Chapter 41

EUROPE OF TO-DAY

275. The scholars and learned men of the Middle Ages were but little interested in the world about them. They devoted far more attention to philosophy and theology than to what we should call the natural sciences. They were satisfied in the main to get their knowledge of nature from reading the works of the ancients, above all of Aristotle. Roger Bacon, as we have seen, protested against the exaggerated veneration for books. He foresaw that a careful examination of the things about us,--like water, air, light, animals and plants,--would lead to important and useful discoveries which would greatly benefit mankind.

[Sidenote: Modern scientific methods of discovering truth.]

[Sidenote: Experimentation.]

He advocated three methods of reaching truth which are now followed by all scientific men. In the first place, he proposed that natural objects and changes should be examined with great care, in order that the observer might determine exactly what happened in any given case. This has led in modern times to incredibly refined measurements and analysis. The chemist, for example, can now determine the exact nature and amount of every substance in a cup of impure water, which may appear perfectly limpid to the casual observer. Then, secondly, Roger Bacon advocated experimentation. He was not contented with mere observation of what actually happened, but tried new and artificial combinations and processes. Nowadays experimentation is constantly used by scientific investigators, and by means of it they discover many things which the most careful observation would never reveal. Thirdly, in order to carry on investigation and make careful measurements and the desired experiments, apparatus designed for the special purpose of discovering truth was necessary. As early as the thirteenth century it was found, for example, that a convex crystal or bit of glass would magnify objects, although several centuries elapsed before the microscope and telescope were devised.

[Sidenote: Astrology grows into astronomy.]

The progress of scientific discovery was hastened, strangely enough, by two grave misapprehensions. In the Middle Ages even the most intelligent believed that the heavenly bodies influenced the fate of mankind; consequently, that a careful observation of the position of the planets at the time of a child's birth would make it possible to forecast his life. In the same way important enterprises were only to be undertaken when the influence of the stars was auspicious. Physicians believed that the efficacy of their medicines depended upon the position of the planets. This whole subject of the influence of the stars upon human affairs was called astrology, and was in some cases taught in the mediæval universities. Those who examined the stars gradually came, however, to the conclusion that the movements of the planets had no effect upon humanity; but the facts which the astrologers had discovered through careful observation became the basis of modern astronomy.

[Sidenote: Alchemy grows into chemistry.]

In the same way chemistry developed out of the mediæval study of alchemy. The first experimentation with chemicals was carried on with the hope of producing gold by some happy combination of less valuable metals. But finally, after learning more about the nature of chemical compounds, it was discovered that gold was an element, or simple substance, and consequently could not be formed by combinations of other substances.

[Sidenote: Discovery that the universe follows natural laws.]

In short, observation and experimentation were leading to the most fundamental of all scientific discoveries, namely, the conviction that all the things about us follow certain natural, immutable laws. The modern scientific investigator devotes a great part of his attention to the discovery of these laws and their application. He has given up any hope of reading man's fate in the stars or of producing any results by magical combinations. Unlike the mediæval writers, he hesitates to accept as true the reports which reach him of miracles, that is, of exceptions to the general laws, because he is convinced that the natural laws have been found to work regularly in every instance where they have been carefully observed. His study of the natural laws has, however, enabled him to produce far more marvelous results than those reported of the mediæval magician.

[Sidenote: Galileo's telescope.]

276. In a previous chapter the progress of science for three hundred years after Roger Bacon has been briefly noted.[463] With the exception of Copernicus the investigators of this period are scarcely known to us. In the seventeenth century, however, progress became very rapid and has been steadily accelerating since. In astronomy, for example, the truths which had been only suspected by earlier astronomers were demonstrated to the eye by Galileo (1564-1642). By means of a little telescope, which was hardly so powerful as the best modern opera glasses, he discovered (in 1610) the spots on the sun. These made it plain that the sun was revolving on its axis as astronomers were already convinced that the earth revolved. He saw, too, that the moons of Jupiter were revolving about their planet in the same way that the planets revolve about the sun.

[Sidenote: Sir Isaac Newton and his discovery of the law of universal gravitation.]

The year that Galileo died, the famous English mathematician, Sir Isaac Newton, was born (1642-1727). He carried on the work of earlier astronomers by the application of higher mathematics, and proved that the force of attraction which we call gravitation was a universal one, and that the sun and the moon and the earth, and all the heavenly bodies, are attracted to one another inversely as the square of the distance.

[Sidenote: Development of the microscope.]

While the telescope aided the astronomer, the microscope contributed far more to the extension of practical knowledge. Rude and simple microscopes were used with advantage as early as the seventeenth century. Leeuwenhoek, a Dutch linen merchant, so far improved his lenses that he discovered the blood corpuscles and (1665) the "animalculæ" or minute organisms of various kinds found in pond water and elsewhere. The microscope has been rapidly perfected since the introduction of better kinds of lenses early in the nineteenth century, so that it is now possible to magnify minute objects to more than two thousand times their diameters.

[Sidenote: Advance in medical science.]

This has produced the most extraordinary advance in medicine and biology. It has made it possible to determine the difference between healthy and diseased tissue; and not many years ago the microscope revealed the fact that the bodies of animals and men are the home of excessively small organisms called bacteria, some of which, through the poisonous substances they give out, cause disease. The modern treatment of many maladies, such as consumption, diphtheria, scarlet fever, and typhoid, is based upon this momentous discovery. The success of surgical operations has also been rendered far more secure than formerly by the so-called antiseptic measures which are now taken to prevent the development of bacteria.[464]

[Sidenote: Scientific discovery and invention did not affect daily life before the end of the eighteenth century.]

277. The discoveries of the scientist and of the mathematician did not begin to be applied to the affairs of daily life until about a hundred and fifty years ago. No new ways had previously been discovered for traveling from place to place. Spinning and weaving were still carried on as they had been before the barbarians overran the Roman Empire. Iron, of which we now make our machines, could only be prepared for use expensively and in small quantities by means of charcoal and bellows.

[Sidenote: The 'domestic system' of manufacture.]

Manufacture still meant, as it did in the original Latin (_manu facere_), to make by hand. Artisans carried on their trade with their own tools in their own homes, or in small shops, like the cobbler of to-day. Instead of working with hundreds of others in a great factory and being entirely dependent upon his wages, the artisan, in England at least, was often able to give some attention to a small garden plot from which he derived a part of his support. This "domestic system" was displaced by factories, as the result of a series of mechanical inventions made in England during the latter half of the eighteenth century. Through them machinery was substituted for hand and foot power and for the simple implements which had served the world for centuries.

[Sidenote: Cheap iron and adequate power essential to the development of machinery.]

[Sidenote: Watt invents the steam engine.]

In order that machinery should develop and become widely useful, two things were necessary. In the first place, there must be some strong material available of which to make the machines; for that purpose iron and steel have, with few exceptions, proved to be the best. In the second place, some adequate power must be found to propel the machinery, which is ordinarily too heavy to be run by hand or foot power. This necessary motive power was discovered in steam. The steam engine was devised by James Watt, an English inventor of great ingenuity. He invented a cylinder containing a piston, which could be forced back and forth by the introduction of steam. His progress was much retarded by the inability of the mechanics of his time to make an accurate cylinder of sufficient size, but in the year 1777 the new machine was successfully used for pumping. A few years later (1785) he arranged his engine so that it would turn a wheel. In this way, for the first time, steam could be used to run machinery--the spindles, for example, in a cotton mill.

[Sidenote: Steam used for spinning and weaving.]

A few years before Watt completed his improved steam engine, the old spinning wheel had been supplanted by the modern system, in which the thread is drawn out by means of spindles revolving at different rates of speed. The spindles, which had at first been run by water power, could now be propelled by steam. The old loom had also been improved, and weaving by steam began to become general after the year 1800.

[Sidenote: Use of steam cheapens iron.]

[Sidenote: New method of producing steel.]

Machinery, however, could not become common so long as iron and steel were expensive. The first use, therefore, to which the crude steam engines were put was to furnish a blast which enabled the iron smelter to employ coal instead of charcoal to fuse the iron ore (1777). Moreover, the steam pumps made it possible for the miners to pump out the water which impeded their work in the mines, and in this way cheapened both the iron and the coal. Soon the so-called "puddling furnace" was invented, by means of which steel was produced much more economically than it could be earlier. Rolling mills run by steam then took the place of the hammers with which the steel had formerly been beaten into shape. These discoveries of the use of steam and coal and iron revolutionized the life of the people at large in western Europe more quickly than any of the events which have been previously recorded in this volume. It is the aim of the remainder of this chapter to indicate very briefly the variety and importance of the effects produced by modern inventions.[465]

[Sidenote: Domestic industry supplanted by the factory system.]

278. Machinery although very efficient was expensive, and had necessarily to be near the boilers which produced the steam. Consequently machines for particular purposes were grouped in factories, and the workmen left their homes and gathered in large establishments. The hand worker with his old tools was more and more at a disadvantage compared with the workman who produced commodities by machinery. The result was inevitable, namely, that domestic industry was supplanted by the factory.

[Sidenote: Advantages of machinery.]

[Sidenote: Division of labor.]

One of the principal advantages of the factory system is that it makes possible a minute division of labor. Instead of giving his time and thought to the whole process, each worker concentrates his attention upon one single step of the process, and by repeating a simple set of motions over and over again acquires wonderful dexterity. At the same time the period of necessary apprenticeship is shortened under the factory system, because each separate task is comparatively simple. Moreover, the invention of new machinery is increased, because the very subdivision of the process into simple steps often suggests some way of substituting mechanical motion for the motion of the human hand.

[Sidenote: Examples of the increased production of goods by machinery.]

An example of the greatly increased output rendered possible by the use of machinery and division of labor is given by the distinguished Scotch economist, Adam Smith, whose great work, _The Wealth of Nations_, appeared in 1776. Speaking of the manufacture of a pin in his own time, Adam Smith says: "To make the head requires two or three distinct operations; to put it on is a peculiar business, to whiten the pin is another. It is even a trade by itself to put them into the paper, and the important business of making a pin is, in this manner, divided into about eighteen distinct operations." By this division, he adds, ten persons can make among them upwards of forty-eight thousand pins in a day. A recent writer reports that now an English machine makes one hundred and eighty pins a minute, cutting the wire, flattening the heads, sharpening the points, and dropping the pin into its proper place. In a single factory which he visited seven million pins were made in a day, and three men were all that were required to manage the mechanism.

Another example of modern mechanical work is found in printing. For several centuries after the development of that art the type was set up by hand, inked by hand, each sheet of paper was laid by hand upon the type and then printed by means of a press operated by a lever. Nowadays our newspapers are, in the great cities at least, printed almost altogether by machinery, from the setting up of the type until they are dropped complete and counted out by hundreds at the bottom of a rotary press. The paper is fed into the press from a great roll and is printed on both sides and folded at the rate of two hundred or more newspapers a minute.

[Sidenote: New means of communication.]

[Sidenote: Steamboats.]

279. The factory system would never have developed upon a vast scale had the manufacturers been able to sell their goods only in the neighborhood. The discovery that steam could be used to carry the goods cheaply and speedily to all parts of the world made it possible for a manufacturer to widen his market indefinitely. Fulton, an American inventor, devised the first steamboat that was really successful, in 1807, yet over half a century elapsed before steamships began to supplant the old and uncertain sailing ship. It is now possible to make the journey from New York to Southampton, three thousand miles, in less than six days, and with almost the regularity of an express train. Japan may be reached from Vancouver in thirteen days, and from San Francisco via Honolulu, a distance of five thousand five hundred miles, in eighteen days. A commercial map of the world shows that the globe is now crossed in every direction by definite routes, which are followed by innumerable freight and passenger steamers passing regularly from one port to another. These are able to carry goods for incredibly small sums. For example, wheat has frequently been shipped from New York to Liverpool for two cents a bushel.

[Sidenote: Development of the railroad.]

Just as the gigantic modern steamship has taken the place of the schooner and clipper, so, on land, the merchandise which used to be slowly dragged in carts by means of horses and oxen is now transported in long trains of capacious cars, each of which holds as much as many ordinary carts. A ton of freight can now be carried for less than a cent a mile. In 1825 Stephenson's locomotive was put into operation in England. Other countries soon began to follow England's lead in building railroads. France opened its first railroad in 1828, Germany in 1835. By 1840 Europe had over eighteen hundred miles of railroad; fifty years later this had increased to one hundred and forty thousand.

[Sidenote: Startling improvements in the means of communication.]

Besides the marvelous cheapening of transportation, other new means of communication have resulted from modern inventions. The telegraph, the submarine cable, and the telephone, all have served to render communication prompt and certain. Steamships and railroads carry letters half round the globe for a price too trivial to be paid for delivering a message round the corner. The old, awkward methods of making payments have given way to a tolerably uniform system of coinage. Instead of each petty principality and each town having its own coins, as was common, especially in Germany and Italy, before the nineteenth century, all coins are now issued by the national central governments. Yet the most convenient coins are difficult to transfer in large quantities, and nowadays all considerable sums are paid by means of checks and drafts. The banks settle their accounts by means of a clearing house, and in this way almost no large amount of money need pass from hand to hand.

England took the lead in utilizing all these remarkable new inventions, and with their aid became, by the middle of the nineteenth century, the manufacturing center of the world. Gradually the new machinery was introduced on the continent, and since 1850 countries having the necessary coal, such as Germany and Belgium, have developed manufacturing industries which now rival those of Great Britain.

