LETTER XXIX.

_STATES OF INSECTS._

EGG STATE.

On a former occasion I gave you a general idea of what has been called, perhaps not improperly, the _metamorphosis_ of insects[61]; but since that time much novel and interesting speculation on the subject has employed the pens of many eminent Physiologists; and besides this, the doctrine then advanced of successive developments has been altogether denied by a very able Anatomist, Dr. Herold, who, with a hand, eye, and pencil, second only to those of Lyonnet, has traced the changes that gradually take place in the structure of the cabbage-butterfly (_Pieris Brassicæ_) on passing through its several states of larva, pupa, and imago. It is necessary, therefore, that previously to considering separately and in detail the _states_ of insects, I should again call your attention to this subject, and endeavour to ascertain whether Dr. Herold's hypothesis rests upon a solid foundation; or whether that adopted from Swammerdam by all the most eminent Entomologists and Physiologists since his time can be maintained against it.

I shall first give you a short abstract of the new hypothesis.

According to Dr. Herold--_The successive skins of the caterpillar, the pupa-case, the future butterfly, and its parts and organs, except those of sex which he discovered in the newly excluded larva, do not preexist as germes, but are formed successively from the_ rete mucosum, _which itself is formed anew upon every change of skin from what he denominates the_ blood, _or the chyle after it has passed through the pores of the intestinal canal into the general cavity of the body, where, being oxygenated by the air-vessels, it performs the nutritive functions of blood. He attributes these formations to a_ vis formatrix (Bildende Kraft).

_The caul or epiploon_ (Fett-masse), _the_ corps graisseux _of Reaumur, &c., which he supposes to be formed from the superfluous blood, he allows, with most physiologists, to be stored up in the larva, that in the pupa state it may serve for the development of the imago. But he differs from them in asserting that in this state it is destined to two distinct purposes--first, for the production of the muscles of the butterfly, which he affirms are generated from it in the shape of slender bundles of fibres;--and secondly, for the development and nutrition of the organs formed in the larva, to effect which, he says, it is dissolved again into the mass of blood, and being oxygenated by the air-vessels, becomes fit for nutrition, whence the epiploon appears to be a kind of concrete chyle_[62].

Need I repeat to you the hypothesis to which this stands opposed--_That every caterpillar at its first exclusion contains within itself the germe of the future butterfly and of all its envelopes, which successively presenting themselves are thrown off, till it appear in perfection and beauty, with all its parts and organs, when no further development takes place._

I believe you will agree with me, when you have read and considered the above abstract of Dr. Herold's hypothesis, that in it he substitutes a name for knowledge, talks of a _vis formatrix_ because his assisted eye cannot penetrate to the primordial essence or state of the germes of being, and denies the existence of what he cannot discover[63]. From ancient ages philosophers have done the same, to conceal their own ignorance of causes under a sounding name, when they have endeavoured to penetrate within the veil of the _sanctum sanctorum_, which it is not permitted to vain man to enter. This has occasioned the invention, not only of the term in question, but of many others, as little meriting the appellation of _Signs of ideas_; such as _Plastic Nature_, _Epigenesis_, _Panspermia_, _Idea seminalis_, _Nisus formativus_, &c. But upon this subject you cannot do better than consult what the learned Dr. Barclay has said in his admirable work _On Life and Organization_[64], in which he has placed the inanity, the _vox et præterea nihil_, of such high-sounding terms in their true light. The processes of nature in the formation and development of the _fœtus in utero_, of the chick in the egg, of the butterfly in the caterpillar, we in vain attempt fully to investigate; yet we can easily comprehend that pre-existent germes, by the constant accretion of new matter in a proper state, may be gradually developed, but we find it impossible to conceive how, by the action of second causes, without the intervention of the first cause, the butterfly should be formed in the caterpillar, unless it preexists there as a germe or fœtus. "Is it not clear," asks Dr. Virey in his lively manner, "as Blumenbach and other Physiologists maintain, that there is a formative power, a _nisus formativus_, which organizes the embryo? Admirable discovery!" says he, "which teaches us that the fœtus forms itself because it forms itself! As if you should affirm that the stone falls because it falls[65]!" Had Dr. Herold considered what Bonnet says with as much good sense as modesty, he would never have imagined that his discovering the organs of the butterfly one after the other at certain periods in the caterpillar, was any sound argument against their preexistence and coexistence as germes. "Organs," says that amiable and excellent Physiologist, "that have no existence as to us, exist as they respect the embryo, and perform their essential functions; the term of their becoming visible is that which has been erroneously mistaken for the period of their existence[66]." This has been Dr. Herold's grand error; he mistook the commencement of the _appearance_ of the organs of the butterfly for that of their _existence_, and yet the early appearance of the sexual organs ought to have led him to a conclusion the reverse of that which he has adopted.

Dr. Virey has observed with great truth--that "Every being has a peculiar and unique nature, which would be impossible if the body was composed of parts made at several intervals, and without a uniform power that acts by concert[67]:" and every Physiologist acquainted with the history of insects that undergo a _complete_ metamorphosis will allow, that their developments and acquisition of new parts and organs take place according to a _law_ which regulates the number, kind, and times of them, differing in different species, and which has had an invariable operation, since the first creation, upon every sound individual that has been produced into the world.

In consequence of this law, one species changes its skin only _four_ times, and another _five_ or _six_;--in some cases the first skins shall be covered or bristled with hairs or spines, and the last be naked and without arms;--that which forms the case of the pupæ shall differ in form and substance from the preceding skins, varying in both respects in different species; and finally the butterfly shall invariably follow, when no other change but the last mortal one shall take place. Can this law, so constantly observed, be the result of a _blind_ power? Or are we to suppose that the Deity himself is always at work to _create_ the necessary organs in their time and place? Is it not much more consonant to reason and the general analogy of nature, to suppose that these parts and organs exist in embryo in the newly-hatched caterpillar, and grow and are successively developed by the action of the nutritive fluid? In the pupa of many _Diptera_ the inclosed animal, even under the microscope, appears without parts or organs, like a mere pulp; but Bonnet tells us, that if boiled, all the parts of the pupa appear[68], which proves the preexistence of these parts even when not to be discerned, and that nothing but the evaporation of the fluids in which they swim is wanted to render them visible.

