An Introduction to the History of Science

CHAPTER V

Chapter 53,459 wordsPublic domain

THE CLASSIFICATION OF THE SCIENCES--FRANCIS BACON

The preceding chapter has shown that there is a continuity in the development of single sciences. The astronomy, or the chemistry, or the mathematics, of one period depends so directly on the respective science of the foregoing period, that one feels justified in using the term "growth," or "evolution," to describe their progress. Now a vital relationship can be observed not only among different stages of the same science, but also among the different sciences. Physics, astronomy, and chemistry have much in common; geometry, trigonometry, arithmetic, and algebra are called "branches" of mathematics; zoölogy and botany are biological sciences, as having to do with living species. In the century following the death of Copernicus, two great scientists, Bacon and Descartes, compared all knowledge to a tree, of which the separate sciences are branches. They thought of all knowledge as a living organism with an interconnection or continuity of parts, and a capability of growth.

By the beginning of the seventeenth century the sciences were so considerable that in the interest of further progress a comprehensive view of the tree of knowledge, a survey of the field of learning, was needed. The task of making this survey was undertaken by Francis Bacon, Lord Verulam (1561-1626). His classification of human knowledge was celebrated, and very influential in the progress of science. He kept one clear purpose in view, namely, the control of nature by man. He wished to take stock of what had already been accomplished, to supply deficiencies, and to enlarge the bounds of human empire. He was acutely conscious that this was an enterprise too great for any one man, and he used his utmost endeavors to induce James I to become the patron of the plan. His project admits of very simple statement now; he wished to edit an encyclopedia, but feared that it might prove impossible without coöperation and without state support. He felt capable of furnishing the plans for the building, but thought it a hardship that he was compelled to serve both as architect and laborer. The worthiness of these plans was attested in the middle of the eighteenth century, when the great French _Encyclopaedia_ was projected by Diderot and D'Alembert. The former, its chief editor and contributor, wrote in the Prospectus: "If we come out successful from this vast undertaking, we shall owe it mainly to Chancellor Bacon, who sketched the plan of a universal dictionary of sciences and arts at a time when there were not, so to speak, either arts or sciences. This extraordinary genius, when it was impossible to write a history of what men knew, wrote one of what they had to learn."

Bacon, as we shall amply see, was a firm believer in the study of the arts and occupations, and at the same time retained his devotion to principles and abstract thought. He knew that philosophy could aid the arts that supply daily needs; also that the arts and occupations enriched the field of philosophy, and that the basis of our generalizations must be the universe of things knowable. "For," he writes, "if men judge that learning should be referred to use and action, they judge well; but it is easy in this to fall into the error pointed out in the ancient fable; in which the other parts of the body found fault with the stomach, because it neither performed the office of motion as the limbs do, nor of sense, as the head does; but yet notwithstanding it is the stomach which digests and distributes the aliment to all the rest. So that if any man think that philosophy and universality are idle and unprofitable studies, he does not consider that all arts and professions are from thence supplied with sap and strength." For Bacon, as for Descartes, natural philosophy was the trunk of the tree of knowledge.

Human Learning (Bacon's Classification)

Column Key: (A) Reason Philosophy, or the Sciences (B) Imagination Poesy (C) Memory History

------------+---------------------------------------------------- | Knowledge Classified (Hugo of St. Victor, d. 1141). ------------+---------------------+------------------------------ Theoretical | Theology | | Natural Philosophy | | (Physic) | ------------+---------------------+------------------------------ | Mathematics | Arithmetic | | Music (study of harmony) | | Geometry | | Astronomy ------------+---------------------+------------------------------ Practical | Ethics, or individual morality (Moral) | Economics, or family morality | Politics, or civics ------------+---------------------------------------------------- Mechanical | Weaving, spinning, sewing; work in wool, flax, etc. | Equipment--arms, ships; work in stone, wood, metal | Navigation | Agriculture | Hunting, fishing, foods | Medicine | Theatricals--drama, music, athletics, etc. ------------+---------------------------------------------------- Logical | Oratory | Grammar | Dialectic | Rhetoric ------------+----------------------------------------------------

On the other hand, he looked to the arts, crafts, and occupations as a source of scientific principles. In his survey of learning he found some records of agriculture and likewise of many mechanical arts. Some think them a kind of dishonor. "But if my judgment be of any weight, the use of History Mechanical is, of all others, the most radical and fundamental towards natural philosophy." When the different arts are known, the senses will furnish sufficient concrete material for the information of the understanding. The record of the arts is of most use because it exhibits things in motion, and leads more directly to practice. "Upon this history, therefore, mechanical and illiberal as it may seem (all fineness and daintiness set aside), the greatest diligence must be bestowed." "Again, among the particular arts those are to be preferred which exhibit, alter, and prepare natural bodies and materials of things as agriculture, cooking, chemistry, dyeing; the manufacture of glass, enamel, sugar, gunpowder, artificial fires, paper and the like." Weaving, carpentry, architecture, manufacture of mills, clocks, etc. follow. The purpose is not solely to bring the arts to perfection, but all mechanical experiments should be as streams flowing from all sides into the sea of philosophy.