[Sidenote: Some results of the industrial revolution of the nineteenth century.]

[Sidenote: Rapid growth of the towns.]

280. The _industrial revolution_, as the changes above referred to are usually called, could not but have a profound influence upon the life and government of Europe. For example, the population of Europe appears to have nearly doubled during the nineteenth century. One of the most startling tendencies of recent times has been the growth of the towns. In 1800 London had a population of less than one million; it now contains over four million five hundred thousand inhabitants. Paris, at the opening of the French Revolution, contained less than seven hundred thousand inhabitants; it now has over two and a half millions. Berlin has grown in a hundred years from one hundred and seventy-two thousand to nearly two millions. In England a quarter of the whole population live in towns having over two hundred and fifty thousand inhabitants, and less than a quarter still remain in the country. Our modern life is dominated by the great cities, which not only are the center of commerce and manufacturing, but are the homes of the artist and man of letters.

[Sidenote: Reasons for the growth of the towns.]

There are two obvious reasons for the growth of the towns since the industrial revolution. In the first place, factories are established in places where there is an abundant supply of coal, or where conditions are otherwise favorable; and this brings a large number of people together. In the second place, there is no limit set to the growth of cities, as was formerly the case, by the difficulty of procuring food from a distance. Paris, in the time of Louis XVI, was not a large city in the modern sense of the word; still the government found it very difficult to secure a regular supply of food in the markets. Now grain and even meat and fruit are easily carried any distance. England imports a large amount of her meat from Australia, on the other side of the globe, and even her butter and eggs she gets largely from the continent.

[Sidenote: Abolition of most of the restrictions on trade and industry.]

281. Before the nineteenth century the European governments had been accustomed to regulate trade, industry, and commerce by a great variety of laws, which were supposed to be necessary for the protection of the public. Of this we find examples in the English Navigation Acts;[466] in the guilds, which under the protection of the government enjoyed a monopoly of their industries in their particular districts; in the regulations issued by Colbert[467] and in the grain laws in both France and England, which limited the free importation and even the exportation of grain.

The French and English economists in the eighteenth century, like Turgot and Adam Smith, advocated the abolition of all restrictions, which they believed did far more harm than good. The expediency of this _laissez faire_,[468] or free-trade policy, has now been recognized by most European powers. England abolished her grain laws (the so-called Corn Laws) in 1846, and since then has adopted the policy of free trade, except so far as she raises a revenue from customs duties imposed upon a very few commodities, like liquor and tobacco. Low import duties are collected by most of the European powers on goods entering their territories, but all export duties have been abolished as well as all customs barriers within the countries.

[Sidenote: Government regulations protecting the laborer.]

A short experience with the factory system showed the need of regulations designed to protect the laborer.[469] There was a temptation for the new factories to force the employees to work an excessive number of hours under unhealthful conditions. Women and children were set to run the machines, and their strength was often cruelly overtaxed. Women and children were also employed in the coal mines, under terribly degrading conditions. One of the great functions of our modern governments has been to pass laws to protect the working men and women and to improve their condition. Germany has been particularly active in this sort of regulation, and has gone so far as to compel workingmen to insure themselves for the benefit of their families.[470]

[Sidenote: Labor unions.]

Another development of the factory system has been the rise of labor unions. These are voluntary associations intended to promote the interests of their members. They have grown as the factory system has been extended, and they now enjoy an influence in certain industries comparable to that exercised by the craft guilds of the Middle Ages. The governments do not undertake, however, to enforce the regulations of the labor unions as they formerly did of the guilds.[471]

[Sidenote: The people admitted to a share in the government.]

[Sidenote: Character of modern constitutions.]

282. The extension of manufacturing industries has had much to do with the gradual admission of the people to a share in the government. The life in towns and cities has quickened the intelligence of the working classes, so that they are no longer willing to intrust the affairs of government entirely to a king or to the representatives of the upper classes. The result of this was, as we have seen, that constitutions were, during the nineteenth century, introduced into all the western European states. While these differ from one another in detail, they all agree in establishing a house of representatives, whose members are chosen by the people at large. Gradually the franchise has been extended so that the poorest laborer, so soon as he comes of age, is permitted to have a voice in the selection of the deputies.[472] Without the sanction of the representatives of the people, the king and the upper, more aristocratic house are not allowed to pass any law or establish any new tax. Each year a carefully prepared list of expenses must be presented to the lower house and receive its ratification before money collected by taxation can be spent.

[Sidenote: Equality before the law.]

The French prefaced their first constitution by the memorable words: "All citizens being equal before the law, are alike eligible to all public offices and positions of honor and trust, according to their capacity, and without any distinction, except that of their character and ability." This principle, so different from that which had hitherto prevailed, has been recognized in most of the modern European constitutions. The privileges and exceptions which everywhere existed before the French Revolution have been abolished. Modern European governments are supposed to treat all alike, regardless of social rank or religious belief.

[Sidenote: Religious equality in England.]

[Sidenote: Repeal of the Test Act, 1828.]

At the opening of the nineteenth century England still kept on the statute book the laws debarring Roman Catholics and dissenters from sitting in Parliament or holding any public office. Exceptions, however, were made in the case of the dissenters. Finally, after violent opposition on the part of the conservative party, the Test Act, passed in the reign of Charles II,[473] was repealed in 1828. Next year the Roman Catholics were also given the right to sit in Parliament and to hold office, like the other subjects of the king.

[Sidenote: Free and compulsory education under the control of the state.]

Education, which was formerly left to the church, has during the nineteenth century become one of the most important functions of government. Boys and girls of all classes, between the ages of four and fourteen or fifteen, are now generally forced to take advantage of the schools which the government supports for their benefit. Tuition is free in France, Italy, Norway, and Sweden, and only trifling fees are required in Germany and elsewhere in western Europe. In 1902 the English Parliament and the French Legislative Assembly each appropriated about forty million dollars for educational purposes. As an example of the rapid advance in education in recent times, it may be noted that in 1843, among those who married in England and Wales, one third of the men and half of the women were unable to sign their names in the marriage registers. In 1899 all but three men in a hundred could write, and almost as many of the women.

[Sidenote: Warfare in recent times.]

283. The general advance in education has not yet taught nations to settle all their disputes without recourse to war. It is true that since Napoleon's downfall there have been but three or four serious wars in western Europe, and these very brief ones compared with the earlier conflicts. But the European powers spend vast amounts annually in maintaining standing armies and building battle ships. France and Germany have each a force of over half a million carefully trained soldiers ready to fight at any moment, and two million more who can be called out with the utmost speed should war be declared.[474] The invention of repeating rifles and of new and deadly explosives have, however, rendered war so terrible a thing to contemplate that statesmen are more and more reluctant to suggest a resort to arms.

[Sidenote: European colonies in the nineteenth century.]

Recent wars and the frequent rumors of war have had their origin mainly in disagreements over colonial matters. The anxiety of the European powers to extend their control over distant parts of the world is now no less marked than it was in the eighteenth century. Modern means of communication have naturally served to make the world smaller and more compact. An event in London is known as promptly in Sydney as in Oxford. A government can send orders to its commanders on the opposite side of the globe as easily as if they were but five miles away. Supplies, ammunition, and arms are, moreover, readily and speedily transferred to remote points.

[Sidenote: The Spanish colonies in North and South America establish their independence, 1810-1826.]

At the opening of the nineteenth century Spain still held Mexico, Florida, Central America, and most of South America except Brazil, which belonged to Portugal. During the Napoleonic period the Spanish colonies revolted and declared their independence of the mother country,--Mexico, New Granada, Chile, and the region about Buenos Ayres in 1810, Venezuela in 1811, etc. By 1826 Spain had been forced to give up the struggle and withdraw her troops from the American continent. In 1822 Brazil declared itself independent of Portugal. After the recent war with the United States Spain lost Cuba, Porto Rico, and the Philippines, the last remnants of her once imposing colonial domains.

[Sidenote: Expansion of England during the nineteenth century.]

England, on the other hand, has steadily increased her colonial realms and her dependencies during the nineteenth century, and has met with no serious losses since the successful revolt of the thirteen American colonies. In 1814 she acquired the Cape of Good Hope from the Dutch, and since then the territory has been enlarged by adding the adjacent districts. During the last years of the nineteenth century England busied herself extending her power over large tracts of western, central, and eastern Africa.

England has secured her interests in the eastern Mediterranean by gaining control of the Suez Canal, which was completed in 1869, mainly with French capital. In 1875 she purchased the shares owned by the khedive of Egypt. Then, since the khedive's finances were in a very bad way, she arranged to furnish him, in the interest of his creditors and in agreement with France, with financial advisers without whose approval he can make no financial decision. Moreover, English troops are stationed in Egypt with a view of maintaining order.

In the southern hemisphere England has colonized the continent of Australia, the large islands of New Zealand, Tasmania, etc. The mother country wisely grants these colonies and Canada almost complete freedom in managing their own affairs. The Canadian provinces formed a federation among themselves in 1867, and in 1901 the Commonwealth of Australia was proclaimed, a federation of the five Australian colonies and the island of Tasmania.

[Sidenote: Expansion of Russia since the Crimean War.]

France exercises a wide influence in Africa and even Germany has made some effort to gain a foothold there; but the most momentous extension of a European power is that of Russia. Since the Crimean War Russia has pressed steadily into central Asia, so that now her boundaries and those of the English possessions in India practically touch one another. She has also been actively engaged in the Far East. In 1898 she leased Port Arthur from China, and now the Trans-Siberian Railroad connects this as well as Vladivostok on the Pacific coast with Moscow.

[Sidenote: The Far Eastern Question.]

Recent events have shown that the European powers are likely to come into hostile relations with one another in dealing with China. The problem of satisfying the commercial and military demands of the various nations constitutes what is known as the Far Eastern Question.

[Sidenote: General disturbance caused by war in modern conditions.]

While all these conquests of the European powers increase the probability of friction and misunderstandings, there is a growing abhorrence of war. It appears more inhuman to men of to-day than it did to their ancestors. Moreover, all parts of the world are now so dependent each on the other that even the rumor of war may produce disastrous results far and wide. The prospect of war frightens the merchants, checks commerce and industry, and causes loss both to the laborer and the capitalist.

[Sidenote: The peace conference at The Hague, 1899.]

Many difficulties between nations can now be adjusted by the rules of international law. Arbitration is more and more frequently preferred to war. In 1899 an international peace conference was held at The Hague at the suggestion of the Tsar. Its object was to consider how the European powers might free themselves from the burden of supporting tremendous armies and purchasing the terrible engines of destruction which modern ingenuity has conceived. The resolutions of the conference embody rules for adjusting international disputes and prohibiting the use of particularly cruel and murderous projectiles, and for the treatment of prisoners of war, etc.

It has been possible to mention only a few of the startling achievements and changes which the nineteenth century has witnessed. Enough has, however, been said to show that Europe to-day differs perhaps more fundamentally from the Europe Napoleon knew than did Napoleon's world from Charlemagne's. Although civil and religious liberty and equality have been established, and incredible progress has been made in scientific thought, in general enlightenment, and in domestic comfort, yet the growth of democracy, the magnitude of the modern city, and the unprecedented development of industry and commerce have brought with them new and urgent problems which the future must face.

General Reading.--_The Progress of the Century_ (Harper & Bros., $2.50), a collection of essays by distinguished writers and investigators, summing up the changes of the nineteenth century. _The Statesman's Year Book_ (The Macmillan Company, $3.00) is issued each year and gives much valuable information in regard to the population, constitution, finances, educational system, etc., of the European states. WELLS, _Recent Economic Changes_ (D. Appleton & Co., $2.00).

LIST OF BOOKS[475]

ADAMS, GEORGE B., _Civilization during the Middle Ages_ (Charles Scribner's Sons, $2.50).

ADAMS, GEORGE B., _Growth of the French Nation_ (The Macmillan Company, $1.25).

ANDREWS, _Historical Development of Modern Europe_ (G.P. Putnam's Sons, $2.75).

BRYCE, _The Holy Roman Empire_ (The Macmillan Company, $1.00).

_Cambridge Modern History_, Volume I (The Macmillan Company, $3.75).

CESARESCO, _Liberation of Italy_ (Charles Scribner's Sons, $1.75).

CHEYNEY, _Industrial and Social History of England_ (The Macmillan Company, $1.40).

COLBY, _Selections from the Sources of English History_ (Longmans, Green & Co., $1.50).

CUNNINGHAM, _Western Civilization in its Economic Aspects: Volume II_, _Mediæval and Modern Times_ (The Macmillan Company, $1.25).

EMERTON, _Introduction to the Study of the Middle Ages_ (Ginn & Company, $1.12).

EMERTON, _Mediæval Europe_ (Ginn & Company, $1.50).

FYFFE, _History of Modern Europe_ (Henry Holt & Co., $2.75).

GARDINER, _Student's History of England_ (Longmans, Green & Co., $3.00).

GREEN, _Short History of the English People_, Revised Edition (Harper & Bros., $1.20).

HASSALL, _The Balance of Power_ [Europe in the Eighteenth Century] (The Macmillan Company, $1.60).

HATCH, _Growth of Church Institutions_ (Whittaker, $1.50).

HENDERSON, _A History of Germany in the Middle Ages_ (The Macmillan Company, $2.60).

HENDERSON, _Select Historical Documents of the Middle Ages_ (The Macmillan Company, $1.50).

HENDERSON, _Short History of Germany_, 2 volumes (The Macmillan Company, $4.00).