Mr. William MacLeay has with great truth observed: "The true criterion of animal as well as vegetable perfection is the ability to continue the species[69];" and in their progress to this state certain changes take place in the parts and organs of _all_ animals and vegetables: there is, therefore, an analogy in this respect between them; and this analogy also furnishes another argument against Dr. Herold's hypothesis, as we shall presently see. These changes are of three kinds: In the vegetable kingdom, at least in the phænogamous classes, there is a succession of developments terminating in the appearance of the generative organs, inclosed in the flower; in this kind the integuments, or most of them, are usually _persistent_. In insects and other annulose and some vertebrate animals, there is a succession of spoliations, or simultaneous changes of the whole integument, till the animal appears in its perfect form with powers of reproduction; in this kind the integuments are _caducous_.--In man and most of the vertebrate animals there is a gradual action of the vital forces in different organs till they are fitted for reproduction; accompanied, as progress is made to the adult state, by the acquisition of certain organs, &c. as of teeth, horns, pubes, feathers, &c.[70] Let us now consider a little in detail the analogies that appear to exist between the second and the first and third kinds. I shall first consider the latter as the least obvious. That able, judicious, and learned physiologist, Dr. Virey, has pointed out no inconsiderable resemblance between the metamorphosis of the insect, and the changes, which he denominates a metamorphosis by metastasis, to which most vertebrate animals are subject. In them, he observes, a state analogous to the _larva_ state begins at the exclusion of the fœtus from the womb; it is deprived of teeth, and its viscera are only accommodated to milk: in the cornute species the horns are in embryo: the digestive system now preponderates, and the great enjoyment is _eating_. A second state, in a degree analogous to that of _pupa_, commences at the period of dentition--the teeth now produce another modification in the intestinal canal, which becomes capable of receiving and digesting solid food: during this period the vital forces are all tending to produce the perfect state of the animal; and in this state, in man especially, the individual is _educated_ and fitted to discharge the duties of active life. Again, analogous to the _imago_ state is the age of puberty, in which the complete development of the sexual powers takes place in both sexes, and the animal has arrived at its acme, and can continue its kind[71]: now the digestive powers diminish in their activity, and love reigns paramount. When this state is fully attained, no further or higher change is to be expected, and the progress is soon towards decay and the termination of the animal's mortal career. So we see that in fact man and other _mammalia_, though they do not simultaneously cast their skins like the insect; or pass into a state of intermediate repose, before they attain the perfection of their nature, like the caterpillar; have their three _states_, in each of which they acquire new parts, powers, and appetites.

But a more striking analogy has been traced between the insects that undergo a complete metamorphosis and the _vegetable_ kingdom; for though the _primary_ analogy seems to be between the _Polypus_ and the _Plant_, yet the _secondary_ one with the _Insect_ is not by any means remote. There are circumstances to which I shall have occasion hereafter to call your attention, which afford some ground for supposing, that the substance of the insect and the vegetable partakes of the same nature, at least approximates more nearly, than that of the insect and the vertebrate animal; and every one who has observed these little creatures with any attention, will have observed amongst them forms and organs borrowed as it were from the kingdom of Flora; and _vice versâ_ the Botanist, if he makes the comparison, will find amongst his favourite tribes many striking resemblances of certain insects. But the analogy does not stop here; for the butterfly and the plant appear to have been created with a particular reference to each other, both in the epoch of their appearance and the changes that take place in them. Thus, as Dr. Virey has observed, the caterpillar is simultaneous with the leaf of the tree or plant on which it feeds, and the butterfly with the flowers of which it imbibes the nectar[72]. Swammerdam, I believe, was the first who noticed the analogy between the _changes_ of the insect and the vegetable, and has given a table in which he has contrasted their developments, including other animals that undergo a metamorphosis[73]: an idea which has been generalized by Bonnet[74], and adopted and enlarged by Dr. Virey[74]. A state analogous to that of the _larva_ in the insect begins in the plant when it is disclosed from the seed, or springs from its hybernaculum in the bulb, &c., or is evolved from the gemma; integument after integument, often in various forms, as cotyledon, radical, cauline, or floral leaves, expands as the stem rises, all which envelopes incase the true representative of the plant, the fructification, as the various skins do the future butterfly. When these integuments are all expanded, the fructification appears inclosed by the calyx or corolla as the case may be, in which the generative organs are matured for their office--this is the bud, which is clearly analogous to the _pupa_ state of the insect. Next the calyx and corolla expand, the impregnation of the germen takes place, and the seed being ripened, and dispersed by the opening of the seed-vessel or ovary of the plant, the individual dies: thus the _imago_ state of the insect has its representative in the plant. "If we place," says Dr. Virey, "here the egg of the insect, next its caterpillar, a little further the chrysalis, and lastly the butterfly--what is this but an animal stem--an elongation perfectly similar to that of the plant issuing from the seed to attain its blossoming and propagation?"[75]

There being, therefore, this general analogy in their progress to that state in which they can continue their species between every part of animated nature, it holds good, I think, that the same analogy should take place in their developments. If the adult man or quadruped, &c. is evidently an evolution of the fœtus, as from microscopical observations it appears that they are[76], if the teeth, horns, and other parts, &c. to be acquired in his progress to that state are already in him in their embryos, we may also conclude that the butterfly and its organs, &c. are all in the newly-hatched caterpillar. Again, if the blossom and its envelopes are contained in the gemma, the bulb, &c. where they have been discovered[77], it follows analogically that the butterfly and its integuments all preexist in its forerunner.

Perhaps after this view of the objections to Dr. Herold's hypothesis, it will not be necessary to say much with regard to the argument he draws from the change of organs--the loss of some and the acquisition of others--since this may readily be conceived to be the natural consequence of the vital forces tending more and more to the formation of the butterfly, and the withdrawing of their action more and more from the caterpillar; I shall not, therefore, enter further into the question, especially since the change of organs will come more regularly under our notice upon a future occasion.

