of August."

[230] Note the similarity in form of the letters in the accompanying illustration and those in the illuminated page which serves as the frontispiece of this volume. It is not easy at first sight to tell some early printed books from the best manuscripts. It may be observed that the Germans still adhere to a type something like that used by the first printers.

[231] See above, pp. 261-262.

[232] See above, p. 263.

[233] With the appearance of the mendicant orders, preaching again became an important part of the church service, and pulpits were erected in the body of the church, where the people could gather around them. These pulpits offered a fine opportunity to the sculptor and were often very elaborate and beautiful.

[234] The frescoes in Pompeii and other slight remnants of ancient painting were not discovered till much later.

[235] In the church of Santa Croce in Florence and in that of St. Francis at Assisi.

[236] Fra is an abbreviation of _frate_, brother.

[237] See below, pp. 361, 363, 364.

[238] One of the most celebrated among the other Florentine painters of the period was Botticelli. He differs from most of his contemporaries in being at his best in easel pictures. His poetic conceptions, the graceful lines of his draperies, and the pensive charm of his faces have especially inspired a famous school of English painters in our own day--the Preraphaelites.

[239] See below, pp. 364, 365.

[240] Leonardo was an engineer and inventor as well.

[241] Compare his Holy Family with the reproduction of one of Giotto's paintings, in order to realize the great change in art between the fourteenth and sixteenth centuries.

[242] See his portrait of Erasmus below, p. 382.

[243] For an example of the magnificent bronze work produced in Germany in the early sixteenth century, see the statues of Philip the Good and Charles the Bold, pp. 300, 301, above.

[244] See his portrait of Charles I below, p. 480.

[245] Marco Polo's travels can easily be had in English; for example, in _The Story of Marco Polo_, by Noah Brooks, Century Company, 1898. A certain Franciscan monk, William of Rubruk, visited the far East somewhat earlier than the Polo brothers. The account of his journey, as well as the experiences of other mediæval travelers, may be found in _The Travels of Sir John Mandeville_, published by The Macmillan Company, 1900.

[246] See map above, pp. 242-243.

[247] Reference, _Cambridge Modern History_, Chapter I.

[248] Reference, _Cambridge Modern History_, Chapter II. Kingsley has described these mariners in his _Westward Ho_. He derives his notions of them from the collection of voyages made by an English geographer, Hakluyt (died 1616). Some of these are published by Payne, _Voyages of Elizabethan Seamen_ (Clarendon Press, 2 vols., $1.25 each).

[249] See above, pp. 85, 151 _sq._, and Chapters XIII-XIV.

[250] Rudolf, like many of his successors, was strictly speaking only king of the Romans, since he was never crowned emperor at Rome. See above, pp. 152 n., 185.

[251] From 1438 to 1806 only two emperors belonged to another family than the Hapsburgs.

[252] See above, p. 301.

[253] See above, p. 71.

[254] See map above, following p. 152.

[255] No one can gaze upon the great castle and palace of the Alhambra, which was built for the Moorish kings, without realizing what a high degree of culture the Moors had attained. Its beautiful and impressive arcades, its magnificent courts, and the delicate tracery of its arches represent the highest achievement of Arabic architecture.

[256] See above, pp. 224-225.

[257]

Austria Burgundy Castile Aragon Naples, etc. (America)

Maximilian I = Mary (d. 1482), Isabella = Ferdinand (d. 1516) (d. 1519) | dau. of Charles (d. 1504) | | the Bold (d. 1477) | | | Philip (d. 1506) === Joanna the Insane (d. 1555) | +---------------+-----+ | | Charles V (d. 1558) Ferdinand (d. 1564) = Anna, heiress to kingdoms Emperor, 1519-1556 Emperor, 1556-1564 of Bohemia and Hungary

[258] It will be remembered that the popes, in their long struggle with Frederick II and the Hohenstaufens, finally called in Charles of Anjou, the brother of St. Louis, and gave to him both Naples and Sicily. See above, p. 185. Sicily revolted in 1282 and was united with the kingdom of Aragon, which still held it when Charles V came to the Spanish throne. The older branch of the house of Anjou died out in 1435 and Naples was conquered by the king of Aragon, and was still in his family when Charles VIII undertook his Italian expedition. The younger branch of the house of Anjou had never reigned in Naples, but its members were careful to retain their asserted title to it, and, upon the death of their last representative, this title was transferred to Louis XI. He, however, prudently refused to attempt to oust the Aragonese usurpers, as he had quite enough to do at home.