HODGKIN, _Dynasty of Theodosius_ (Clarendon Press, Oxford, $1.50).

JESSOP, _The Coming of the Friars_ (G.P. Putnam's Sons, $1.25).

JOHNSON, _Europe in the Sixteenth Century_ (The Macmillan Company, $1.75)

LEE, _Source-book of English History_ (Henry Holt & Co., $2.00).

LOWELL, E.J., _Eve of the French Revolution_ (Houghton, Mifflin & Co., $2.00).

MATHEWS, _The French Revolution_ (Longmans, Green & Co., $1.25).

MUNRO, _Mediæval History_ (D.C. Appleton & Co., 90 cents).

OMAN, _Dark Ages_ (The Macmillan Company, $1.75).

PERKINS, _France under the Regency_ (Houghton, Mifflin & Co., $2.00).

PHILLIPS, _Modern Europe_ (1815-1899) (The Macmillan Company, $1.50).

ROSE, _Life of Napoleon the First_, 2 volumes (The Macmillan Company, $4.00).

ROSE, _Revolutionary and Napoleonic Period_ (The Macmillan Company, $1.25).

SCHWILL, _History of Modern Europe_ (Charles Scribner's Sons, $1.50).

SMITH, MUNROE, _Bismarck and German Unity_ (The Macmillan Company, $1.00).

STEPHENS, _The French Revolution_, 3 volumes (Charles Scribner's Sons, $7.50).

_Translations and Reprints from the Original Sources of European History_ (Department of History, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia. Single numbers, 10 cents; double numbers, 20 cents).

WAKEMAN, _Europe from 1598 to 1715_ (The Macmillan Company, $1.40).

WALKER, _The Protestant Reformation_ (Charles Scribner's Sons, $2.00).

INDEX

Abbeys, _see_ Monasteries.

Abbot, meaning of, 58.

Abbots chosen by feudal lords, 155.

Abelard, 268 f.

Absolute monarchy, 475 ff., 496 ff.

Acolyte, 20.

Acre taken in First Crusade, 194.

Act of Appeals, 430.

Act of Supremacy, 430.

Act of Uniformity, 491.

Adda, valley of, 471.

_Address to the German Nobility_, by Luther, 396 f.

Adrian VI, Pope, attempts reformation of Church, 310.

Adrianople, battle of, 25.

_Æneid_, copies of, in Middle Ages, 333, note.

Agincourt, battle of (1415), 292.

Agricola, Rudolph, 379.

Aids, feudal, 111, 145 and note.

Aistulf, Lombard king, 74 f.

Aix-la-Chapelle, Charlemagne's palace at, 78.

Alaric takes Rome, 26.

Albertus Magnus, 231, 260; writes commentary on Aristotle, 272.

Albigenses, 221 f.; crusade against, 223 f., 256.

Alchemy, 672.

Aleander's views of Protestant revolt, 399, 403.

Alemanni, 35; attempted conversion of, by St. Columban, 65.

Alessandria built, 178.

Alexander III, Pope, 178 f.

Alexander VI, Pope (Borgia), 362, 364.

Alexander I, Tsar, 611, 620.

Alexius, Emperor, and First Crusade, 188, 191.

Alfred the Great, 133 f.

Alsace ceded to Germany, 472 f., 663 and note.

Alva, 448 ff.

Amalfi, commerce of, 243.

Ambrose, 51.

America, North, explored by English, 351.

American colonies of England, revolt of, 532 ff.

American Revolution, 533 ff.

Amiens, rupture of Treaty of, 610.

Anabaptists, 416.

Anagni, attack on Boniface VIII at, 306.

_Ancien Régime_, 537 ff.

Andrea del Sarto, 346.

Angelico, Fra, 343.

Angevins, _see_ Plantagenets.

Angles, 27; settle in Britain, 60.

Anglo-Saxon, 253.

_Anglo-Saxon Chronicle_, 134, 253.

Anjou, 126, 301.

Anne, Queen, 524.

Antioch, Latin principality of, 193.

Antwerp, 450.

_Appanages_, creation of, in France, 128.

Aquinas, 231, 272.

Aquitaine, 67, 82, 93, 124, 126. _See also_ Guienne.

Arabia, 243.

Arabs, condition of, before Mohammed, 69; conquests of, 70 f.; conquer Syria, 188; civilization of, in Spain, 356.

Aragon united with Castile, 357.

Archbishops, origin of, 21; powers of, 203 ff.

Arches defined and illustrated, 264.

Architecture, mediæval, 262 f.; Romanesque, 263; Gothic, 264 f.; domestic, 266 f.; Renaissance, 339 f.

Aristotle, mediæval veneration for, 271 f.; Dante's estimate of, 331.

Arius, 30.

Arles, _see_ Burgundy.

Armada, 463.

Arnold of Brescia, 177.

Arnulf of Carinthia, 97.

Art, mediæval, 261 f.; fostered by Italian despots, 326; Renaissance, 339; Arabic, 356.

Arthur, nephew of John of England, 127.

Artois, count of, 575, 630. _See_ Charles X of France.

_Assignats_, 571, 591 and note.

Astrology, 260, 672.

Astronomy, mediæval knowledge of, 331; discoveries of Copernicus, 351; modern, 672 f.

Athanasius, 50.

Athens, school at, closed, 33.

Attila, 27.

Augsburg, Hungarians defeated near, 150; confession of, 417 f.; diet of, 417 f.; religious Peace of, 419 f., 465.

Augustine, Bishop of England, 61.

Augustine, Bishop of Hippo, 26, note, 51, 390, 393.

Augustinian order, 385, note, 387.

Austerlitz, battle of, 611.

Australia, 685 f.

Austrasia, 37, 38.

Austria, 150, 354 f.; hold of, on Italy, 507; conflicts with Turks, 517 f.; war of 1809 with Napoleon, 619; mixed population of, 632; influence of, after 1815, 640; revolution of 1848 in, 644 f.; opposition of, to German unity, 651 f.; decline of influence of, after 1851, 653 f.; war with Prussia (1866), 660.

Austrian Mark, 150.

Austrian Netherlands, given to France, 604; to Holland, 625.

Austrian Succession, War of, 518 ff.

Avignon, seat of papacy (1305-1377), 307 f.; Clement VII, anti-pope, reëstablishes papal court at, 310.

Azores Islands discovered by Portuguese, 347.

Baber, 529 and note.

Babylonian Captivity of the Church (1305-1377), 307 f.

_Babylonian Captivity of the Church_, by Luther, 397.

Bacon, Francis, 478.

Bacon, Roger, 273, 478, 671.

Bacteria, 674.

Baden granted a constitution, 635.

Bæda, _see_ Venerable Bede.

Bagdad, 83, note.

_Baillis_, established by Philip Augustus, 130.

Balance of power, 427 f., 625 f.

Baldwin, in First Crusade, 191 f.; ruler of Jerusalem, 194.

Balliol, 279.

Banking, origin of, 246.

Bannockburn, battle of (1314), 280.

_Banquet_, Dante's, 331.

Baptism essential to salvation, 46; sacrament of, 210.

Baptists, 491.

Barbarians, _see_ Germans.

_Barbarians, Laws of the_, 40.

Barbarossa, Frederick, _see_ Frederick I, Emperor.

Barebone's Parliament, 489.

Barons, War of the, 146 f.

Basel, Council of (1431-1449), 318 f.

Basil, 51.

Bastile, fall of the, 565.

Bavaria, conquered by the Franks, 37; 65, 67, 82, 93, 98, 112; made an electorate, 467; in War of Austrian Succession, 518 f.; elector of, assumes title of king, 612; granted a constitution, 635.

Baylen, battle of, 618.

Bede, _see_ Venerable Bede.

Bedford, duke of, 293.

"Beggars" of the Netherlands, 447.

Belgium, 627 f.; becomes an independent kingdom, 640 f.

Belisarius overthrows the Vandal kingdom, 33.

Benedict, St., 57 f.; Rule of, 57 f.

Benedict IX, Pope, 160.

Benedict XIII, Pope, deposed by Council of Pisa, 313; by Council of Constance, 315.

Benedictine order, 57, note.

_Beneficium_, 105 f.

Berbers, 71.

Berlin, Congress of, 670.

Bible, translated into Gothic, 252; Wycliffe's translation of, 309; first printed, 338; German, before Luther, 378, 405; Luther's translation of, 405 f.; German, for Catholics, 413; English translation of, 431; King James version of, 478 and note.

Bishop of Rome, not yet pope in Constantine's time, 21; obscurity of the early, 50; Valentinian's decree concerning, 51. _See_ Pope.

Bishops, origin of, 20, 67; method of choosing, 155; complicated position of, 156, 174; duties, position, and importance of, 204, 206 f.

Bismarck, 657 ff., 663.

Black Death (1348-1349), 288.

Black Friars, _see_ Dominicans.

"Black Hole" of Calcutta, 531.

Black Prince of England, at Crécy, 285; and Poitiers, 287.

Blockade, 615 f.

Boethius, last distinguished Roman writer, 19, 31 f., 134.

Bohemia, Huss spreads Wycliffe's doctrines in, 309; relation with Council of Basel, 318 f.; revolts from the Hapsburgs, 466 f.; in 1848, 646, 648.

Bohemians, Charlemagne forces, to pay tribute, 82.

Bohemond, in First Crusade, 191 f.

Boleyn, Anne, 429 f.

Bologna, study of Roman law at, 177.

Bonaparte, analysis of character of, 595 ff. _See_ Napoleon.

Bonaventura, head of Franciscan order, quoted, 232.

Boniface, St., apostle to the Germans, 65 f.; anoints Pippin, 73.

Boniface VIII, Pope, struggle with Philip the Fair, 304 f.

Book of Prayer, English, 435, 458, 482, 491.

Books copied by monks, 58.

Borgia, Cæsar, hero of Machiavelli's _Prince_, 362.

Borgia, Pope Alexander VI, 362.

Borodino, battle of, 621.

Bosnia, 669, 670 and note.

Boso, count of Vienne, 97.

Bosworth Field, battle of, 297.

Bothwell, 459 f.

Boulogne, Napoleon's army at, 610 f.

Bourbon kings, 453, 630.

Brandenburg, electorate of, 372, 474, 515 f. _See_ Prussia.

Brazil, 685.

Breitenfeld, battle of, 470.

Bremen, foundation of, 81; commerce of, 244; member of the German empire, 604.

Bretigny, Treaty of (1360), 286 f.

Britain conquered by the Angles and Saxons, 60; church of, yields to Roman Church, 62.

Brittany, 123.

Bruce, Robert, 279 f.

Bruges, 123, 245.

Brumaire, eighteenth, 598.

Bruni, Leonardo, estimate of importance of Greek studies, 336.

Bruno, Archbishop, 149.

Buckingham, 478.

Bulgaria, 669 f.

Bulgaria, South, 670, note.

Bulls, papal, origin of name, 204, note.

_Bundesrath_, 661, 666.

Burgher class, rise of, 249.

Burgundians, 30, 36; number of, entering the empire, 39.

Burgundy, county of, 366, 471. _See also_ Franche-Comté.

Burgundy, duchy of, 124, 292; alliance with England, 292 f.; importance of, under Philip the Good and Charles the Bold, 300, 354, 417.

Burgundy, kingdom of, 38, 97, 124 and note, 153.

_Burnt Njal, The Story of_, 99, note.

Buttress, flying, defined and illustrated, 264 f.

Byzantium, 22, note.

Cabinet, English, 524 f.

Cadiz, 479.

Cædmon, 253.

Cæsar, drives back the Germans, 5; conquers Britain, 60.

_Cahiers_, 562 f.

Calais taken by English, 285, 295.

Calcutta, 529; "Black Hole" of, 531.

Calendar, French republican, 582 and note.

Caliph, title of, 70.

Calmar, Union of, 469.

Calonne, 556 f.; reforms proposed by, 558 ff.

Calvin, 425 f., 452.

Calvinists, 420, 473.

Cambray, League of (1508), 365.

Campo-Formio, Treaty of, 594 f.

Canada won by the English, 530, 532, 685 f.

Canary Islands discovered by Portuguese, 347.

Canon law, 202, note; burned by Luther, 399.

Canonical election, 155.

Canons, 207, note.

_Canons and decrees of the Council of Trent, The_, 440.

Canossa, 169.

Canterbury, the religious capital of England, 61; St. Martin's at, 61; dispute concerning Archbishop of, under John, 183.

Capet, Hugh, 121.

Capetian kings, position of early, 121 f., 124 f.

Capitularies, 87.

_Carbonari_, 637.

Cardinals, 162 and note, 204.

Carloman, brother of Pippin, 72.

Carlsbad Resolutions, 634 f.

Carlstadt, 407 f.

Carnot, 588.

Carolingian line in France, 120 f.

Cassiodorus, his treatises on the liberal arts and sciences, 32.

Castile, united with Aragon, 357.

Castle, mediæval, 100, 267.

Catechism, Napoleon's, 617.

Cathari, 221.

Cathedral, the mediæval, 262 f.; of Wells, 265 f.

Catherine de' Medici, 454 f.

Catherine of Aragon, 367, 428 ff.

Catherine II of Russia, 514.

Catholic Church, early conception of, 20. _See_ Church, Clergy.

Catholic League of Dessau, 415.

Catholic League in Germany, 466 f.

Catholic party, formation of a, at Regensburg, 412.

Catholic reaction, 438, note.