Winged insects, many branchiopod _Crustacea_, and the Batracian reptiles, have been observed by Dr. Virey to bear some analogy to the _mammalia_, _aves_, &c. in another respect. In leaving their egg, they only quit their first integument, answering to the _chorion_ or external envelope of the human fœtus; they therefore still continue a kind of fœtus, so to speak, more or less enveloped under other tunics, and principally in their _amnios_, or the covering in which the fœtus floats in the _liquor amnii_[78]. This the butterfly does in the pupa case; and its birth from this, under this view, will be the true birth of the animal. In the human subject, the ova upon impregnation are said to pass from the ovary through the Fallopian tube into the uterus. In the insect world, upon impregnation, the eggs pass first from the ovaries into the oviduct, answering to the Fallopian tube, which in them terminates in the _ovipositor_, or the instrument by which the parent animal conveys the eggs to their proper station: there is, therefore, nothing properly analogous to the uterus in the insect, and the substance upon which the larva feeds upon exclusion answers the purpose of a placenta.

After this general view of the most modern theories with regard to the _metamorphosis_ of insects, I shall in the present and some following letters, treat separately of the different states through which these little beings successively pass.

* * * * *

The first of these is the _Egg state_, the whole class of insects being strictly oviparous. Some few tribes indeed bring into the world living young ones, and have on that account been considered as _viviparous_, but incorrectly, for the embryos of none of these are nourished, as in the true viviparous animals, within a uterus by means of a placenta, but receive their development within true eggs which are hatched in the body of the mother. This is proved by the observations of Leeuwenhoek, who found eggs in the abdomen of a female scorpion[79]; and of Reaumur, with regard to the flesh-fly (_Musca carnaria_) and other viviparous flies as they have been called[80]. A similar mode of production takes place in vipers and some other reptiles, which have hence been denominated _ovo-viviparous_, to distinguish them from the true viviparous animals--the class _Mammalia_. By far the larger portion of insects is oviparous in the ordinary acceptation of the term. The ovo-viviparous tribes at present known are scorpions; the flesh-fly and several other flies; a minute gnat belonging to Latreille's family of _Tipulariæ_[81]; some species of _Coccus_; some bugs (_Cimicidæ_)[82]; and most _Aphides_, which last also exhibit the singular fact of individuals of the same species being some oviparous and others ovo-viviparous, the former being longer in proportion than the latter.--Bonnet, however, is of opinion that the eggs of the first are not perfect eggs, but a kind of cocoon, which defends the larva, already formed in some degree, from the cold of winter[83].

When excluded from the body of the mother, or from the egg, as has been before observed, some insects appear nearly in the form of their parents, which, with a very slight alteration, they always retain; others, and the greater number, assume an appearance totally different from that of their parents, which they acquire only after passing through various changes. It is to these last, which have chiefly engaged the attention of Entomologists, that the title of metamorphoses has been often restricted. As, however, those insects which undergo the slightest change of form, as spiders do, undergo _some_ change, and almost all insects cast their skins several times[84] before they attain maturity, Linné and most Entomologists, till very recently, have regarded the whole class as undergoing metamorphoses, and as passing through _four_ different states, viz. the Egg--the Larva--the Pupa--and the Imago.

It is obvious, however, that in ovo-viviparous species _three_ states of their existence only come under our cognizance, as these, being hatched in the body of the mother, come forth first under the form of larvæ. There is even one tribe of insects which presents the strange anomaly of being born in the _pupa_ state. This is the Linnean genus _Hippobosca_ (_Pupipara_ fam. Latr.), to which our forest-fly belongs, the females of which lay bodies so much resembling eggs, that they were long considered as such until their true nature was ascertained by Reaumur (most of whose observations were confirmed by De Geer), who, from their size, which nearly equals that of the parent fly--from their slight motion when first extruded--from spiraculiform points which run down each side of them--and lastly, from their producing not a larva, as all other insects' eggs do, but perfect flies in the winged state--inferred, and doubtless with reason, that they are not real eggs, but pupæ, or larvæ just ready to assume the pupa state, which, however strange it may seem, have passed the egg and larva states in the body of the mother[85].

Insects, therefore, as to their mode of birth, may be divided into--

I. _Ovo-viviparous_, subdivided into--

1. _Larviparous_, coming forth from the matrix of the mother in the state of larvæ, as the Scorpion (_Scorpio_), the Flesh-fly (_Musca_), the Plant-louse (_Aphis_), &c.

2. _Pupiparous_, continuing in the matrix of the mother during the larva state, and coming forth in that of _pupa_, as the Forest-fly (_Hippobosca equina_), the Sheep-louse (_Melophagus ovinus_), the Bat-louse (_Nycteribia Vespertilionis_), &c.

II. _Oviparous_. All other insects.

Our business for the remainder of this letter will be with the latter description of these little animals.

The unerring foresight with which the female deposits her eggs in the precise place where the larvæ, when excluded, are sure to find suitable food; and the singular instruments with which, for this purpose, the extremity of their abdomen is furnished, have been noticed in a former letter[86], and those last mentioned will be adverted to in a future one. I shall now, therefore, confine myself to other circumstances connected with the subject, arranged for the sake of order under several distinct heads, as--their _exclusion_--_situation_--_substance_--_number_--_size_--_figure_-- _colour_--and _period of hatching_.

i. _Exclusion._ The exclusion or extrusion of the impregnated eggs takes place, when, passing from the ovary into the oviduct, they are conducted by means of the ovipositor, in which it terminates, to their proper situation. By far the greater number of insects extrude them _singly_, a longer interval elapsing between the passage of each egg in some than in others. In those tribes which place their eggs in groups, such as most butterflies and moths, and many beetles, they pass from the ovaries usually with great rapidity; while in the _Ichneumonidæ_, _Sphegidæ_, _Œstri_, and other parasitic genera, which usually deposit their eggs singly, an interval of some minutes, hours, or perhaps even days, intervenes between the extrusion of each egg. One remarkable instance of the former mode I noticed in my letter on the _Perfect Societies_ of Insects[87]; another may be cited, to which you may yourself be a witness--I allude to that common moth, vulgarly called the _Ghost (Hepialus Humuli)_, which lays a large number of minute black eggs, resembling grains of gunpowder, and ejects them so fast that, according to De Geer, they may be said to _run_ from the oviduct, and are sometimes expelled with the force of a popgun[88]. A Tetrapterous insect, the genus of which is uncertain, is said, when it is taken, to discharge its eggs like shot from a gun[89]. And a friend of mine, who had observed with attention the proceedings of a common crane-fly (_Tipula_), assured me that several females which he caught projected their eggs to the distance of more than ten inches.