Shortly after James I came to the throne in 1603, Bacon published his _Advancement of Learning_. He continued in other writings, however, to develop the organization of knowledge, and in 1623 summed up his plan in the _De Augmentis Scientiarum_.

A recent writer (Pearson, 1900) has attempted to summarize Bacon's classification of the different branches of learning. When one compares this summary with an outline of the classification of knowledge made by the French monk, Hugo of St. Victor, who stands midway between Isidore of Seville (570-636) and Bacon, some points of resemblance are of course obvious. Moreover, Hugo, like Bacon, insisted on the importance of not being narrowly utilitarian. Men, he says, are often accustomed to value knowledge not on its own account but for what it yields. Thus it is with the arts of husbandry, weaving, painting, and the like, where skill is considered absolutely vain, unless it results in some useful product. If, however, we judged after this fashion of God's wisdom, then, no doubt, the creation would be preferred to the Creator. But wisdom is life, and the love of wisdom is the joy of life (_felicitas vitæ_).

Nevertheless, when we compare these classifications diligently, we find very marked differences between Bacon's views and the medieval. The weakest part of Hugo's classification is that which deals with natural philosophy. _Physica_, he says, undertakes the investigation of the causes of things in their effects, and of effects in their causes. It deals with the explanation of earthquakes, tides, the virtues of plants, the fierce instincts of wild animals, every species of stone, shrub, and reptile. When we turn to his special work, however, on this branch of knowledge, _Concerning Beasts and Other Things_, we find no attempt to subdivide the field of _physica_, but a series of details in botany, geology, zoölogy, and human anatomy, mostly arranged in dictionary form.

When we refer to Bacon's classification we find that Physics corresponds to Hugo's _Physica_. It studies natural phenomena in relation to their material causes. For this study, Natural History, according to Bacon, supplies the facts. Let us glance, then, at his work on natural history, and see how far he had advanced from the medieval toward the modern conception of the sciences.

For purposes of scientific study he divided the phenomena of the universe into (1) Celestial phenomena; (2) Atmosphere; (3) Globe; (4) Substance of earth, air, fire, water; (5) Genera, species, etc. Great scope is given to the natural history of man. The arts are classified as _nature modified by man_. _History_ means, of course, descriptive science.

_Bacon's Catalogue of Particular Histories by Titles (1620)_

1. History of the Heavenly Bodies; or Astronomical History.

2. History of the Configuration of the Heavens and the parts thereof towards the Earth and the parts thereof; or Cosmographical History.

3. History of Comets.

4. History of Fiery Meteors.

5. History of Lightnings, Thunderbolts, Thunders, and Coruscations.

6. History of Winds and Sudden Blasts and Undulations of the Air.

7. History of Rainbows.

8. History of Clouds, as they are seen above.

9. History of the Blue Expanse, of Twilight, of Mock-Suns, Mock-Moons, Haloes, various colours of the Sun; and of every variety in the aspect of the heavens caused by the medium.

10. History of Showers, Ordinary, Stormy, and Prodigious; also of Waterspouts (as they are called); and the like.

11. History of Hail, Snow, Frost, Hoar-frost, Fog, Dew, and the like.

12. History of all other things that fall or descend from above, and that are generated in the upper region.

13. History of Sounds in the upper region (if there be any), besides Thunder.

14. History of Air as a whole, or in the Configuration of the World.

15. History of the Seasons or Temperatures of the Year, as well according to the variations of Regions as according to accidents of Times and Periods of Years; of Floods, Heats, Droughts, and the like.

16. History of Earth and Sea; of the Shape and Compass of them, and their Configurations compared with each other; and of their broadening or narrowing; of Islands in the Sea; of Gulfs of the Sea, and Salt Lakes within the Land; Isthmuses and Promontories.

17. History of the Motions (if any be) of the Globe of Earth and Sea; and of the Experiments from which such motions may be collected.

18. History of the greater motions and Perturbations in Earth and Sea; Earthquakes, Tremblings and Yawnings of the Earth, Islands newly appearing; Floating Islands; Breakings off of Land by entrance of the Sea, Encroachments and Inundations and contrariwise Recessions of the Sea; Eruptions of Fire from the Earth; Sudden Eruptions of Waters from the Earth; and the like.

19. Natural History of Geography; of Mountains, Vallies, Woods, Plains, Sands, Marshes, Lakes, Rivers, Torrents, Springs, and every variety of their course, and the like; leaving apart Nations, Provinces, Cities, and such like matters pertaining to Civil life.