Catholic reformation, 412 f., 437 ff.

Cavaliers, 485.

Cavour, 654.

Celibacy of the clergy, _see_ Marriage.

Celts in Britain, 60.

Chalcedon, Act of the Council of, 51.

Châlons, battle of, 27.

Champagne, counts of, growth of possessions of, 113 f; position of, 114 f.

Chapter, cathedral, 207.

Charlemagne, 77 ff.; ideal of, of a great German empire, 79; coronation of, as emperor, 83 f.; reëstablishes the Western Empire, 84 f.; system of government of, 86; his farms, 86 and note; interest of, in schools, 87 ff., 268; disruption of empire of, 92 ff.; collects German poems, 253; hero of romances, 254.

Charles Martel, 38; aids Boniface, 66, 67 ff.; defeats the Mohammedans at Tours, 72.

Charles the Bald, 92 f., 95.

Charles the Fat, 96 f.

Charles the Simple, 96, note, 113, 121 f.

Charles V of France (1364-1380) reconquers most of English possessions in France, 287 f.

Charles VI of France, 292 f.

Charles VII of France, 293 f.

Charles VIII of France invades Italy, 360 f.

Charles IX of France, 454 ff.

Charles X of France, 630. _See also_ Artois, count of.

Charles the Bold of Burgundy, 300, 422.

Charles V, Emperor, 301; possessions of, 354, 359 f.; coronation of, 367; wars with Francis I, 366, 415, 417; at diet of Worms, 400; at Augsburg, 417 f.; attitude toward the Protestants, 438; abdicates, 444.

Charles VI, Emperor, 518.

Charles VII, Emperor, 518 f.

Charles I of England, 478 ff.; financial exactions of, 479, 481; execution of, 486 f.

Charles II of England, 488, 490 ff.

Charles II of Spain, 502; will of, 506.

Charles XII of Sweden, 513 f.

Charles Albert of Sardinia, 646, 647, 650.

Charter, French, of 1814, 629 f.

Charter, the Great, of England, 144, 146.

Charters granted to mediæval towns, 239 f.

Chemistry, 672.

Chivalry, 256 f.

Christian IV of Denmark, 467 f.

Christian missions, map of, 63.

Christianity, preparation for, in Roman Empire, 18; promises of, 18; pagan rites and conceptions adopted by, 19.

Christians, persecution of, 10.

Chrysoloras called to teach Greek in Florence, 336.

Church, apostolic, 19; organization of, before Constantine, 20; in the Theodosian Code, 21; survives the Roman Empire, 22; greatness of, 44; sources of power of, 45 ff.; attitude of, toward the civil government, 47; begins to perform the functions of the civil government, 48; coöperation of, with the civil government, 80, note, 81; maintains knowledge of Latin, 87; policy of William the Conqueror in regard to English, 138; wealth of, 154; lands of, feudalized, 154; offices bought and sold, 158; and state, 165, 303; character and organization of mediæval, 201 ff.; services of, to civilization, 216; evil effects of wealth upon, 217 f.; loses power as modern states develop, 303 f.; reasons for influence of, in Middle Ages, 303, 370; corruption of, 217 ff.; during Babylonian Captivity of, 307; in Germany, 383; attempted reformation of, 223; at Constance, 317; taxation of, 307; attempted union of, with Eastern Church, 319; attitude of humanists toward, 335; enthusiasm for, in Germany before Luther, 377; discontent with, in Germany, 385; in France before the Revolution, 541 ff.; attacked by Voltaire, 550; property of, confiscated by the National Assembly, 570 f.; lands, secularization of, 603.

Church fathers, 50 f.

Cicero, humanists' estimate of, 332, 334.

Cisalpine republic, 595, 601, 602.

Cistercian order, 219.

_City of God, The_, Augustine's, 26, note, 78.

Civil Constitution of the Clergy, 571 f., 580, 606 f.

Civil war in England, 485 f.

Classics, Greek and Roman, neglect of, in the Middle Ages, 259, 330, 333, note; Dante's respect for, 331; revival of, 332 ff.; Petrarch's enthusiasm and search for, 332 ff.

Clement V, Pope, removes seat of papacy to France, 306.

Clement VII, anti-pope, returns to Avignon, 310.

Clement VII, Pope, 412, 430.

Clergy, minor orders of, 20; privileges of, in Theodosian Code, 21; attitude toward civil government, 81; lower, demoralized by simony, 159; importance of, to civilization, 214 f.; benefit of, 214, note; corruption of, 217 f.; secular, opposition of, to mendicant orders, 231; reform of, at Regensburg, 412; policy of Henry VIII toward, 429 ff.; in France before the Revolution, 542; representatives of, join third estate, 564; Civil Constitution of, 571 f., 580, 606 f.; non-juring, in France, 572, 579, 606. _See also_ Marriage.

_Clericis laicos_, papal bull, 304.

Clive, 531 f.

Clovis, conquests of, 35 f.; conversion of, 35; number of soldiers of, baptized, 39.

Cnut, king of England, 134.

Coal, use of, 676.

_Code Napoléon_, 607 f.

Coinage, French king's control of, 131.

Colbert, reforms of, 499 f.

Colet, 426 f.

Coligny, 455 f.

Cologne, 12, 248; elector of, 372.

_Coloni_, condition of, 15 f.

Colonies, European, 527 ff., 684; Roman, 12; French, in North America, 527 f.; Spanish, 684 f.

Columban, St., 65.

_Columban St., Life of_, 65, note.

Columbus, 350.

_Comitatus_, 105 f.

_Comites_, 67.

Commendation, 105 and note.

Commerce, development of, 199 f., 243 f.; restrictions on, 245 f.; in Italy, 243, 322 f.; in France and England, 302.

Commercial war between Holland and England, 488.

Committee of Public Safety, 585, 587 f.

Common law, English, 142.

Commons, House of, 147. _See_ Parliament.

Commons, summoned to the French Estates General, 131; the English, 147.

Commonwealth, England a, 487.

Commune, Paris, 586; insurrection of, 1871, 664.

Communes, establishment of, in France in 1789, 566.

Communes, origin of, 239 f.

Communication, modern means of, 678 f., 684.

Communion under both kinds, 432 and note.

Compass, invention of, 352.

Compendiums, reliance upon, in later Roman Empire, 17; inherited by Middle Ages, 18.

Compurgation, 41.

Concordat, between Francis I and Pope Leo X, 366, note; of 1801, 607.

Condé, 472.

_Condottieri_, Italian mercenary troops, 326 f.

Confederation of the Rhine, 612 f.

Confession, 212, note.

Confession of Augsburg, 417 f.

Confirmation, sacrament of, 211.

Congregational church, 483.

Congress of Berlin, 670.

Congress of Vienna, 625 ff.

Conrad II, Emperor, 153.

Conrad III, Emperor, 173, note, 197.

_Consolation of Philosophy, The_, of Boethius, 19, 134.

Constance, heiress of Naples and Sicily, marries Emperor Henry VI, 180.

Constance, Peace of (1183), 179; Council of (1414), 314.

Constantine, 21 f.

Constantine VI, 84.

Constantinople, 22 f.; threatened by Turks, 188; taken by the Turks, 23, 517; Bishop of, put on an equal footing with the Bishop of Rome, 51; during First Crusade, 191; culture of, affects the West, 336 f.; desire of Russia for, 668.

Constitution, first French, 576; of the year VIII, 599; veneration for a, in Italy, 637.

Constitutional government, desire for, in France, 563; demand for, in Prussia, 632; granted in southern Germany, 635; in Piedmont, 651.

Consul, title of Bonaparte, 600, 608.

Continental blockade, 615 f.

Continental system, the, 616.

Continuity of history, 4.

Conventicle Act, 492.

Convention, French, 582 ff.; close of, 590 f.

Conversion of the Germans, 56 ff.; of the Saxons, 80.

Copernicus (Kopernik), astronomical discoveries of, 351 f.

Copyists, carelessness of, 89 and note, 90.

Corbie, school at, 90.

Cordova, emir of, 83; brilliant civilization of caliphate of, 356.

Corn Laws, 681.

Corneille, 500.

Corsica added to France, 536, 592 f.

Cortez conquers Mexico, 351.

Council, general, 311 f.; of Clermont, 188; fourth Lateran, 184; of Pisa, 313; of Constance, 314 ff.; of Basel, 318 f.; of Ferrara-Florence, 319 f.; Luther recognizes fallibility of, 393.

Council of Blood, 448.

Council of State, French, 599.

Counter-reformation, 438, note.

Counties, sheriffs in the English, 137.

Counts, origin of, 67; position of, 102.

Counts of the march, 82, 86.

_Coup d'état_, 598.

Court, lord's, 110 and note.

Court of High Commission, 482.

Covenant, National, 483 f.

Crécy, battle of, 284.

Crema destroyed by Frederick I, 178.

Crimean War, 668 f.

Cromwell, Oliver, 485 ff.; death of, 489 f.

Cromwell, Richard, 490.

Crusade, Albigensian, 223 f., 256.

Crusades, 23, 187 ff.; effects of, 199 f., 243, 347.

Culloden Moor, 527.

Culture, mediæval, 250 f.; general use of Latin, 250; Germanic languages, 251 f.; Romance languages, 251 f.; literature, romance, 254 f.; chivalry, 256 f.; ignorance of the past, 259; popular science, 260; art, 261 f.; education, the universities, 267 f.; Roman and canon law, 269; Aristotle, 271; scholasticism, 272.

Curia, papal, 204.

Customs duties, 246, 681.

Customs lines, interior, 539 f.

Customs union, German, 635.

Cyprian, 20.

Czar, _see_ Tsar.

Dagobert, 38.

Damascus, seat of the caliphate, 70, 83, note.

Danegeld, 134.

Danes, 99, note; invade England, 133 f.; defeated by Alfred, 133.

Danish language, derivation of, 251.

Dante, 330 f.

Danton, 589.

Dantzig, 196, 248.

Dark age before Charlemagne, 87.

"Dark ages," meaning of, 6, 91.

Darnley, 459.

Dauphin, origin of title, 292, note.

Deacons, 19 f.

Declaration of Independence, American, 533.

Declaration of Rights, English, 494.

Declaration of the Rights of Man, 568 ff., 629.

_Decretum_ of Gratian, 269.

Degrees, university, explained, 270, note.

Deist, 550.

Departments in France, 538, 567 f.

Desaix, 601 f.

Dessau, League of, 415.

_Dialogues_ of Gregory the Great, 54.

Diaz rounds Cape of Good Hope, 348.

_Dictatus_ of Gregory VII., 164.

Diet, German, attempts to reform government, 375.

Directory, French, 591, 593, 597 f., 601.

Discoveries in fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, 347 f.; modern scientific, 671 ff.

Dispensations, papal, 203.

Dissenters, 491.

_Divine Comedy_ of Dante, 330.

Divine right of kings, 476 f., 496 ff.

Doge of Venice, 324.

Domain, 121.

_Domesday Book_, 138.

Dominican order organized, 230.

Donauwörth, 466.

Drake, Sir Francis, 461.

Dresden, battle of, 623.

Dukes, origin of, 67.

Dumouriez, 582, 584.

Dunkirk, 489, 588.

Dupleix, 531.

Dürer, Albrecht, 346.

Dutch, commerce of, 448. _See also_ Holland.

Dutch language, derivation of, 251.

East Frankish kingdom, 94, 98.

East Goths, 28 f., 30, 33.

East India Company, English, 530; French, 530.

Eastern Church, _see_ Greek Church.

Eastern Empire, 22; civilization of, in Middle Ages, 23.

Eastern question, origin of, 535, 667 ff.

Ecclesiastical states, origin of, 156, note; in Germany, disappearance of, 603 f.

Eck, 392 f., 398, 418.

Economists, French, 552 f.

Edessa, Latin principality of, established, 193; fall of, 196.

Edict of Nantes, 542.

Edict of Restitution, 468, 473.

Edict of Worms, 403 f., 415.

Education, clerical monopoly of, 213 f.; mediæval, 267; humanistic, 335; compulsory, 683.

Edward the Confessor, 134, 136 f.

Edward I of England, 147, 278 f.

Edward II, 280; forced to abdicate, 281.

Edward III, claims French crown, 283 f., 286 f.

Edward IV, 296.

Edward V, 297.

Edward VI, 434 f.

Egbert, king of Wessex, 133.

Egypt, Bonaparte's expedition to, 597 f.; English occupation of, 685.

Eisenach, Luther at, 405.

Elba, 624.

Elders, 19, 426, note.

Elders, Council of, 590, 599.

Electors in empire, 372, 524, note.

Elizabeth, queen of England, 430, 451, 458 ff., 476.

Embargo acts of the United States, 615 f.

Emigrant nobles, 575, 577, 579; permitted to return, 607.

_Émigrés_, _see_ Emigrant nobles.

Emirate of Cordova, 83, note.

"Emperor Elect," 152, note.

Emperor, Roman, his will law, 10; worship of, 10.

Emperor, title of, held by Italian kings, 151; assumed by Otto the Great, 151; assumed by Napoleon, 608; assumed by Austrian ruler, 612.

Empire, reëstablishment of, in the West, 84; divisions of, 92 f., 96; relations with papacy, 151 f.; under Hohenstaufens, 173, 185; under Hapsburgs, 355. _See_ Holy Roman Empire.

Empire, Roman, character and organization of, 8 ff.

Engine, steam, 675 f.