A few _Diptera_ extrude them in a sort of chain or necklace, each egg being connected by a glutinous matter with that which precedes and follows it. In a small species of a genus allied to _Psychoda_ (a kind of midge), which one season was abundant in a window of my house, this necklace is composed of eggs joined by their sides, not unlike those strung by children of the seeds of the mallow[90]. Other _Tipulidæ_ on the contrary extrude their eggs joined end to end, so as to resemble a necklace of oval beads. _Beris clavipes_ and _Sciura Thomæ_, two other flies, produce a chain about an inch long, consisting of oval eggs connected, in an oblique position, side by side; an arrangement very similar prevails in the ribband of eggs which drop from some of the _Ephemeræ_[91].

These eggs, like those of the insects first mentioned, though connected, are expelled in succession; but other tribes, as the _Libellulidæ_, with the exception of _Agrion_, many _Ephemeræ_, _Trichopterous_ insects, &c. expel the whole at once, as it were in a mass. In those first mentioned they are gummed together in an oblong cluster[92]. In one _Ephemera_ mentioned by Reaumur[93], they formed two oblong masses, each containing from three to four hundred eggs, and three and a half or four lines long. These animals as soon as their wings are developed eject these masses by two orifices, and are aided in the process by two vesicles full of air, wherever they happen to alight or to fall; in most instances it is the water, their proper element, that receives them, but the animal does not appear to know the difference between a solid and a liquid, and seems only anxious how to free herself from a burthen that oppresses her; all has been contrived that an insect so short-lived may finish her different operations with the utmost celerity: the term of her existence would not have admitted the leisurely extrusion of such a number of eggs in succession[94]. Some _Trichoptera_, or May-flies, as _Phryganea grandis_ L., exclude their eggs in a double packet, enveloped in a mass of jelly, (a circumstance often attending the eggs that produce aquatic larvæ,) upon the leaves of willows[95]. A similar double packet in the year 1810 I observed appended to the anus of a black species with long antennæ, probably _Phryganea atrata_ F.[96] Upon taking several of the females I was surprised to find in the above situation a seemingly fleshy substance of a dirty yellow. At first, from its annular appearance, I conceived it to be some parasitic larva, but was not a little surprised upon pulling it away that it was full of globular transparent dusky eggs: it was about two lines and a quarter in length and nearly one in breadth. Being bent double it was attached to the animal by the intermediate angle, and when unfolded was constricted in the middle[97]. Each half, which was roundish, had about ten sharp transverse ridges, the interstices of which appeared as if crenated, an appearance produced by the eggs which it contained. Upon more than gentle pressure it burst and let out the eggs. Though resembling the packet of _P. grandis_ in shape and other circumstances, it was nothing like jelly, but had rather a waxy appearance, and seems to have been covered by a membrane: so that the excluded larvæ must probably have eaten their way out of it. I have still by me, in 1822, specimens of these egg-packets, which, after the lapse of so many years, retain their original form and colour. It is not improbable that other species extrude their eggs in a similar case. Scopoli says of _P. bicaudata_ L., that the female carries about under her belly her eggs united into a globe, like _Lycosa saccata_[98]. The eggs of _Geometra Potamogata_ F. are also enveloped in a gelatinous substance, and the mass is covered with leaves[99].

Insects of the _Diptera_ order also, like frogs and toads, commit their eggs to the water imbedded in masses of jelly. Dr. Derham describes two different kinds of them, in one of which the eggs were laid in parallel rows end to end, and in another in a single row, in which the sides were parallel[100]. But the most remarkable and beautiful specimen of this kind that I ever saw was one that, many years ago, I took out of a pond at Wittersham in Kent, from which I requested a young lady to make the drawing I send you[101]. The mass of jelly, about an inch and a quarter long, and rather widest in the middle, was attached by one end to some aquatic grass, and from one end to the other ran a spiral thread of very minute eggs, the turns of the screw being alternately on each side.

The mode of exclusion of the eggs of the _Blattæ_, which are engaged for a whole week in the business of oviposition, is very singular: the female deposits one or two large suboviform capsules, as large as half their abdomen, rounded on one side, and on the other straight and serrated, which at first is white and soft, but soon becomes brown and hard. This egg-case, as it may be called, contains sixteen or eighteen eggs arranged in a double series, and the cock-roaches when hatched make their escape through a cleft in its straight side, which shuts so accurately when they have quitted it, that at first it appears as entire as before[102]. The insects of the genus _Mantis_ also, or what are called the _praying insects_, when they deposit their eggs, eject with them a soft substance, which hardens in the air and forms a long kind of envelope resembling parchment, in which the eggs are arranged also in a double series. And the Locusts (_Gryllus Locusta_ L.) are said by Morier[103] to deposit in the ground an oblong substance, of the shape of their abdomen, which contains a considerable number of eggs arranged neatly in rows. The peristaltic motion observed in the females of some insects during oviposition has been before described[104].

ii. _Situation._ Under this head I include the situation in which the female insect places her eggs when extruded, whether she continues her care of them and carries them about till they hatch, or whether she entirely deserts them, placing them either without a covering within reach of their food, or enveloping them in hair or otherwise protecting them from accident or the attack of enemies. I shall consider them under two views: _first_, as depositing their eggs in _groups_, whether covered or naked; and _secondly_, as depositing them _singly_.