20. History of Ebbs and Flows of the Sea; Currents, Undulations, and other Motions of the Sea.

21. History of other Accidents of the Sea; its Saltness, its various Colours, its Depth; also of Rocks, Mountains, and Vallies under the Sea, and the like.

_Next come Histories of the Greater Masses_

22. History of Flame and of things Ignited.

23. History of Air, in Substance, not in the Configuration of the World.

24. History of Water, in Substance, not in the Configuration of the World.

25. History of the Earth and the diversity thereof, in Substance, not in the Configuration of the World.

_Next come Histories of Species_

26. History of perfect Metals, Gold, Silver; and of the Mines, Veins, Marcasites of the same; also of the Working in the Mines.

27. History of Quicksilver.

28. History of Fossils; as Vitriol, Sulphur, etc.

29. History of Gems; as the Diamond, the Ruby, etc.

30. History of Stones; as Marble, Touchstone, Flint, etc.

31. History of the Magnet.

32. History of Miscellaneous Bodies, which are neither entirely Fossil nor Vegetable; as Salts, Amber, Ambergris, etc.

33. Chemical History of Metals and Minerals.

34. History of Plants, Trees, Shrubs, Herbs; and of their parts, Roots, Stalks, Wood, Leaves, Flowers, Fruits, Seeds, Gums, etc.

35. Chemical History of Vegetables.

36. History of Fishes, and the Parts and Generation of them.

37. History of Birds, and the Parts and Generation of them.

38. History of Quadrupeds, and the Parts and Generation of them.

39. History of Serpents, Worms, Flies, and other insects; and of the Parts and Generation of them.

40. Chemical History of the things which are taken by Animals.

_Next come Histories of Man_

41. History of the Figure and External Limbs of man, his Stature, Frame, Countenance, and Features; and of the variety of the same according to Races and Climates, or other smaller differences.

42. Physiognomical History of the same.

43. Anatomical History, or of the Internal Members of Man; and of the variety of them, as it is found in the Natural Frame and Structure, and not merely as regards Diseases and Accidents out of the course of Nature.

44. History of the parts of Uniform Structure in Man; as Flesh, Bones, Membranes, etc.

45. History of Humours in Man; Blood, Bile, Seed, etc.

46. History of Excrements; Spittle, Urine, Sweats, Stools, Hair of the Head, Hairs of the Body, Whitlows, Nails, and the like.

47. History of Faculties; Attraction, Digestion, Retention, Expulsion, Sanguification, Assimilation of Aliment into the members, conversion of Blood and Flower of Blood into Spirit, etc.

48. History of Natural and Involuntary Motions; as Motion of the Heart, the Pulses, Sneezing, Lungs, Erection, etc.

49. History of Motions partly Natural and Partly Violent; as of Respiration, Cough, Urine, Stool, etc.

50. History of Voluntary Motions; as of the Instruments of Articulation of Words; Motions of the Eyes, Tongue, Jaws, Hands, Fingers; of Swallowing, etc.

51. History of Sleep and Dreams.

52. History of different habits of Body--Fat, Lean; of the Complexions (as they call them), etc.

53. History of the Generation of Man.

54. History of Conception, Vivification, Gestation in the Womb, Birth, etc.

55. History of the Food of Man; and of all things Eatable and Drinkable; and of all Diet; and of the variety of the same according to nations and smaller differences.

56. History of the Growth and Increase of the Body, in the whole and in its parts.

57. History of the Course of Age; Infancy, Boyhood, Youth, Old Age; of Length and Shortness of Life, and the like, according to nations and lesser differences.