England, early culture in, 64; becomes a part of the Catholic Church, 64; claims of kings of, to France, 130; importance of, in history of Europe, 133; on the accession of William the Conqueror, 135; feudalism in, 135; Norman conquest of, 136 ff.; made tributary to pope by John, 183; commerce of, 244 f., 351, 460 f.; conquers Wales, 278; relations of, with Scotland, 279 f.; union of, with Scotland, 280; during the Hundred Years' War, 281 ff., 291 ff., 301 f.; labor problem of, and Peasants' War, 288 ff.; Wars of the Roses, 296 f.; humanism in, 335, 363; Protestant revolt in, 426 ff.; struggle for constitutional government, 475 ff.; establishment of commonwealth, 487 ff.; restoration of the Stuarts, 490; revolution of 1688, 493; in the War of the Austrian Succession, 526; in the Seven Years' War, 520 f.; expansion of, 523 ff.; colonies of, in North America, 527 ff.; settlements of, in India, 529; colonial possessions of, at end of eighteenth century, 535; involved in war with France (1793), 583; renews war with Napoleon, 610; expansion of, in the nineteenth century, 685. _See also_ Britain.

English language, 134, 147, 251, 253 f.

Epictetus, 18.

Equality before the law, 683.

Erasmus, 381 f.; attitude of, toward Luther, 394, 427.

Estates General, 131 f. and note, 285, 298 f., 305, 475, 496 f.; demanded by the _parlement_ of Paris, 560; summoning of, 561; meeting of (1789), 562 f.

Esthonia, 514.

Etruria, kingdom of, 620.

Eucharist, _see_ Mass.

Eugene IV, Pope, 319.

Eugene of Savoy, 507.

Euric, king of West Goths, 26.

Europe after 1814, 625, 627 f.; contemporaneous, 671.

Excommunication, 213.

Exorcist, 20.

Fabliaux, mediæval, 256.

Far Eastern Question, 686.

Ferdinand I, Emperor, brother of Charles V, 412, 444, 465, 517.

Ferdinand II, Emperor, 467.

Ferdinand of Aragon, 357, 363, 364.

Ferrara-Florence, Council of, 319 f.

Feudal dues, 110 f.; in France, 543; abolition of, 567.

Feudal hierarchy, no regular, 116.

Feudal registers, 112.

Feudalism, 104 ff.; origins of, 99 ff., 102 f., 104 f.; anarchy of, 116 f.; in England, 135; connection of, with chivalry, 257.

Fief, hereditary character of, 106 ff.; conditions upon which granted, 110 and note; classes of, 110, 111 f., 115.

Five Hundred, Council of, 590, 599.

Flanders, 94, 123 f., 244; weavers from, in England, 139; relations of, with England, 283 f.; under dukes of Burgundy, 300; art of, 346.

"Flayers," 298.

Florence, 321, 325, 327 ff., 342; under Savonarola, 361 f.

Fontenay, battle of, 93.

Foot soldiers, English, defeat French knights at Crécy, 284; at Poitiers, 285; at Agincourt, 292.

Forest cantons, 421.

France, origin of, 94, 95 f., 121; position of early kings of, 121 f., 125; under Philip Augustus, 130; genealogical table of the kings of, 282, note; during the Hundred Years' War, 281 ff., 288, 291 ff.; standing army of, established, 298; condition under Louis XI, 299 ff.; influence of Italian culture, 335, 363; Protestantism in, 451 ff.; wars of religion, 451 ff.; limits of, in 1659, 501 f.; ascendency of, under Louis XIV, 495 ff.; absolute monarchy in, 545; reforms of Colbert, 499 f.; condition of, at end of the reign of Louis XIV, 508; joins in War of Austrian Succession, 518; alliance with the Hapsburgs, 520; possessions in North America, 527 f.; in India, 529 ff.; losses of, at close of Seven Years' War, 532; aids the United States, 534; in the eighteenth century, 535 f., 537 ff.; first Revolution, cause of, 545, 563; course of, 558 ff.; First Republic, 581 ff.; Reign of Terror, 585 ff.; constitution of the year III, 590 f.; reforms of Bonaparte, 599, 606, 616; restoration of the Bourbons, 629 f.; revolution of 1848, 642 ff.; Third Republic, 664 f.

Franche-Comté, 300, 366, 471; ceded to France, 502 f. _See_ Burgundy, county of.

Francis I, Emperor, 519.

Francis II, Emperor, assumes the title of Emperor of Austria, 612.

Francis I of France, 365, 415, 417, 425; wars with Emperor Charles V, 366; persecutes the Protestants, 452.

Francis II of France, 452 f.

Francis Joseph I, accession of, 650.

Francis of Assisi, 226 ff.

Franciscan order founded, 228.

Franconian line of emperors, 153.

Franco-Prussian War, 662 f.

Frankfurt, National Assembly at, 646, 651 f.

Franks, conquests of, 30, 34; conversion of, 35; history of, 36 f.; alliance of, with popes, 73, 75 f. _See also_ Charlemagne.

Frederick, Elector of the Palatinate, 466 f., 477.

Frederick I (Barbarossa), Emperor, 173, 197.

Frederick II, Emperor, 181 f., 198.

Frederick I of Prussia, 516.

Frederick II of Prussia, _see_ Frederick the Great.

Frederick the Great, 516, 518 ff.

Frederick the Wise, of Saxony, collects relics, 377; patron of Luther, 389.

Frederick William III of Prussia, 613 f., 621 f.

Frederick William IV of Prussia, 652 f., 656, note.

Freedmen, condition of, 15.

_Freedom of the Christian_, by Luther, 397, note.

Freemen in competition with slaves in Roman Empire, 15.

Free towns, German. _See_ Towns.

French Academy, 501.

French and Indian War, 530.

French language, 94, 251, 254, 260.

French Revolution, 4, 537 f.; opening of, 557, 558 ff.; second, 574, ff.

_Frequens_, decree, of Council of Constance, 318, note.

Friends, Society of, 491.

Frisia, 79.

Fritzlar, sacred oak of Odin at, 66.

Fust, John, printer of Psalter of 1459, 338, note.

Future life, pagan view of, 18; Christian view of, 19.

Galileo, 673.

Gall, St., Irish missionary, 65; monk of, 78 and note.

Garibaldi, 655, 667.

Gascony, 124.

Gaul, West Goths establish a kingdom in, 26; occupied by the Franks, 30, 35; church in, reformed and brought under the papal supremacy, 66.

Gelasius, Pope, his opinion of the relation of the Church and the civil government, 47.

Geneva, Calvin at, 425 f.

Genghiz Khan, 510.

Genoa, 174, 194, 198; commerce of, 243, 347; given to Sardinia, 626.

Geoffrey, son of Henry II, 126 f. and note.

George I of England, 524.

George II of England, 526.

George III, 533.

German Confederation of 1815, 632 f.; dissolution of, 660.

German empire, Proclamation of the, 665.

German kings, difficulties of, caused by the imperial title, 85; vain attempt of, to control Italy, 85.

German kingship, 148, 152 f.

German language, 94 f. and note, 251; reduced to writing, 252 f., 258 f.; books published in the, 250, note; in Luther's time, 405 f.

Germans, infiltration of, into Roman Empire, 8, 12, 16 f.; objects of, in invading the Empire, 25; number of invading, 39; fusion of, with the Romans, 39; character of early, 42; conversion of, 56 ff.

Germany, 79, 95 f.; foundation of towns in northern, 81; assigned to Louis the German, 92 f., 94; history of, contrasted with that of France, 148; under the same ruler as Italy, 151 f.; confusion in, under Henry VI, 182; want of unity in, 185, 355; culture in, 335, 363; before Protestant revolt: complexity, organization, the electors, the knights, the cities, neighborhood war, the diet, reorganization in fifteenth century, social and intellectual conditions, 371 f.; during the Protestant revolt, 405 ff.; progress of Protestantism in, 418 ff.; religious division of, 412, 415 ff.; after the Thirty Years' War, 473 f.; territorial reorganization of, in 1803, 604; condition of, in 1814, 626; effects of Napoleonic era in, 631 f.; in 1848, 646; unification of, 656 ff., 665.

Ghent, 123; commerce of, 245, 248.

Ghibelline party, 179, note.

Ghiberti, 342.

Gian Galeazzo Visconti of Milan, 325.

Gibbon, 73, 76.

Gibraltar, 507, 532; siege of, 534.

Giotto, 341 f.

Girondists, 585 f., 587.

Glass, stained, 264.

Godfrey of Bouillon, 191 f., 193.

Golden Bull sanctions neighborhood war, 117.

Good Hope, Cape of, rounded by Diaz (1486), 348; ceded to England, 685.

Gothic language, Bible translated into, 252.

Gothic type, 339.

Government, difficulty of, in the Middle Ages, 67, 85, 98; effect of feudalism on, 108 f.; natural, 120; modern character of, 682 f.

Grail, legend of Holy, 258.

Granada, fall of, 83, 357.

Grand Alliance, 506.

Grand Remonstrance, 484.

Granson, 422.

Gratian, _Decretum_ of, 269.

Gravitation, discovery of universal, 673.

Gray Friars, _see_ Franciscans.

Great Charter of England, 144-146.

Great Elector of Prussia, 516.

Great Khan, 510.

Great Mogul, 529.

Great St. Bernard crossed by Bonaparte, 601.

Greece, creation of the kingdom of, 640, 668.

Greek books brought to Venice in 1423, 337.

Greek Church, tends to separate from the Latin, 51; union of, with Western Church, 319.

Greek culture in the Roman Empire, 12.

Greek language, knowledge of, in Middle Ages, 64, 336; revived study of, in Italy, 320, 336 f.

Greek New Testament, 423.

Gregory of Tours, 33, 36.

Gregory the Great, 52 ff.; writings of, 54; missionary work of, 55, 61.

Gregory VI, Pope, 160.

Gregory VII, 52, note, 138, 162, 164 ff.; reform of, 161, 162 f.; conflict of, with Henry IV, 167 ff.; death of, 170.

Gregory XI, Pope, 310.

Gregory XII, Pope, 313, 315.

Grotius, 508.

Guelf party, origin of, 179, 182.

Guienne, 130, 140, 283. _See also_ Aquitaine.

Guilds, craft, 241 f., 500; abolition of, in France, 555.

Guillotine, 588 f. and notes.

Guise, Henry of, 456.

Guises, 454.

Gunpowder, invention of, 352.

Gustavus Adolphus, 468 ff.

Gustavus Vasa, 469.

Hades, 18.

Hadrian, tomb of, 54.

Hadrian IV, Pope, and Frederick I, 176 f.

Hadrian VI, Pope, 410-412.

Hague, peace conference at The, 686.

Hampden, John, 481.

Hanover, electorate of, 524, note.

Hanover, house of, 524; occupied by Napoleon, 610; relations of, with Prussia, 613 f.

Hanseatic League, 247 f.

Hanseatic towns annexed to France, 602.

Hapsburg, Rudolf of, king of Germany, 185.

Hapsburgs, rise of, 354 f., 421, 444 f., 471, 517 ff.

Harold, Earl of Wessex, 136 f.

Hastings, battle of, 136, note.

Hébert, 589.

Heilbronn, articles of, 414.

Hejira, the, 69.

Henrietta Maria, 478.

Henry II of England, possession of, 126, 140 ff.

Henry III of England, 146 f.

Henry IV of England, 291.

Henry V of England continues Hundred Years' War, 291 ff.

Henry VII of England, 296 f.

Henry VIII of England, 365, 367, 426 ff., 476.

Henry II of France, 452.

Henry III of France, 456.

Henry IV of France, 457 f.

Henry I of Germany, 149 and note.

Henry III, Emperor, 153 f.; intervenes in papal matters, 160, 166.

Henry IV of Germany, 165 ff.; conflict of, with Gregory VII, 167 ff., 174.

Henry V, Emperor, 171.

Henry VI, Emperor, 180 f.

Henry of Navarre, _see_ Henry IV of France.

Henry the Lion, 180.

Henry the Proud, 179.

Heresy, in twelfth and thirteenth centuries, 220 f.; punishment of, 225; of Huss, 314 f., 403 and note.

Herzegovina, 669, 670 and note.

Hesse, Philip of, 409 f., 415, 419.

Hesse-Cassel, 628.

Hildebrand, _see_ Gregory VII.

Hindustan, 348, 529 ff.

History, scope of, 1; continuity or unity of, 4; notions of, in the Middle Ages, 259 f.

Hohenstaufens, 173 f. _See also_ Frederick I, Henry VI, Frederick II.

Hohenzollern family, 515. _See also_ Brandenburg and Prussia.

Holbein, Hans, 346.

Holidays, number of, reduced in Germany, 412.

Holland, 449; war with England, 492; war with France, 492 f., 502 f.; colonies of, 527; becomes the Batavian republic, 604; Louis Bonaparte, king of, 613; annexed to France, 620; made a kingdom, 625, 632. _See also_ United Netherlands.

Holy Land, commercial interests of Italian cities in, 198 f.

Holy League formed by Pope Julius II against France, 365.

Holy League, French, 456.

Holy Roman Empire, 85, 152 f., 473; consolidation of, in 1803, 603 f.; dissolution of, 612. _See also_ Germany.

Homage, 109 and note; refusal of, 116 f.

Horace, idea of life entertained by, 45; _Satires_ of, 333, note.

Hospitalers, 194 f.

House of Lords, abolition of, 487. _See also_ Parliament.

Hrolf, 122 f.

