Chapter 42

[25] See above, § 7.

[26] For reports of miracles, see _Readings_, especially Chapters V and XVI.

[27] Matt. xvi. 18-19. Two other passages in the New Testament were held to substantiate the divinely ordained headship of Peter and his successors: Luke xxii. 32, where Christ says to Peter, "Stablish thy brethren," and John xxi. 15-17, where Jesus said to him, "Feed my sheep." See _Readings_, Chapter IV.

[28] The name _pope_ (Latin, _papa_ = father) was originally and quite naturally applied to all bishops, and even to priests. It began to be especially applied to the bishops of Rome perhaps as early as the sixth century, but was not apparently confined to them until two or three hundred years later. Gregory VII (d. 1085) was the first to declare explicitly that the title should be used only for the Bishop of Rome. We shall, however, hereafter refer to the Roman bishop as pope, although it must not be forgotten that his headship of the Western Church did not for some centuries imply the absolute power that he came later to exercise over all the other bishops of western Europe.

[29] The great circular tomb was later converted into the chief fortress of the popes and called, from the event just mentioned, the Castle of the Angel (San Angelo).

[30] For extracts from Gregory's writings, see _Readings_, Chapter IV.

[31] Benedict did not introduce monasticism in the West, as is sometimes supposed, nor did he even found an _order_ in the proper sense of the word, under a single head, like the later Franciscans and Dominicans. Nevertheless, the monks who lived under his rule are ordinarily spoken of as belonging to the Benedictine order. A translation of the Benedictine rule may be found in Henderson, _Historical Documents_, pp. 274-314.

[32] Cunningham, _Western Civilization_, Vol. II, pp. 37-40, gives a brief account of the work of the monks.

[33] See _Readings_, Chapter V, for Gregory's instructions to his missionaries.

[34] See _Readings_, Chapter V.

[35] There is a _Life of St. Columban_, written by one of his companions, which, although short and simple in the extreme, furnishes a better idea of the Christian spirit of the sixth century than the longest treatise by a modern writer. This life may be found in _Translations and Reprints_, Vol. II, No. 7, translated by Professor Munro.

[36] For extracts from the Koran, see _Readings_, Chapter VI.

[37] An admirable brief description of the culture of the Arabs and their contributions to European civilization will be found in Munro, _Mediæval History_, Chapter IX.

[38] One of the most conspicuous features of early Protestantism, eight hundred years later, was the revival of Leo's attack upon the statues and frescoes which continued to adorn the churches in Germany, England, and the Netherlands.

[39] Charlemagne is the French form for the Latin, Carolus Magnus, i.e., Charles the Great. It has been regarded as good English for so long that it seems best to retain it, although some writers, fearful lest one may think of Charles as a Frenchman instead of a German, use the German form, Karl.

[40] Professor Emerton (_Introduction_, pp. 183-185) gives an example of the style and spirit of the monk of St. Gall, who was formerly much relied upon for knowledge of Charlemagne.

[41] These decrees lose something of their harshness by the provision: "If after secretly committing any one of these mortal crimes any one shall flee of his own accord to the priest and, after confessing, shall wish to do penance, let him be freed, on the testimony of the priest, from death." This is but another illustration of the theory that the Church was in the Middle Ages a governmental institution. It would be quite out of harmony with modern ideas should the courts of law, in dealing with one who had committed a crime, consider in any way the relations of the suspected criminal to his priest or minister, or modify his sentence on account of any religious duties that the criminal might consent to perform.

[42] The king of Prussia still has, among other titles, that of Margrave of Brandenburg. The German word _Mark_ is often used for "march" on maps of Germany.

[43] The Mohammedan state had broken up in the eighth century, and the ruler of Spain first assumed the title of emir (about 756) and later (929) that of caliph. The latter title had originally been enjoyed only by the head of the whole Arab empire, who had his capital at Damascus, and later at Bagdad.

[44] As Charlemagne was crossing the Pyrenees, on his way back from Spain, his rear guard was attacked in the Pass of Roncesvalles. The chronicle simply states that Roland, Count of Brittany, was slain. This episode, however, became the subject of one of the most famous of the epics of the Middle Ages, the _Song of Roland_. See below, § 99.

[45] Reference, for Charlemagne's conquests, Emerton, _Introduction_,