[259] See above, p. 327.

[260] More important for France than the arrangements mentioned above was the so-called _Concordat_, or agreement, between Francis and the pope in regard to the selection of the French prelates. Francis was given the privilege of appointing the archbishops, bishops, and abbots, and in this way it came about that he and his successors had many rich offices to grant to their courtiers and favorites. He agreed in return that the pope should receive a part of the first year's revenue from the more important offices in the Church of France. The pope was, moreover, thereafter to be regarded as superior to a council, a doctrine which had been denied by the French monarchs since the Council of Basel. The arrangements of the Concordat of 1516 were maintained down to the French Revolution.

[261] See below, p. 428-429.

[262] The Catholic Church, on the other hand, held that certain important teachings, institutions, and ceremonies, although not expressly mentioned in the Bible, were nevertheless sanctioned by "tradition." That is, they had been handed down orally from Christ and his apostles as a sacred heritage to the Church, and like the Bible were to be received as from God. See _Readings_, Chapter XXIV.

[263] For the origin of these and of the other ecclesiastical states of Germany, see above, p. 156.

[264] The manner in which the numerous and often important ecclesiastical states all disappeared in Napoleon's time will become clear later. See below, § 244.

[265] See above, pp. 117 _sqq._ For the German law permitting feuds, see Henderson, _Historical Documents_, p. 246. In 1467, the German diet ventured to forbid neighborhood war for five years. It was not, however, permanently prohibited until a generation later.

[266] For example, in one of the books of instruction for the priest we find that he is warned, when he quotes the Bible, to say to the people that he is not translating it word for word from the Latin, for otherwise they are likely to go home and find a different wording from his in their particular version and then declare that the priest had made a mistake.

[267] Some seventeen universities had been established by German rulers and towns in a little over one hundred years. The oldest of them was founded in 1348 at Prague. Several of these institutions, for example, Leipsic, Vienna, and Heidelberg, are still ranked among the leading universities of the world.

[268] See above, § 104.

[269] For examples of these _Letters of Obscure Men_, see Whitcomb, _Source Book of the German Renaissance_, pp. 67 _sq._, and _Translations and Reprints_, Vol. II, No. 6. The peculiar name of the satire is due to the fact that Reuchlin's sympathizers wrote him many letters of encouragement, which he published under the title, _Letters of Celebrated Men to John Reuchlin_. The humanists then pitched upon the modest title, _Letters of Obscure Men_, for the supposed correspondence of the admirers of the monks. The following is an example of the "obscure men's" poetry. One of them goes to Hagenau and meets a certain humanist, Wolfgang Angst, who, the writer complains, struck him in the eye with his staff.

Et ivi hinc ad Hagenau Da wurden mir die Augen blau Per te, Wolfgang Angst, Gott gib das du hangst, Quia me cum baculo Percusseras in oculo.

[270] See below, pp. 426-7.

[271] This may be had in English, published by Scribner's Sons ($1.25) or Brentano ($1.25).

[272] See above, pp. 317-318.

[273] See above, p. 203.

[274] The Augustinian order, to which Luther belonged, was organized in the thirteenth century, a little later than the Dominican and the Franciscan.

[275] He writes exultingly to a friend: "Our kind of theology reigns supreme in the university; only one who lectures on the Bible, Augustine, or some real Church father, can reckon on any listeners; and Aristotle sinks lower and lower every day." In this way he sought to discredit Peter Lombard, Aquinas, and all the writers who were then most popular in the theological schools. Walker, _The Reformation_, pp. 77-91.