Huguenots, 454 ff., 467; Charles I attempts to aid, 478 f.; position of, under Louis XIV, 504 f.

Humanists, Italian, 334 f.; German, 379 f.

Humanities, 334.

Hundred Years' War, 281 ff., 291 ff.

Hungarians, 149; defeated by Otto the Great, 150.

Hungary, freed from the Turks, 518; during revolution of 1848, 646, 648 f.; dual union of, with Austria, 650.

Huns, 25, 27.

Huss, 309, 315 ff., 393.

Hussite wars, 317.

Hussites, 432, 465.

Hutten, Ulrich von, 385 f., 395 f., 399, 404, 410.

Iconoclastic controversy, 74. _See_ Images.

Illuminations, 261 f.

Images, demolition of, in England, 433 f.; in the Netherlands, 447 f.

Immunities, 101.

Imperial title, 151 f. _See also_ Emperor.

Indemnity, the French, 664.

Independents, 482 f. and note.

India, Portuguese seek a sea route to, 348; Europeans in, 528 ff.; during Seven Years' War, 530.

Indulgences attacked by Wycliffe, 308; explained, 390 f.; attitude of Luther toward, 390 ff., 412, 423.

Industrial revolution, 679 f.

Industry stimulated by commerce in Middle Ages, 244 f.

Infeudation, 106 f.; of other things than land, 115.

Innocent III, Pope, struggle of, with the Hohenstaufens, 181 f.; attempts to reform the Church, 223.

Inquisition established, 224, 231; in Spain, 358, 619; in the Netherlands, 445, 447.

_Institutes of Christianity_, Calvin's, 425 f.

Interdict, 183, 213.

International law, 507 f.

Invasions of the ninth and tenth centuries, 98 f.

Invention, progress of, in fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, 352 f.; modern, 674 ff.

Investiture, lay, 155 ff., 161; prohibition of, 163, 167; question of, settled at Worms, 171 f.

Invincible Armada, 463.

Ireland, 461 f., 487 f.

Irene, Empress, 84.

Irish monks in Britain, 62.

Iron industry, 352, 675 f.

Isabella, queen of Castile, 357.

Islam, 69.

Italian language, derivation of, 251; used by Dante in the _Divine Comedy_, 330; by Petrarch, 334.

Italy, during the barbarian invasions, 33; united to Charlemagne's empire, 85, 93, 96; German kings make vain attempt to control, 151 f.; towns of, under Frederick I, 174 f.; Hohenstaufens in, 180, 186; commerce of, 198 f., 243 f.; divisions of, in fourteenth century, 321 f.; culture of, during the Renaissance, 321, 339 ff.; invasion of, by Charles VIII, 360 f.; hold of Austria on, 507; Bonaparte's campaign in, 594; Napoleon, king of, 611; after 1815, 636 f., 638 f.; war of independence of, 645 f.; constitutions granted to various states of, 646; unification of, 654 ff.; formation of the present kingdom of, 655 f.

Ivan the Terrible, 511.

Jacobins, 578 f., 590.

Jacobites, 526 and note.

James I of England, 467; theory of kingship of, 475 ff.

James II, 493.

James VI of Scotland, 462. _See also_ James I of England.

Jamestown, 528.

Jefferson, Thomas, opinion of the condition of France, 544.

Jena, battle of, 614.

Jerome, St., 51; advocate of the monastic life, 57.

Jerome Bonaparte, 614.

Jerusalem, 185, 188; Kingdom of, 192 ff., 197 f.

Jesuits, order of, 462, 465 f., 494.

Jewry, 246.

Jews, economic importance of, 246; persecution of, 246, 358.

Joan of Arc, 293 f.

John of England, 126 f., 144 ff.; vassal of pope, 183.

John, king of France, 285.

John Frederick of Saxony, 415, 418 f.

John XXIII, Pope, 313.

Jongleurs, 256.

Joseph Bonaparte, king of Spain, 618.

Josephine, 607, 620.

_Journal des Savants_, 501.

Jousts, 118.

Jubilee at Rome (1300), 305.

Julius II, Pope, 344, 365.

Jury, origin of, 142.

Just price, doctrine of, 245.

Justification by faith, 388, 439.

Justinian 33; closes government schools, 267.

Kadijah, wife of Mohammed, 69.

Kappel, battle of, 425.

Kent, king of, converted, 61.

King, position of, in Middle Ages, 73, 102, 108, 120.

King of Rome, 620.

King of the Romans, 152, note.

Kneeling Parliament, 436.

Knighthood, 257 f.

Knights, summoned to the English Parliament, 147; in Germany, 407; revolt of, 409 f.; disappearance of, 604.

Knox, John, 459.

Koran, the, 69 f.

Kossuth, 650.

Labor, division of, 677.

Labor unions, 681 f.

Laborers, protection of, 681.

Lafayette, 534, 563, 570.

_Laissez faire_, 553, 681.

Lancaster, house of, in England, 291, 296; genealogical table of, 297, note.

Lancelot, description of, quoted, 258.

Landholding, in the Roman Empire, 104. _See also_ Feudalism.

Lanfranc, 138.

Langton, Stephen, 183.

_Langue d'oc_, 254, note.

_Langue d'oïl_, 254, note.

La Rochelle, 455, 457, 478.

La Salle, 528.

Latin Church tends to separate from the Greek, 51. _See also_ Church.

Latin language, contrast of the written, with the spoken, 39, 252, note; knowledge of, preserved by the Church, 87 f.; general use of, in the Middle Ages, 95, 202, 250.

Latin literature, extinction of, 31. _See also_ Humanists.

Laud, William, 481 f., 484.

La Vendée, revolt of, 587.

Law, _see_ Canon and Civil law.

_Law of Free Monarchies, The_, of James I, 477.

_Law of Nature and Nations_, by Pufendorf, 508.

_Laws of the Barbarians_, 40.

Lay investiture, _see_ Investiture.

Lea, Henry C., description of Church, 214; account of mendicants, 230.

Lefèvre, 452 f.

Legates, 162.

Legion of Honor, 617.

Legislative Assembly, 576, 579 f.

Legitimists, 664, note.

Legnano, battle of, 179.

Leipsic, disputation at, 392 f.; battle of, 623.

Leo the Great, 21, 51, 52.

Leo III, Emperor, forbids the veneration of images, 74.

Leo IX, Pope, reform begun by, 161 f.

Leo X (Medici), Pope, patron of art, 344, 365, 391, 410.

Leonardo da Vinci, 344 f.

Leopold II, 577.

Leopold of Hohenzollern, 662, note.

_Letters of Obscure Men_, 380 f., and note.

_Lettres de cachet_, 546.

Leyden, siege of, 451, note.

Libraries, destruction of, 32; established in Italy, 337.

Ligurian republic, 610.

Lisbon, trade in spices, 348.

_Lit de justice_, 547.

Livonia, 514.

Llewelyn, Prince of Wales, 278.

Logic, esteem for, in the Middle Ages, 268, 271; decline of, 334 f.

Lombard cities, 170 f., 174 ff.

Lombard League, 178.

Lombard, Peter, _Sentences_ of, 210, 396 f.

Lombards as bankers, 246.

_Lombards, History of the_, by Paulus Diaconus, 90.

Lombards in Italy, 33, 34, 65, 74 f.; conquered by Charlemagne, 81.

London, 248, 290.

Long Parliament, 484 ff.; dissolved by Cromwell, 488 f.; recalled, 490.

Lord, mediæval, position of, 99 f.; meaning of term, 106.

Lord Protector, Cromwell, 489.

Lord's Supper, Zwingli's conception of, 425. _See also_ Mass.

Lorraine, 94, 300, 472; added to France, 536; portion of, ceded to Germany, 663 and note.

_Lorsch, Chronicles of_, passage from, 84.

Lothaire, son of Louis the Pious, 93.

_Lotharii regnum_, 94.

Louis the Fat of France, 125.

Louis the German, 92, 93, 95.

Louis the Pious, 92.

Louis IX (Saint), 130 f., 198.

Louis XI of France, 299 f.

Louis XII of France, 364 f.

Louis XIII of France, 458.

Louis XIV, 472, 489, 492, 495 ff.; idea of position of, 496 f.; court of, 498; wars of, 501 ff.; condition of France at end of reign of, 508.

Louis XV, 508, 553.

Louis XVI, position of, 545, 553 f.; removes to Paris, 570; flight of, to Varennes, 575 f.; imprisonment of, 581; trial and execution of, 583.

Louis XVII, 625, note.

Louis XVIII, 625; policy of, 629 f.

Louis Philippe, 630, 642 f.

Louisiana, 534, 602.

Low Church party, 482.

Loyola, Ignatius, 440 ff.

Lübeck, 244, 248.

Lucien Bonaparte, 599.

Luther, Martin, 387 ff.; burns the canon law, 368, 399; early life and education of, 387; enters monastery, 387; justification by faith, 388; called to Wittenberg, visits Rome, 389; teaches biblical theology, 389; the theses of, 390; warfare against indulgences, 390; debate with Eck at Leipsic, 392; relations with humanists, 393; with Ulrich von Hutten, 395; _Address to the German Nobility_ of, 396; _Babylonian Captivity of the Church_ of, 397; excommunicated, 398; at diet of Worms, 401; outlawed by the emperor, 403 and note; translates the Bible, 405; view of reform of, 407 ff.; rash talk of, about princes, 413; attacks the peasants, 414, 416.

Lützen, battle of, 470.

Luxembourg, 300, 662.

Lyons revolts against the Convention, 587, 589.

Machiavelli, _The Prince_ of, 327, 362.

Machinery, introduction of, 675 ff.

Madras, 529.

Magdeburg, 469.

Magellan circumnavigates the globe, 351.

Magyars, _see_ Hungarians.

Major Domus, _see_ Mayors of the Palace.

Malory, the _Mort d'Arthur_ of, 255, note.

Malta, 195.

Mandeville, Sir John, referred to, 261, note.

Manor, 100, 234 f.; court of the, 236.

Mantua, 471.

Manufacture, increase of, in thirteenth century, 200; modern, 675.

Manuscripts, 337 f.

Marches, establishment of, 82.

Marco Polo, 347.

Marcus Aurelius, _Meditations of_, 18.

Marengo, battle of, 601.

Margaret, queen of Navarre, 452.

Margraves, origin of, 82, 86, 102.

Maria Louisa, 620.

Maria Theresa, 518 ff.

Marie Antoinette, 554, 570, 589.

Marlborough, 506.

Marquette, 528.

Marquises, 86.

Marriage, of the clergy, 154, 157 and note, 161, 163, 418; sacrament of, 211.

Marseilles, revolt of, 587.

Marston Moor, battle of, 486.

Mary of Burgundy, 301.

Mary of Modena, 493.

Mary, queen of England, 435 f.

Mary Queen of Scots, _see_ Mary Stuart.

Mary Stuart, 454, 459 ff.

Mass, the, 211 f., 407, 409, 432.

Matilda, 126, 140.

Maurice of Saxony, 418 f.

Maximilian I, Emperor, 356, 358 f., 363, 365.

Maximilian of Bavaria, 466, 467.

Mayence, 66, 78; elector of, 372, 378; printing at, 338.

Mayflower, 483.

Mayors of the Palace, 38.

Mazarin, 495.

Mazzini, 639, 648.

Mecca, 68, 69, 70.

Medici, 328 f., 361, 366; Lorenzo de', 328, 344; library of the, 337.

Medicine, modern advance in, 674.

Medina, 69.

Melanchthon, 417.

Mendicant orders, 225 f.

Merovingian documents, carelessness of, 87.

Merovingian kings, 38, 72.

Mersen, Treaty of, 95 f.

Metric system, 591.

Metternich, 634; overthrow of, 644 f.

Metz, 452, 473, 663.

Mexican expedition, 662.

Mexico, 351, 358.

Michael Angelo, 342, 344 f.

Microscope, development of, 674.

Middle Ages, meaning of term, 5 f.; character of, 42 f.

Middle kingdom of Lothaire, 94 f.

Milan, Edict of, 21; married clergy in, 163; destruction of, by Frederick I, 176 f.; despots of, 324 f.; claimed by France, 364 f.; claimed by Charles V, 366, 417.

Miles Coverdale, 431.

Military service, feudal, 110.

Miniature, derivation of word, 262.

Minnesingers, 258.

Minor orders of the clergy, 20.

Minorca, 507.

Mirabeau, 564.

Miracles, frequency of, in Middle Ages, 46 f.

_Missi dominici_, 86, 102.

Missions, greatly increase the power of the pope, 66; of the Jesuits, 442.

Model Parliament, 147.

Modern languages, origin of, 40, 250 ff.

Mohammed, 68 f.

Mohammedan conquests, _see_ Arabic conquests.

Mohammedan invasion of Italy, 150.

Mohammedanism, 69 f.

Mohammedans, 68 ff., 88; gradual expulsion of, from Spain, 83, 356 f.; commerce of, 199, 243.

Molière, 500.

Moluccas, 347, 348.

Monasteries, breaking up of, in Germany, 407 f.; in England, 432 f.

Monasticism, attraction of, for many different classes, 56 f.

Money, scarcity of, in the Middle Ages, 98; use of, 236, 247.

Mongol emperors of India, 529 and note.

Mongols, 510.

_Moniteur_, 578.

Monk, George, 490.

Monk of St. Gall, 78 and note.

Monks, 46; origin and distinguished services of, 56 f., 219.

Monte Cassino, founding of, 57.