1. Those that deposit their eggs in _groups_ are first to be considered. I shall begin with those that protect them with some kind of _covering_.

I have already mentioned in a former letter[105] the silken bag with which _Lycosa saccata_ Latr., a kind of spider, surrounds her eggs, and in which she constantly carries them about with her, defending them to the last extremity. Many other spiders, indeed nearly the whole tribe, fabricate similar pouches, but of various sizes, forms, texture, and colours. Some are scarcely so big as a pea, others of the size of a large gooseberry; some globular, some bell-shaped; others, the genus _Thomisus_ Walck. in particular, depressed like a lupine; some of a close texture like silk; others of a looser fabric resembling wool: some consisting of a single pellicle, but most of a double, of which the interior is finer and softer[106]; some white; others inclining to blue; others again yellow or reddish; most of them are of a whole colour, but that of _Epeira fasciata_ is gray varied with black[107]. And while the parent spider of some kinds (the _Lupi_) always carries her egg-bag attached to her anus, others hold them by their palpi and maxillæ; and others suspend them by a long thread, or simply fasten them in different situations, either constantly remaining near them (the _Telariæ_), or wholly deserting them (the _Retiariæ_). The eggs of one of these last Lister describes as often fixed in a very singular situation--the cavity at the end of a ripe cherry; and thus, as he expresses it--"_Stomachi maxime delicatuli quoties hanc innocuam buccam non minus ignoranter quam avide devorarunt_[108]."

Herman informs us, that the species of the genus _Chelifer_ carry their eggs in a mass under their belly[109].

Madam Merian gives an account of two species of _Blatta_, which she affirms carry an egg-pouch about with them--one species (_B. gigantea?_) she describes as carrying its eggs in a globular pouch of web like certain spiders, and the other in a brown bag, which, when alarmed, it drops and makes off[110]. But this admirable paintress of natural objects was not always correct in her statements[111]: it seems very improbable, from the habits of those species of which we know the history, that any of them should spin a pouch of web for their eggs.

The only insects certainly known to spin an egg-pouch like the spiders, are the _Hydrophili_, a kind of water-beetles. Some of these, as _H. lividus_, carry them about with them, like _Lycosa saccata_, attached to the under side of their body, as M. Miger observed[112]; and others when they are finished desert them. That of the great water-beetle (_Hydrophilus piceus_) was long ago described and figured by Lyonnet[113]; and a more detailed account of it has since been given by M. Miger[114]. In form it somewhat resembles a turnip when reversed, since it consists of a pouch of the shape of an oblate spheroid, the great diameter of which is three quarters of an inch; and the small, half an inch, from which rises a curved horn, about an inch long and terminating in a point[115]. The animal is furnished with a pair of anal spinners, which move from right to left, and up and down, with much quickness and agility: from these spinners a white and glutinous fluid appears to issue, that forms the pouch, which it takes the animal about three hours to construct. The exterior tissue is produced by a kind of liquid and glutinous paste, which by desiccation becomes a flexible covering impermeable to water; the second, which envelops the eggs, is a kind of light down of great whiteness, that keeps them from injuring each other. The tissue of the horn is of a silky nature, porous and shining, and greatly resembling the cocoons of _Lepidoptera_. This part, contrary to what Lyonnet supposes, appears calculated to admit the air, the water soon penetrating it when submerged. At its base is the opening prepared for the egress of the larvæ, when hatched, which is closed by some threads, that, by means of the air confined in the cocoon or pouch, hinder the water from getting in[116]. This nidus does not float at liberty in the water till after the eggs are hatched, the parent animal always attaching it to some plant. By means of this anomalous process for a beetle, which this insect is instructed by Providence thus to perfect, the precious contents of its little ark are secured from the action of the element which is to be the theatre of their first state of existence, from the voracity of fishes, or the more rapacious larvæ of its own tribe, until the included eggs are hatched, and emerge from their curious cradle.

I shall next amuse you with a few instances, in which the Allwise Creator instructs the parent insect, instead of defending her eggs with a covering furnished by her internal organs, to provide it from without, either from her own body or from some other substance. Most commonly, indeed, the female leaves her cluster of eggs without any other covering than the varnish with which in this case they are usually besmeared. Either they are deposited in summer and will soon be hatched, or they are of a substance calculated to encounter and resist the severities of the season. But many species, whose eggs are more tender or have to resist the cold and wet of winter, defend them in the most ingenious manner with a clothing of different kinds of substance.

_Cassida viridis_, a tortoise beetle, Rösel tells us, covers her group of eggs with a partially transparent membrane. _Arctia Salicis_ F., a moth, common on willows, wholly conceals hers with a white frothy substance, which when dry is partly friable and partly cottony, and being insoluble in water effectually protects them from the weather[117]. The female of _Lophyrus Pini_ (a saw-fly), having by means of her double saw made a suitable longitudinal incision in the leaf of a fir, and placed in it her eggs in a single row end to end, stops it up with a green frothy fluid mixed with the small pieces of leaf detached by her saws, which when dry becomes friable: a necessary precaution, since these eggs are extremely brittle[118]. _Arctia chrysorhœa_, _Hypogymna dispar_, and several other moths, surround theirs with an equally impervious and more singular clothing--_hair_ stripped from their own bodies. With this material, which they pluck by means of their pincer-like ovipositor, they first form a soft couch on the surface of some leaf: they then place upon it successively layers of eggs, and surround them with a similar downy coating, and when the whole number is deposited cover the surface with a roof of hairs, which cannot be too much admired; for those used for the interior of the nest are placed without order, but those employed externally are arranged with as much art and skill as the tiles of a roof, and as effectually keep out the water, one layer resting partly on the other, and all having the same direction, so that the whole resembles a well-brushed piece of shaggy cloth or fur. When the mother has finished this labour, which often occupies her for twenty-four hours, and sometimes even twice that period, her body, which before was extremely hairy, is almost wholly naked--she has stripped herself to supply clothing to her offspring, and having performed this last duty she expires. The female moths which thus protect their eggs are often furnished with an extraordinary quantity of hair about the anus for this express purpose; and Reaumur conjectures, that the singular anal patch of scales resembling those of the wings, but considerably larger, which is found in the female of _Lasiocampa Pityocampa_, is destined for the same purpose[119].