58. History of Life and Death.

59. History Medicinal of Diseases, and of the Symptoms and Signs of them.

60. History Medicinal of the Treatment and Remedies and Cures of Diseases.

61. History Medicinal of those things which preserve the Body and the Health.

62. History Medicinal of those things which relate to the Form and Comeliness of the Body.

63. History Medicinal of those things which alter the Body, and pertain to Alterative Regimen.

64. History of Drugs.

65. History of Surgery.

66. Chemical History of Medicines.

67. History of Vision, and of things Visible.

68. History of Painting, Sculpture, Modelling, etc.

69. History of Hearing and Sound.

70. History of Music.

71. History of Smell and Smells.

72. History of Taste and Tastes.

73. History of Touch, and the objects of Touch.

74. History of Venus, as a species of Touch.

75. History of Bodily Pains, as species of Touch.

76. History of Pleasure and Pain in general.

77. History of the Affections; as Anger, Love, Shame, etc.

78. History of the Intellectual Faculties; Reflexion, Imagination, Discourse, Memory, etc.

79. History of Natural Divinations.

80. History of Diagnostics, or Secret Natural Judgements.

81. History of Cookery, and of the arts thereto belonging, as of the Butcher, Poulterer, etc.

82. History of Baking, and the Making of Bread, and the arts thereto belonging, as of the Miller, etc.

83. History of Wine.

84. History of the Cellar and of different kinds of Drink.

85. History of Sweetmeats and Confections.

86. History of Honey.

87. History of Sugar.

88. History of the Dairy.

89. History of Baths and Ointments.

90. Miscellaneous History concerning the care of the body--as of Barbers, Perfumers, etc.

91. History of the working of Gold, and the arts thereto belonging.

92. History of the manufactures of Wool, and the arts thereto belonging.

93. History of the manufactures of Silk, and the arts thereto belonging.

94. History of the manufactures of Flax, Hemp, Cotton, Hair, and other kinds of Thread, and the arts thereto belonging.

95. History of manufactures of Feathers.

96. History of Weaving, and the arts thereto belonging.

97. History of Dyeing.

98. History of Leather-making, Tanning, and the arts thereto belonging.

99. History of Ticking and Feathers.

100. History of working in Iron.

101. History of Stone-cutting.

102. History of the making of Bricks and Tiles.

103. History of Pottery.

104. History of Cements, etc.

105. History of working in Wood.

106. History of working in Lead.

107. History of Glass and all vitreous substances, and of Glass-making.

108. History of Architecture generally.

109. History of Waggons, Chariots, Litters, etc.

110. History of Printing, of Books, of Writing, of Sealing; of Ink, Pen, Paper, Parchment, etc.

111. History of Wax.

112. History of Basket-making.

113. History of Mat-making, and of manufactures of Straw, Rushes, and the like.

114. History of Washing, Scouring, etc.

115. History of Agriculture, Pasturage, Culture of Woods, etc.

116. History of Gardening.

117. History of Fishing.

118. History of Hunting and Fowling.

119. History of the Art of War, and of the arts thereto belonging, as Armoury, Bow-making, Arrow-making, Musketry, Ordnance, Cross-bows, Machines, etc.

120. History of the Art of Navigation, and of the crafts and arts thereto belonging.

121. History of Athletics and Human Exercises of all kinds.

122. History of Horsemanship.

123. History of Games of all kinds.

124. History of Jugglers and Mountebanks.

125. Miscellaneous History of various Artificial Materials,--Enamel, Porcelain, various cements, etc.

126. History of Salts.

127. Miscellaneous History of various Machines and Motions.

128. Miscellaneous History of Common Experiments which have not grown into an Art.

_Histories must also be written of Pure Mathematics; though they are rather observations than experiments_

129. History of the Natures and Powers of Numbers.

130. History of the Natures and Powers of Figures.

The fragment containing this catalogue (_Parasceve_--Day of Preparation) was added to Bacon's work on method, _The New Logic_ (_Novum Organum_), 1620. Besides completing his survey and classification of the sciences (_De Augmentis Scientiarum_), 1623, he published a few separate writings on topics in the catalogue--_Winds_, _Life and Death_, _Tides_, etc. In 1627, a year after his death, appeared his much misunderstood work, _Sylva Sylvarum_. He had found that the Latin word _sylva_ meant _stuff_ or _raw material_, as well as a _wood_, and called this final work _Sylva Sylvarum_, which I would translate, "Jungle of Raw Material." He himself referred to it as "an undigested heap of particulars"; yet he was willing it should be published because "he preferred the good of men to anything that might have relation to himself." In it, following his catalogue, he fulfilled the promise made in 1620, of putting nature and the arts to question. Some of the problems suggested for investigation are: congealing of air, turning air into water, the secret nature of flame, motion of gravity, production of cold, nourishing of young creatures in the egg or womb, prolongation of life, the media of sound, infectious diseases, accelerating and preventing putrefaction, accelerating and staying growth, producing fruit without core or seed, production of composts and helps for ground, flying in the air.

In the _New Atlantis_, a work of imagination, Bacon had represented as already achieved for mankind some of the benefits he wished for: artificial metals, various cements, excellent dyes, animals for vivisection and medical experiment, instruments which generate heat solely by motion, artificial precious stones, conveyance of sound for great distances and in tortuous lines, new explosives. "We imitate," says the guide in the Utopian land, "also flights of birds; we have some degree of flying in the air; we have ships and boats for going under water." Bacon believed in honoring the great discoverers and inventors, and advocated maintaining a calendar of inventions.

He was a fertile and stimulating thinker, and much of his great influence arose from the comprehensiveness that led to his celebrated classification of the sciences.

REFERENCES

Bacon's _Philosophical Works_, vol. IV, _Parasceve_, edited by R. L. Ellis, J. Spedding, and D. D. Heath.

Karl Pearson, _Grammar of Science_.

J. A. Thomson, _Introduction to Science_.