Montesquieu, 552.

Moors, in Spain, 357 f.; expulsion of, 464.

Moravians, 149.

More, Sir Thomas, 427, 432.

Morgarten, battle of, 421.

_Mort d' Arthur_, Malory's, 255, note.

Moscow, 512, 514; princes of, 510 f.; Napoleon at, 621.

Mosque, 70.

Mountain party, 585 f.

Münster, 472.

Murat, king of Naples, 618.

Murten, battle of, 422.

Nantes, Edict of, granting of, 457; revocation of, 504 f.

Nantes, massacre at, 589.

Naples, kingdom of, 180, 360, note, 363 f., 613; revolution in, 635, 637 f.

Napoleon Bonaparte, 536, 574, 592 ff.; idea of, of a European empire, 609; _Memoirs_ of, 624.

Napoleon II, 620.

Napoleon III, 644; intervenes in Italy, 654 f.; position of, after 1866, 662.

Naseby, battle of, 486.

National Assembly, first French, 564, 570; close of, 576 f.

National guard, 566.

National workshops, 643 f.

"Natural boundaries" of France, 501 f.

Natural laws, discovery of, 672 f.

Navigation Act, 488.

Necker, 556.

Nelson, 597 f., 615.

Netherlands, 295; come into Austrian hands, 301; revolt of, 445 ff.; Louis XIV claims, 502; Spanish, ceded to Austria, 507.

Neustria, 37 f.

New Testament, edition of, by Erasmus, 382.

New York, 492.

Newspapers, origin of French, 578; Napoleon's attitude toward, 608 f.

Newton, Sir Isaac, 673.

Nicæa, Council of, 21; during First Crusades, 188, 192.

Niccola of Pisa, 340.

Nicholas II, Pope, decree of, 162.

Nicholas V, 320, 337.

_Niebelungs, Song of the_, 253.

Nimwegen, Peace of, 503.

Nobility, origin of Frankish, 38; titles of, 86; character of feudal, 112, 234 f.; in France under Louis XI, 299 f.; established by Napoleon, 608, 617.

Nobles, privileges of, in France, 542 f.; emigration of French, 575.

Nogaret, 306.

Non-juring clergy, 572 f., 579.

Nördlingen, battle of, 470.

Norman conquest of England, 136 ff.; results of, 138 f.

Normandy, 122 f., 127, 284, 292.

Normans, amalgamate with the English, 139, 146; in Sicily, 180, note. _See also_ Northmen.

Norse literature, 99, note.

North German Federation, 660 f.

Northmen, treaty of Charles the Fat with, 96 f., 99 and note; in Russia, 510.

Northumbria, king of, 62.

Notables, meeting of, 558 f.

Novara, battle of, 650.

Novgorod, 248, 510.

Nuremberg, 373; diet of (1522), 410 f.

Odo, 96, 120 f.

Odoacer, 28.

Ordeal, 41, 142.

Ordination, sacrament of, 211.

Orient, European relations with, 199 f., 244.

Orleanists, 664, note.

Orleans, duke of, 292; Maid of, 294.

Ormond, 487.

Osnabrück, 472.

Ostrogoths, _see_ East Goths.

Other-worldliness of mediæval Christianity, 45.

Othman, 517.

Otto I, the Great, of Germany, 149 ff.

Otto of Brunswick, 182.

Otto of Freising, 173, 197.

Overlord, 106, note.

Pagan idea of the life after death, 18, 45.

Paganism, merges into Christianity, 19; of Italian humanists, 335.

Painting, Italian, 340 f., 346; in northern Europe, 346.

Palace, school of the, 90.

Palatinate, electorate of, 372, 467; Louis XIV's operations in, 505.

Pallium, 203, 307.

Pan-Slavic Congress of 1848, 648.

Papacy, origin of, 49 ff.; seat of, transferred to Avignon, 306 f., 308, 317. _See also_ Pope.

Papal legates, 162.

Papal states, 75 f., 170, 320, 620, 639, 655, 667. _See also_ Pope.

Papyrus, supply of, cut off, 87.

Paris, 37, 96; Treaty of (1763), 532; Peace of (1783), 534; importance in the Revolution, 570; commune of, 581, 589; insurrection of (June, 1848), 643; of 1871, 664.

Parish, administration of, 208 f.

_Parlements_, French, origin of, 130 f., 547 f., 559 f.

Parliament, English, 147, 281, 286, 289; after Wars of the Roses, 298, 308, 475; struggle of, with Charles I, 478 ff., 496.

Parma, duchess of, 447 f.

_Parsifal_, by Wolfram von Eschenbach, 258.

Patrick, St., 62.

Paulus Diaconus, 90.

Peasants' War, in England, 309; in Germany, 407, 413 ff.

Peasants in France, condition of, before the French Revolution, 544 f.

Penance, sacrament of, 211 f.

Pepys, _Diary_ of, 492.

Persecution, religious, 432, 436; of English Catholics, 462.

Peter Lombard, _Sentences_ of, 268, 334, 425.

Peter, St., 49 f.

Peter the Great, 511 ff.; reforms of, 512.

Peter the Hermit, 190.

Petition of Right, 479.

Petrarch, 288, 332 ff.

Philip Augustus of France, 125 ff., 130, 183, 197, 246.

Philip the Fair, of France, 131, 196, 280; struggle of, with Boniface VIII, 304 f.

Philip VI of France, 283.

Philip the Good, of Burgundy, 293, 295, 300.

Philip II of Spain, 436, 444 ff.; reign of, 463 f.

Philip V, first Bourbon king of Spain, 506.

Picts, 279.

Piedmont, reforms in, 654.

_Piers Ploughman_, 290.

Pilgrim Fathers, 483.

Pillnitz, Declaration of, 577 f.

Pins, illustration of the manufacture of, 677.

Pippin of Heristal, 38.

Pippin the Short, 72 f., 75 f.

Pisa, Council of, 313.

Pitt, the elder, 530.

Pius IX, 639, 648.

Plantagenets, 125 ff., 140 ff.

Plassey, battle of, 531 f.

Plebiscite, 600, 644.

Poitiers, battle of, 285.

Poland, 153, 514; first partition of, 521, 583 f.; Napoleon's campaign in, 614; dispute over, at the Congress of Vienna, 626 f.

Pomerania, 473.

Pondicherry, 530.

Pope, 52; origin of name of, 52, note; 54 f., 66; alliance of, with Franks, 72 f., 75 f.; opposition to iconoclasm, 74, 85; relations of, with Otto the Great, 151 f.; position of, in tenth and early eleventh centuries, 161; election of, 162; powers of, claimed for by Gregory VII, 164 f.; position of, in the Church, 202 ff.; during the Great Schism, 310 ff.; attitude of, toward councils, 438; attitude of, toward Italian unity, 639, 647; position of, since 1870, 667.

Popular sovereignty defended by Rousseau, 552.

Port Mahon, 532.

Portuguese, explorations by, 347 f.; colonies of, 348, 527, 685.

_Praise of Folly_, by Erasmus, 383, 427.

Prayer-book, English, 435, 458, 482, 491.

Preaching Friars, 231.

Prefects, French, 599.

Presbyterian Church, 425 f., 459, 482 f.

Presbyters, 19 f., 426, note.

Press, censorship of, in the eighteenth century, 549.

Pressburg, Treaty of, 611.

Pride's Purge, 486.

Priest, 20; duties of, 208 f.

Prime minister, 526.

Prince Charlie, 527.

Prince of Wales, origin of title of, 278.

Printing, invention of, 337 f.; modern methods of, 678.

Privileges in France, 540; abolition of, 567.

Protestant, origin of term, 416 f.

Protestant revolt, conditions explaining, 377; course of, in Germany, 405 ff.

Protestant union of German princes, 415, 466.

Protestantism, in Germany, 418 ff.; in Switzerland, 423 ff.; in England, 430-435; in the Netherlands, 447 ff.; in France, 451 ff.

"Protests" of the French _parlements_, 547.

Provençal language, 254; troubadours' songs in, 256.

Provisors, statute of, in England, 308.

Prussia, 474, 515 ff., 544; war of, with France, 581, 583 f., 593, 613 f.; reforms of Stein and Hardenberg, 622 f.; after 1815, 626 f., 631; in 1848, 646; strengthening of army of, 656 f.; war with Austria (1866), 660; war with France (1870), 662 f.; predominating influence of, in the German empire, 666.

Prussians conquered by the Teutonic knights, 196.

Ptolemy's estimate of size of the world, 350.

Pufendorf, 508.

Purgatory, 212.

Puritans, 482, 483 and note, 491.

Quakers, 491.

Quebec, 528, 530.

Racine, 500.

Railroads, development of, 678 f.

Rajah, 529.

Raphael, 344 f.

Ravenna, interior of a church at, 29.

Reaction, after Napoleon's downfall, 628; in Germany, 634 f.

Reason, worship of, 589.

Reform Act, English, 682, note.

_Regalia_, 177.

Regensburg, formation of Catholic party at, 412.

Regular clergy defined, 59.

_Reichsdeputationshauptschluss_, 603.

Reign of Terror, 537, 573, 588 ff.; customs of, abolished, 607.

Relics, German collections of, 377 f.

Relief, 108, note.

Religious equality, 683.

Rembrandt, 346.

Renaissance, 321, 329 f.

Republic, the "red," in France, 643.

Republican calendar, 591.

Republican party in France, origin of, 576.

Restoration in England, 490.

Reuchlin, 380.

Revolution of 1848, 642 ff.; results of, 653.

Revolutionary Tribunal, 588.

_Reynard the Fox_, 256.

Rhine, left bank of, ceded to France, 603.

Rhine, the Confederation of the, 612 f.

Richard I, the Lion-Hearted, 126 f., 144, 197 f.

Richard II of England, 291, 315.

Richard III of England, 297.

Richelieu, 458, 467, 495; intervenes in the Thirty Years' War, 471 f.

Rights of Man, Declaration of, 568 ff.

Rising in the north of England, 460.

Roads, 12; poor, in the Middle Ages, 98, 242.

Robbia, Luca della, 343.

Robert Guiscard in Naples and Sicily, 180, note.

Robespierre, 589, f.

_Rois fainéants_, 38.

_Roland, Song of_, 83, note, 255.

Rollo, 122 f.

Roman Church, the mother church, 49 f.

Roman Empire, 8 ff.; reasons for decline of, 12 ff.; religious revival in, 18; "fall" of, in the West, 27; relations of, with Church, 47; continuity of, 84 f.

Roman law, 11; retained by Theodoric, 29; supplanted by German customs, 40; study of, revived, 177, 269.

_Romana lingua_, _see_ French language.

Romance languages, derivation of, 251 f.

Romances, mediæval, 254 f.

Rome, city of, 26, 53, 305, 310; ascendency of, in art, 344; sack of, 417, note; made a republic, 648; added to the kingdom of Italy, 667.

Romulus Augustulus, 28.

Roncaglia, Frederick I holds two assemblies at, 176 f.

Roncesvalles, Pass of, 83, note.

Rossbach, battle of, 520.

"Rotten boroughs," 682, note.

Roumania, 669 f.

Roumelia, Eastern, 670, note.

Roundheads, 485.

Round Table, Knights of the, 255.

_Rous_, 510.

Rousillon, 471 f.

Rousseau, 551.

Royal library of France, 501.

Rubens, 346.

Rudolf of Hapsburg, 355.

Rule of St. Benedict, 57 f.

Rump Parliament, 487 f.

Rurik, 510.

Russia, 509 ff.; relations of, with Napoleon, 614, 620 f.; Crimean War of, 668 f.; recent expansion of, 686.

Sacraments, 210 f.; attacked by Luther, 397 f.; confirmed by the Council of Trent, 439.

_Sacrosancta_, decree, 317.

_Sagas_, 99, note.

St. Bartholomew's Day, massacre of, 455 f.

St. Bernard, 197, 219, 268.

St. Dominic, 229 f.

St. Francis of Assisi, 225 ff., 342.

St. Mark's church at Venice, 323.

St. Meinrad, 423.

St. Omer, terms of charter of, 240.

St. Peter's Church at Rome, 344.

St. Petersburg, founding of, 512 f.

Saint-Simon, 500.

Saladin takes Jerusalem, 197.

Salamander, mediæval account of, quoted, 260.

Salisbury, oath of, 137 f.

Salt tax, French, 540.

Saracens, _see_ Mohammedans.

Saratoga, battle of, 534.

Sardinia, kingdom of, 628.

Satires of the sixteenth century, 406.

Savonarola, 361 f.

Savoy, France deprived of, 625.

Saxons, 27, 79 ff., 98; settle in England, 60; rebel against Henry IV, 166.

Saxony, 179 f.; electorate of, 372; question of, at the Congress of Vienna, 626 f.

Scandinavian kingdoms, 468 f.

Schism, the Great, 310 f., 314 f.

Schleswig-Holstein affair, 657 f.

Schoifher, Peter, 338, note.

Scholasticism, 272 f.

School of the palace, 90.

Schools established by Charlemagne, 88 f.

Science, mediæval, 260, 356; modern methods of, 678 ff.

Scotch people, 280 f.

Scotland, 135, 278 ff., 459; under the same ruler as England, 476; Charles I at war with, 483; union with England, 524; welcomes the Young Pretender, 526 f.

Sculpture, mediæval, 262, 265 f.; Renaissance, 340.

Secular clergy defined, 59.

Sedan, battle of, 663.

_Seigneur_, derivation of, 106, note.