Reaumur had once brought to him a nidus of eggs clothed still more curiously: they surrounded a twig in a spiral direction, like those of _Lasiocampa Neustria_, but were much more numerous, and were thickly covered with fine down, not pressed close, but standing off horizontally, which assumed much the same appearance as a fox's tail would if twisted spirally round a branch[120].

A procedure nearly similar was observed by De Geer in some species of Aphides (_A. Alni_ and _A. Pruni_), which covered their eggs with a white cottony down detached from their belly by means of their hind legs[121]. In this case, however, the eggs were separately coated with the down, but there was no general covering to the group.

Several insects make the leaves and other parts of plants serve as coverings for their eggs. _Tenthredo Rosæ_ L., a saw-fly, and other species of the same genus, with their saws make an incision in the green twigs of shrubs and trees, and fill it with a line of eggs placed end to end, taking care that, as the eggs grow after they are laid, they are placed at such distances as to leave room for their expansion[122]. _Rhynchites Bacchus_, a brilliant weevil, well known to the vine-dressers for the injury it does[123], rolls with much art the leaves of the vine, so as to form a cavity, in which it places its eggs; other species practise similar manœuvres; and some probably place their young progeny in the interior of twigs, making an opening for that purpose with their rostrum--at least, I once saw _Rhynchites Alliariæ_ L. with its rostrum plunged up to the antennæ in the twig of a crab-tree. Others of this tribe, as we know, place their eggs in the interior of fruits and grain, as the nut, acorn, and common weevils.

It is probable that most of the above coverings serve another purpose besides the protection of the eggs from wet and cold--that of sheltering them from the action of too great light, which, as Dr. Michellotti by numerous experiments has ascertained, is fatal to the included germe[124]. On this account it is perhaps that so many insects fasten their eggs to the under side of leaves. Those exposed in full day have usually an opaque and horny texture.

Some insects are spared all trouble in providing a covering for their eggs, their own bodies furnishing one in every respect adapted to this purpose. Not to mention the _Onisci_, or wood-lice, since they rather belong to the _Crustacea_, which have a four-valved cell under the breast, in which they carry their eggs, as the kangaroo does its young in its abdominal pouch, the whole body of the female of those strange animals the _Cocci_ becomes a covering for her eggs, which it incloses on every side. To make this intelligible to you, further explanation is necessary. You must have noticed those singular immovable tortoise-shaped insects, which are such pests to myrtles and other greenhouse plants. These are the young of a species of _Coccus_ (_C. Hesperidum_ L.), and _their_ history is that of the whole race. Part of them never become much bigger than the size of which you ordinarily see them, and when full-grown disclose minute two-winged flies, which are the males. The size of the females, which glue themselves to a twig or leaf as if lifeless, now augments prodigiously, and the whole body, distended with the thousands of eggs which it includes to the bigness of a large pea, without any vestige of head or limb, resembles a vegetable excrescence or gall-apple rather than an insect. If you remove one of them, you will perceive that the under part of its abdomen is flat and closely applied to the surface of the branch on which it rests, only a thin layer of a sort of cotton being interposed between them. In laying her eggs the female _Coccus_ does not, like most insects, protrude them beyond her body into day-light; but as soon as the first egg has passed the orifice of her oviduct, she pushes it between her belly and the cottony stratum just mentioned, and the succeeding eggs are deposited in the same manner until the whole are excluded. You will ask how there can be found space between the insect's belly and the cotton, to which at first it was closely applied, for so large a mass of eggs? To comprehend this, you must consider that nearly the whole contents of its abdomen were eggs; that in proportion as these are extruded a void space is left, which allows the skin of the under side of the body to be pushed upwards, or towards that of the back, affording room between it and the cottony web for their convenient stowage. If you examine the insect after its eggs are all laid, you will find that they have merely changed their situation; instead of being on the upper side of the skin forming the belly, and within the body, they now are placed between it (now become concave and nearly touching the back) and the layer of cotton. As soon as the female _Coccus_ has finished her singular operation she dies; but her body, retaining its shape, remains glued upon the eggs, to which it forms an arched covering, effectually protecting them, until they are hatched, from every external injury. Some species lay so many eggs, that the abdomen is not sufficiently large to cover the whole mass, but merely one side of it, the remainder being enveloped in cottony web[125].

* * * * *

I am next to consider the situation of those eggs that are excluded by the mother in groups _without any_ other _covering_ than the varnish with which they are usually besmeared in their passage from the oviduct. The females only place them upon or near the food appropriated to the young larvæ, to which they adhere by means of the varnish just mentioned. These groups consist of a greater or less number; and when the eggs are hatched by the heat of the sun, the larvæ begin to disperse and attack with voracity the food that surrounds them. It is thus that most butterflies and moths attach their eggs to the stems, twigs, and leaves of plants; that the lady birds (_Coccinellæ_), the aphidivorous flies (_Syrphi_ &c.), and the lace-winged flies (_Hemerobii_), deposit them in the midst of plant-lice (_Aphides_); that the eggs of some flesh-flies are gummed upon flesh; those of crickets and grasshoppers buried in the earth; those of gnats and other Tipulidans set afloat upon, or submerged in, the water.

Frequently the whole number of eggs laid by one female is placed in one large group, more commonly, however, in several smaller ones, either at a distance from each other on the same plant, or on distinct plants. The object in the latter case seems to be, in some instances, to avoid crowding too many guests at one table, in others to protect the unhatched eggs from the voracity of the larvæ first excluded, which would often devour them if in their immediate neighbourhood.