[276] See above, p. 211-212.

[277] It is a common mistake of Protestants to suppose that the indulgence was forgiveness granted beforehand for sins to be committed in the future. There is absolutely no foundation for this idea. A person proposing to sin could not possibly be contrite in the eyes of the Church, and even if he secured an indulgence it would, according to the theologians, have been quite worthless.

[278] See above, p. 344.

[279] The complete text of the theses may be found in _Translations and Reprints_, Vol. II, No. 6.

[280] See above, p. 209, for the Church's doctrine of the "indelible character" which the priest received at ordination.

[281] See above, §§ 81-82. The two great works of Luther, here mentioned, as well as his _Freedom of the Christian_, in which he explains his own doctrine very simply, may be found translated in Wace and Buchheim, _Luther's Primary Works_.

[282] It must be remembered that it was the emperor's business to execute the law, not to discuss its propriety with the accused. In the same way nowadays, should a man convicted, for example, of bigamy urge that he believed it Scriptural to have two wives, the court would refuse to listen to his arguments and would sentence him to the penalty imposed by law, in spite of the fact that the prisoner believed that he had committed no wrong.

[283] The text of the Edict of Worms is published in English in the _Historical Leaflets_ issued by the Crozer Theological Seminary, Chester, Pa.

[284] See _Readings_, Chapter XXVI.

[285] See below, § 167.

[286] The "Twelve Articles" may be found in _Translations and Reprints_, Vol. II, No. 6.

[287] The Protest of Speyer is to be had in English in the _Historical Leaflets_ published by the Crozer Theological Seminary, Chester, Pa.

[288] For the successive wars between Charles and Francis and the terrible sack of Rome in 1527, see Johnson, _Europe in the Sixteenth Century_, pp. 172-175 and 181-195.

[289] It is still accepted as the creed of the Lutheran Church. Copies of it in English may be procured from the Lutheran Publication Society, Philadelphia, for ten cents each.

[290] Reference, Johnson, _Europe in the Sixteenth Century_, Chapter V; Walker, _The Reformation_, pp. 188-216.

[291] See above, p. 300.

[292] This condition has not changed; all Swiss laws are still proclaimed in three languages.

[293] Switzerland had made a business, ever since the time when Charles VIII of France invaded Italy, of supplying troops of mercenaries to fight for others, especially for France and the pope. It was the Swiss who gained the battle of Marignano for Francis I, and Swiss guards may still be seen in the pope's palace.

[294] So eloquent was the new preacher that one of his auditors reports that after a sermon he felt as if "he had been taken by the hair and turned inside out."

[295] See above, pp. 212-213.

[296] For Zwingli's life and work see the scholarly biography by Samuel Macauley Jackson, _Huldreich Zwingli_ (G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1901).

[297] See below, p. 452.

[298] Calvin intrusted the management of church affairs to the ministers and the elders, or _presbyters_, hence the name Presbyterian. For Calvin's work, see Johnson, _Europe in the Sixteenth Century_, pp. 272-276.

[299] See above, p. 382.

[300] An English translation of the _Utopia_ is published by the Macmillan Company at 50 cents.

[301] See above, § 139.

[302] The clergy only recognized the king as "Head of the Church and Clergy so far as the law of Christ will allow." They did not abjure the headship of the pope over the whole Church.

[303] These were the sufficiency of the bread without the wine for the laity in partaking of the communion;[A] the celibacy of the clergy; the perpetual obligation of vows to remain unmarried; the propriety of private masses; and, lastly, of confession. The act was popularly known as "the whip with six strings."

[A] The custom of the Church had long been that the priest alone should partake of the wine at communion. The Hussites, and later the Protestants, demanded that the laity should receive both the bread and the wine.