Seneca, opinion on origin of practical arts, 14.

_Senior_, late Latin, 106, note.

Senlac, battle of, 136.

_Sentences_ of Peter Lombard, 210, 425.

Sepoys, 531.

September massacres, 582.

Serfdom, 16, 234; disappearance of, in England, 290 f.; abolished in France, 567; in Prussia, 622.

Serfs, _coloni_ resemble the, 16, 100; condition of, 234 ff., 414. _See also_ Serfdom.

Servia, 668 ff.

Sevastopol, 669.

Seven Years' War, 519 f.; in India, 530 ff.

Sévigné, Madame de, 500, 505.

Sforza family, 327.

Shakespeare, 477 f.

Sheriffs appointed by William the Conqueror, 137.

Ship money, 481, 484.

Shires, 135 and note.

Sicily, 180, 182, 185, 360, note.

Sickingen, Franz von, 406 f., 409 f.

Sigismund, Emperor, 314 f.

Silesia, 518 f.

Simon de Montfort leads Albigensian crusade, 223.

Simon de Montfort, Parliament of, 146 f.

Simony, 158 f., 161, 218.

"Simple priests" of Wycliffe, 309.

"Six Articles," the, 431 f.

Slavery in Roman Empire, 13 ff.

Slavs, 82; on the borders of Germany, 150, 153; settlement of, in Europe, 509, 648 f.

Smith, Adam, 677.

_Social Contract_ of Rousseau, 551.

Social Democrats, 643.

Sophia of Hanover, 524.

Sorbonne, 452.

South Bulgaria, 670, note.

Southampton granted a charter, 240.

Spain, 26, 70 f., 83, 346; maritime power of, 351; under Charles V, 354, 356 f., 445, 451, 455; decline of, 464; colonies of, 527; Napoleon attempts to control, 618 f., 623, 637; loses American colonies, 684 f.

"Spanish fury," 450.

Spanish language, derivation of, 251.

Spanish March, 83, 94.

Spanish Netherlands, _see_ Netherlands.

Spanish Succession, War of the, 506 ff.

Spectacles, invention of, 352.

Speyer, Edict of (1526), 415 f.; protest of, 316 f. and note.

Spice trade, importance of, 348 f.

Stamp Act, 532.

Star Chamber, Court of, 484.

State, character of, in Middle Ages, 48, 165.

States of the Church, _see_ Papal states.

Statutes of Laborers, 289.

Steam, application of, 675 f.

Steamboats, 678.

Steel, 676.

Steelyard, 248.

Stein, reforms of, 622, 631.

Stem duchies in Germany, 148 f.

Stephen, king of England, 140.

Stone of Scone, 280.

Strafford, 484.

Strand laws, 247.

Strasburg, 473; seized by Louis XIV, 504, 663 f.

Strasburg oaths, 94.

Stuart, house of, 475.

Students' associations in Germany, 633.

Subdeacon, 20.

Subinfeudation, 106 f.

Subtenant, 107.

Subvassals, 107 ff.

Suffrage, extension of, 682.

Sully, 457 f.

Sutri, the council of, 160.

Suzerain, 106 and note.

Sweden, 468 f., 473; under Charles XII, 513 f.

Swiss mercenaries, 423 and note.

Switzerland, origin of, 421 ff.; Protestant revolt in, 423 ff., 473, 605, 626.

Symbolism, mediæval, 261.

Syria, Bonaparte's campaign in, 598.

Taille, 299, 540, 545 f., 556, 559.

Talleyrand, 626.

Tamerlane, 529, note.

Tancred, 180 f.

Tartars, 510.

Taxation, in Roman Empire, 13; papal, 204, 384; of church property, 304; without representation, 533; reform of, in France, 567.

Teachers, government, in Roman Empire, 12, 32.

Telescope, 67.

Templars, 195 f., 306.

Temporalities, 156.

"Tennis-Court" oath, 564.

Test Act 492; repeal of, 683.

Tetzel, 390.

Teutonic order, 195 f.; in Prussia, 515 f.

Theodoric, 28 ff.

Theodosian Code, provisions of, relating to the Church, 21.

Theodosius the Great, 22 f., 27.

Theology in University of Paris, 269.

Thermidor, 9th, 590, note.

Theses, Luther's ninety-five, 390 f.

Third estate, 543 ff.

Thirty-Nine Articles, the, 435.

Thirty Years' War, 465 ff.

Thomas à Becket, 142 f.

Thomas Aquinas, 231, 272.

Three Henrys, War of the, 456.

Tilly, 469 f.

Tilsit, treaties of, 614.

Timur, 529, note.

Tithe, 81, 202.

Titian, 346.

Toleration, religious, in Germany, 415 ff., 419 f.; in France, 454 ff.; modern, 683.

Tolls in Middle Ages, 246 f.

Toul, 452, 473.

Toulouse, counts of, 124, 256.

Tourneys, 118.

Tours, battle of, 71 f.

Towns, representatives of, summoned to Parliament, 147; in Middle Ages, 174, 200, 232, 237 f., 248; German, 373, 375, 604; growth of the modern, 680.

Trade, mediæval, 238, 242 f.; restrictions on, abolished, 680.

Trafalgar, battle of, 615.

Transubstantiation, 213, 309, 425, 431.

Treasury of "good works," 378.

Trent, Council of, 437 ff.

Treves, 12; electorate of, 372.

Trial by jury, 142.

Trials, mediæval, 41, 140 ff.

Triple Alliance, 502 f.

Troubadours, 256.

Troyes, Treaty of (1420), 293.

Truce of God, 118.

Tsar, title of, 511, note.

Tudor, house of, 296 f.

Tuilleries, 581, 664.

Turenne, 472.

Turgot, 553, note, 554 f.

Turkey in Europe, 535; disruption of, 628, 667 ff.

Turks, 188, 190 f., 376, 514, 517.

Twelve Articles of the peasants, 413 f.

Ulfilas translates Bible into Gothic, 252.

Ulm, 374, 611.

Unction, sacrament of extreme, 211.

United Provinces, 450, 473.

_Unity of the Church_, by Cyprian, 20.

Unity of history, 4.

Universities, mediæval, 269 f., 333, 356; German, 380, 398.

Urban II, 188.

Usufruct, 105.

Usury, doctrine of, 245.

_Utopia_, by Sir Thomas More, 427.

Utrecht, Union of, 450; Treaty of, 507.

Valentinian III, decree of, 51.

Valois, house of, 455.

Van Dyck, 346.

Van Eyck brothers, 346.

Vandals, 26, 33.

Varennes, flight to, 575 f.

Vassals, origin of, 102 f., 106; obligations of, 110 f.

Vasco da Gama, 348.

Vassy, massacre of, 455.

Vatican library, 337.

Velasquez, 346.

Vendée, La, revolt of, 587.

Venerable Bede, the, 56, 64.

Venetia given to Austria, 626; 655; ceded to Italy, 667.

Venice, founding of, 27; commerce of, 194, 198 f., 243 f., 347; government of, 321 f.; painting at, 346; war of, with League of Cambray, 364 f.; destruction of republic of, 595; in 1848, 648. _See_ Venetia.

Verdun, 452, 473; Treaty of, 93; fall of, 582.

Versailles, 498.

Vespasiano, Italian bookseller, 337, note.

Veto, royal, in England, 524 and note.

Victor Emmanuel, 650, 654 f.

Vienna, siege of, by Turks, 517 f.; Congress of, 625 ff.; revolution of 1848 in, 645, 650.

Vikings, 99, note.

Villa, Roman, 14, 100.

Villehardouin, 260.

Visconti, 324 f., 364.

Visigoths, _see_ West Goths.

Voltaire, 519, 549 ff.

Vulgate, 51, 439.

Wager of battle, 41.

Wagram, battle of, 619.

Waibling, castle of, 179, note.

Waldensians, 221 f., 452.

Waldo, Peter, 221.

Wales, 135, 277 f.

Wallenstein, 468 and note, 469 f.

Wallingford, charter of, 240.

Walpole, 526.

Walther von der Vogelweide, 258, 384.

_War and Peace_ of Grotius, 508.

War, neighborhood, 117 ff.

War of the Barons, 146 f.

Warfare, modern, 684, 686.

Wars of the Roses, 296 ff.

Warsaw, grand duchy of, 614, 626.

Wartburg, 405; festival at the, 633.

Washington, George, 533 f.

Waterloo, battle of, 624.

Watt, James, 675.

Welf, 179.

Wellington, 623 f.

Wessex, 133.

West Frankish kingdom, 94. _See also_ Franks.

West Goths, 25 f., 36, 39, 71.

Westphalia, kingdom of, 614, 623.

Westphalia, Peace of, 472 f.

Whitby, Council of, 62.

White Hill, battle on the, 467.

William the Conqueror, claim of, to English crown, 136; policy of, in England, 136 ff., 165.

William III of England, 492 ff., 505, 506, 523 f., 525.

William of Orange, king of England, _see_ William III.

William of Orange (the Silent), 448 ff.

William I of Prussia, 656 f.; chosen emperor, 665.

"Winter king," 467.

Witenagemot, 135, 137, 147.

Wittenberg, University of, 389; reform at, 407 f.

Wolfram von Eschenbach, 258.

Wolsey, Cardinal, 367, 427 ff.

Worms, council of, 167; Concordat of, 171; diet of, 400 f.; Edict of, 403 f., 415.

Writing, style of, used in Charlemagne's time, 89.

Würtemberg, 372; duke of, assumes the title of King, 612; granted a constitution, 635.

Wycliffe, John, 308 f.; influence of, on Huss, 315, 393.

Xavier, 442.

"Yea and Nay," by Abelard, 268.

York, house of, 296, 297, note.

Young, Arthur, 544.

Young Italy, 639.

Young Pretender, 526 f.

Zealand, 449.

Zipangu (Japan), 347.

_Zollverein_, 635.

Zurich, 421 f., 424.

Zwingli, 416, 420, 423 ff.

FOOTNOTES:

[1] There is a short description of Roman society in Hodgkin, _Dynasty of Theodosius_, Chapter II.

[2] Reference, Adams, _Civilization during the Middle Ages_, Chapter II, "What the Middle Ages started with."

[3] There are a number of editions of this work in English, and selections from Epictetus are issued by several publishers. See _Readings_, Chapter II.

[4] There is an English translation of this published by Stock ($1.20).

[5] Whoever separates himself from the Church, writes Cyprian, is separated from the promises of the Church. "He is an alien, he is profane, he is an enemy, he can no longer have God for his father who has not the Church for his mother. If anyone could escape who was outside the Ark of Noah, so also may he escape who shall be outside the bounds of the Church." See _Readings in European History_, Chapter II.

[6] Reference, Adams, _Civilization_, Chapter III, "The Addition of Christianity."

[7] See _Readings in European History_, Chapter II, for extracts from the Theodosian Code.

[8] An older town called Byzantium was utilized by Constantine as the basis of his new imperial city.

[9] St. Augustine, who was then living, gives us an idea of the impression that the capture of Rome made upon the minds of contemporaries, in an extraordinary work of his called _The City of God_. He undertakes to refute the argument of the pagans that the fall of the city was due to the anger of their old gods, who were believed to have withdrawn their protection on account of the insults heaped upon them by the Christians, who regarded them as demons. He points out that the gods whom Æneas had brought, according to tradition, from Troy had been unable to protect the city from its enemies and asks why any reliance should be placed upon them when transferred to Italian soil. His elaborate refutation of pagan objections shows us that heathen beliefs still had a strong hold upon an important part of the population and that the question of the truth or falsity of the pagan religion was still a living one in Italy.

[10] Reference, Emerton, _Introduction to the Middle Ages_, Chapter III.

[11] Reference, Emerton, _Introduction_, Chapter V.

[12] Reference, Oman, _Dark Ages_, Chapter I.

[13] Reference, Oman, _Dark Ages_, Chapter II.

[14] See above, p. 19.

[15] See _Readings_, Chapter III (end), for historical writings of this period.

[16] For Justinian, who scarcely comes into our story, see Oman, _Dark Ages_, Chapters V-VI.

[17] Reference, Oman, _Dark Ages_, Chapter IV.

[18] See _Readings_, Chapter III, for passages from Gregory of Tours.

[19] Reference, Emerton, _Introduction_, 68-72.

[20] Reference, Oman, _Dark Ages_, Chapter XV.

[21] The northern Franks, who did not penetrate far into the Empire, and the Germans who remained in Germany proper and in Scandinavia, had of course no reason for giving up their native tongues; the Angles and Saxons in Britain also adhered to theirs. These Germanic languages in time became Dutch, English, German, Danish, Swedish, etc. Of this matter something will be said later. See below, § 97.

[22] Extracts from the laws of the Salian Franks may be found in Henderson's _Historical Documents_, pp. 176-189.

[23] Professor Emerton gives an excellent account of the Germanic ideas of law in his _Introduction_, pp. 73-91; see also Henderson, _Short History of Germany_, pp. 19-21. For examples of the trials, see _Translations and Reprints_, Vol. IV, No. 4. A philosophical account of the character of the Germans and of the effects of the invasions is given by Adams, _Mediæval Civilization_, Chapters IV-V.

[24] Tacitus' _Germania_, which is our chief source for the German customs, is to be found in _Translations and Reprints_, Vol. VI, No. 3. For the habits of the invading Germans, see Henderson, _Short History of Germany_, pp. 1-11; Hodgkin, _Dynasty of Theodosius_, last half of