In the disposition of the eggs which compose these groups much diversity prevails. Sometimes they are placed without order in a confused mass: more frequently, however, they are arranged in different, and often in very beautiful modes. The common cabbage-butterfly (_Pieris Brassicæ_) and many other insects place theirs upon one end, side by side, so as, comparing small things with great, to resemble a close column of soldiers, in consequence of which those larvæ which, on hatching, proceed from the upper end, cannot disturb the adjoining eggs. Many indeed have a conformation purposely adapted to this position, as the hemisphærical eggs of the puss-moth (_Cerura Vinula_), which have the base by which they are gummed membranous and transparent, while the rest is corneous and opaque. The same ready exit to the larva is provided for in the oblong eggs of the emperor moth (_Saturnia Pavonia_), which are piled on their sides in two or more lines like bottles of wine in a bin[126].

Where the larva does not emerge exactly from the end of the egg other arrangements take place. The whirlwig-beetle (_Gyrinus natator_) and the saw-fly of the gooseberry &c. (_Tenthredo flava_ L.) dispose theirs end to end in several rows; the former upon the leaf of some aquatic grass, the rows being parallel[127], the latter gummed to the main nerves of gooseberry or currant leaves, the direction of which they follow[128].

But the lackey-moths (_Lasiocampa Neustria_, _castrensis_, &c.) adopt a different procedure. As their eggs, which are laid in the autumn, are not to be hatched until the spring, the female does not, like most other moths, place them upon a leaf, with which they might be blown by the winter's storms far from their destined food, but upon the twig of some tree, round which she ranges them in numerous circles. If you examine your fruit-trees, you can scarcely fail to find upon the young twigs collections of these eggs, which are disposed with such admirable art, that you would take them rather for pearls, set by the skilful hand of a jeweller, than for the eggs of an insect. Each of these bracelets, as the French gardeners aptly call them, is composed of from 200 to 300 pyramidal eggs with flattened tops[129], having their axes perpendicular to the circumference of the twig to which they are fastened, surrounding it in a series of from fifteen to seventeen close spiral circles, and having their interstices filled up with a tenacious brown gum, which, while it secures them alike from the wintry blast and the attack of voracious insects, serves as a foil to the white enamel of the eggs that it encompasses. It is not easy to conceive how these moths contrive to accomplish so accurately with their tail and hind feet an arrangement which would require nicety from the hands of an artist; nor could Reaumur, with all his efforts and by any contrivance, satisfy himself upon this head. He bred numbers of the fly from the egg, and supplied the females after impregnation with appropriate twigs; but these, as though resolved that imprisonment should not force from them the secret of their art, laid their eggs at random, and made no attempt to place them symmetrically[130].

This illustrious Entomologist was more successful in discovering the mode in which another insect, the common _gnat_, whose group of eggs is, in some respects, as extraordinary as that last described, performs its operations. The eggs of this insect, of a long phial-like form, are glued together, side by side, to the number of from 250 to 300, into an oblong mass, pointed and more elevated at each end, so as considerably to resemble a little boat in shape. You must not here suppose that I use the term _boat_ by way of illustration merely; for it has all the essential properties of a boat. In shape it pretty accurately resembles a London wherry, being sharp and higher, to use a nautical phrase, fore and aft; convex below and concave above; floating, moreover, constantly on the keel or convex part. But this is not all. It is besides a _life-boat_, more buoyant than even Mr. Greathead's: the most violent agitation of the water cannot sink it; and what is more extraordinary, and a property still a desideratum in our life-boats, though hollow it never becomes filled with water, even though exposed to the torrents that often accompany a thunder-storm. To put this to the test, I yesterday (July 25, 1811) placed half a dozen of these boats upon the surface of a tumbler half full of water; I then poured upon them a stream of that element from the mouth of a quart bottle held a foot above them. Yet after this treatment, which was so rough as actually to project one out of the glass, I found them floating as before upon their bottoms, and not a drop of water within their cavity.

This boat, which floats upon the surface of the water until the larvæ are disclosed, is placed there by the female gnat. But how? Her eggs, as in other insects, are extruded one by one. They are so small at the base in proportion to their length that it would be difficult to make them stand singly upright on a solid surface, much more on the water. How then does the gnat contrive to support the first egg perpendicularly until she has glued another to it--these two until she has fixed a third, and so on until a sufficient number is fastened together to form a base capable of sustaining them in their perpendicular position? This is her process. She fixes her four anterior legs upon a piece of leaf, or a blade of grass, and projects her tail over the water. She then crosses her two hind legs, and in the inner angle which they form, retains and supports the first laid egg, as it proceeds from the anus. In like manner she also supports the second, third, &c., all of which adhere to each other by means of their glutinous coating, until she feels that a sufficient number are united to give a stable base to her little bark; she then uncrosses her legs, and merely employs them to retain the mass until it is of the required size and shape, when she flies away, and leaves it to its fate floating upon the water[131].

It may not be out of place to mention here a remarkable circumstance which not seldom attends a kind of water-scorpion (_Naucoris_ F.) occasionally to be met with in collections of Chinese insects. Its back is often covered with a group of rather large eggs, closely arranged; but whether these are its own eggs or those of some large species of water-mite (_Hydrachna_ Maïll.) has not been clearly ascertained. On the former supposition, the ovipositor must be remarkably long and flexile to enable the animal to place the eggs on its back. In confirmation of the latter it may be observed, that the species of the genus _Hydrachna_ usually attach their eggs to the body and legs of aquatic insects, as for instance _H. abstergens_ to the water-scorpion (_Nepa cinerea_), &c.[132]

2. After having thus laid before you some of the procedures of those insects that usually deposit their eggs in groups, either naked or defended by coverings of various kinds, I next proceed to a rapid survey of those of the species that commonly deposit them _singly_. Some of these, as for instance the Admiral Butterfly (_Vanessa Atalanta_), glue each egg carefully to its destined leaf by alighting on it for a moment. Another butterfly (_Hipparchia Hyperanthus_) whose caterpillar is polyphagous, drops hers at random on different plants. In general it may be observed, that all those larvæ which live in solitude, as in the interior of wood, leaves, fruits, grain, animals, &c., proceed from eggs laid singly by the female, which is usually provided with an appropriate instrument for depositing them in their proper situation. Thus the nut-weevil (_Balaninus Nucum_ Germ.) and also that of the acorn (_B. Glandium_) pierce a nut or an acorn with their long beak, and then deposit in the hole an egg, from which proceeds the maggot that destroys those fruits. Leeuwenhoek asserts that the common weevil (_Calandra granaria_) adopts the same process, boring a hole in every single grain of corn before it commits an egg to it, and at the same time, by this manœuvre, prepares a small quantity of flour to serve for the food of the tender grub when it is first hatched[133]. It is probable that the Rhyncophorous or weevil tribe in general chiefly use their beaks for the purpose of depositing their eggs in different vegetable substances, and perhaps principally in fruit or grain. The tribe of gall-flies (_Cynips_) on the contrary, whose economy, detailed in a former letter[134], interested you so much, bore an opening for the egg with their spiral oviduct, which also conveys it.