[304]

Henry VIII, m. (1) Catherine, m. (2) Anne Boleyn, m. (3) Jane Seymour | | | Mary (1553-1558) Elizabeth (1558-1603) Edward VI (1547-1553)

It was arranged that the son was to succeed to the throne. In case he died without heirs, Mary and then Elizabeth were to follow.

[305] These may be found in any Book of Common Prayer of the English Church or of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States.

[306] For an extract from the Bishop of Worcester's diary, recording these changes, see _Readings_, Chapter XXVII.

[307] The Catholics in their turn, it should be noted, suffered serious persecution under Elizabeth and James I, the Protestant successors of Mary. Death was the penalty fixed in many cases for those who obstinately refused to recognize the monarch as the rightful head of the English Church, and heavy fines were imposed for the failure to attend Protestant worship. Two hundred Catholic priests are said to have been executed under Elizabeth; others were tortured or perished miserably in prison. See below, p. 462, and Green, _Short History_, pp. 407-410.

[308] There is an admirable account of the spirit of the conservative reformers in the _Cambridge Modern History_, Vol. I, Chapter XVIII.

[309] Protestant writers commonly call the reformation of the mediæval Catholic Church the "counter-reformation" or "Catholic reaction," as if Protestantism were entirely responsible for it. It is clear, however, that the conservative reform began some time before the Protestants revolted. Their secession from the Church only stimulated a movement already well under way. See Maurenbrecher, _Geschichte der Katholischen Reformation_.

[310] They may be had in English, _Decrees and Canons of the Council of Trent_, translated by Rev. J. Waterworth, London and New York. See extracts from the acts of the council in _Translations and Reprints_, Vol. II, No. 6.

[311] See _Readings_, Chapter XXVIII.

[312] Reference, Parkman's, _Jesuits in North America_, Vol. I, Chapters II and X.

[313] DIVISION OF THE HAPSBURG POSSESSIONS BETWEEN THE SPANISH AND THE GERMAN BRANCHES

Maximilian I (d. 1519), m. Mary of Burgundy (d. 1482) | Philip (d. 1506), m. Joanna the Insane (d. 1555) | +----------------------------+ | | Charles V (d. 1558) Ferdinand (d. 1564), m. Anna, heiress to kingdoms Emperor, 1519-1556 Emperor, 1556-1564 | of Bohemia and Hungary | | Philip II (d. 1598) Maximilian II (d. 1576) inherits Spain, the Netherlands, Emperor, and inherits Bohemia, and the Italian possessions of Hungary, and the Austrian possessions the Hapsburgs of the Hapsburgs

The map of Europe in the sixteenth century (see above, p. 372) indicates the vast extent of the combined possessions of the Spanish and German Hapsburgs.

[314] Reference, Johnson, _Europe in the Sixteenth Century_, Chapter VIII.

[315] It is impossible in so brief an account to relate the heroic deeds of the Dutch, such, for example, as the famous defence of Leyden. The American historian Motley gives a vivid description of this in his well-known _Rise of the Dutch Republic_, Part IV, Chapter II. The most recent and authoritative account of the manner in which the Dutch won their independence is to be found in the third volume of _A History of the People of the Netherlands_, by the Dutch scholar Blok, translated by Ruth Putnam (G.P. Putnam's Sons, 3 vols., $7.50). Miss Putnam's own charming _William the Silent_ (G.P. Putnam's Sons, 2 vols., with many fine illustrations, $3.75) gives an impressive picture of the tremendous odds which he faced and of his marvellous patience and perseverance.

[316] Reference, Johnson, _Europe in the Sixteenth Century_, pp. 386-389.

[317] See _Readings_, Chapter XXVIII.

[318] See above, p. 221.

[319] The origin of this name is uncertain.

[320] Reference for Henry IV, Wakeman, _Europe from 1598-1715_, Chapter I.

[321] Reference, Schwill, _History of Modern Europe_, Chapter VI, or a somewhat fuller account in Johnson, _Europe in the Sixteenth Century_,