Another large tribe of insects depositing their eggs singly, are those which feed upon the bodies of other animals, into the flesh of which they are either inserted, or placed so as speedily to find their way into it. Some of these introduce them into _living_ animals, and then leave them to their fate, as the _Ichneumons_ and gad-flies: others deposit them along with the _dead_ body of an insect interred in a hole, often prepared with great labour, as the different species of sand-wasps (_Sphecidæ_), spider-wasps (_Pompilidæ_), &c.: the manners of the latter of these tribes have been already adverted to[135], and those of the _Ichneumonidæ_ will come more fully under consideration when I treat of the _diseases_ of insects.

A similar labour in providing suitable habitations for their eggs is undergone by various other insects whose larvæ live chiefly on vegetable food, some inserting their egg within the substance the larva devours, as those that prey on timber, twigs, roots, or the like, and others on its surface. One would suppose at first, that the exceedingly small egg which produces the subcutaneous larvæ would, by the parent moth, be imbedded in the substance of the leaf which is to exhibit hereafter their serpentine galleries: but this is not the case, for she merely glues it on the outside; at least such was the situation of the only egg of these very minute moths Reaumur had ever an opportunity to observe[136].

Other insects, belonging to the tribe which lay their eggs singly, bury them in the ground. Of this description are many of the lamellicorn insects, the dung-chafers (_Scarabæidæ_ MacLeay) particularly, which, inclosing their eggs in a pellet of dung, deposit them in deep cylindrical cavities. Concerning the proceedings of some of these, as well as of the whole race of bees, wasps, &c., which all lay single eggs, I have before detailed to you many interesting particulars[137]. I must not conclude this subject without observing, that the female _Pycnogonidæ_, an osculant tribe between Insects and _Crustacea_, carry their eggs upon two pair of false legs[138].

iii. _Substance._ From this long dissertation on the _situation_ of the eggs of insects and matters connected with it, I pass on to their _substance_ or their external and internal composition, giving at the same time some account of the embryo included in them. The eggs of insects, like those of birds, consist in the first place of an external coat or shell, varying greatly, as to substance, in different genera. Most commonly, particularly in those which deposit their eggs in moist situations, as in dung, earth, and the like, it is a mere membrane, often thin and transparent, and showing, as in spiders, all the changes that take place in the inclosed embryo, as the formation of the head, trunk, and limbs[139]. This membrane is sometimes so delicate as to yield to the slightest pressure, and insufficient to protect the included fluids from too rapid an evaporation, if the eggs be exposed to the full action of the atmosphere. In most _Lepidoptera_, and several other tribes, this integument is considerably stronger, in those moths whose eggs are exposed throughout the winter, as _Lasiocampa Neustria_, &c., so hard as not to yield easily to the knife. Even in these, however, its substance is more analogous to horn or a stiff membrane than to the shell of the eggs of birds. Nothing calcareous enters into its composition, and it is not perceptibly acted upon by diluted sulphuric acid. The eggs of birds are lined by a fine membrane; but I have examined several of those of insects, and have been able to discover nothing of the kind in them. I will not, however, affirm that it does not exist, though the shell of the insect egg appears more analogous to the membrane that lines that of the bird than to the outside shell itself.

Within this integument is included a fluid, on the precise nature of which, except that it is an aqueous whitish fluid, few or no observations have been made, or indeed are practicable; but it is reasonable to suppose, that like the white and yolk of the bird's egg, it serves for the development of the organs of the germe of the future insect.

But few observations are recorded that relate to the embryo included in the egg. It is stated, that it is invested with an extremely fine and delicate pellicle--supposed by some analogous to the _Chorion_ and _Amnios_ of the human fœtus, though others think the shell of the egg to correspond with the _Chorion_, and the successive integuments of the larva with the _Amnios_[140]. When the egg is first laid, nothing indeed is to be seen in it but the fluid just mentioned; the first change in this fluid is the appearance of the head of the embryo, more particularly in _Coleoptera_, of two points, the rudiments of the mandibles, and of those apertures into the tracheæ which I have called spiracles[141]; the little animal we may suppose then assumes its form and limbs. The embryo is usually so folded in the egg that the head and tail meet[142], and the head, annuli, and other parts of the larva are often visible through the shell[143]. Swammerdam even saw the pulsation of the great dorsal vessel through the shell of the egg of _Oryctes nasicornis_.

Under this head I must notice another singular circumstance peculiar I believe to the eggs of insects, that sometimes, though rarely, they are covered with down or hair. Those of a singular little hemipterous insect, of a genus I believe at present undescribed, the ravages of which upon the larch have been before noticed[144], are covered by a downy web, as is the case with the animal itself. De Geer has described the eggs of a bug, not uncommon in this country (_Pentatoma juniperina_ Latr.), which are reticulated with black veins, in which very short bristles are planted[145]. I possess also a nest of brown eggs, probably of a species of the same genus, found upon furze, which appear to be covered with very short downy hairs. The top of these is flat, and surrounded by a coronet of short bristles, each surmounted by a small white ball, so as to wear the appearance of a beautiful little _Mucor_. But hairy eggs are not confined to the Hemiptera Order, for, according to Sepp, those of the figure-of-eight moth (_Bombyx cæruleocephala_) are of this description[146].

iv. _Number._ The fertility of insects far exceeds that of birds, and is surpassed only by that of fishes[147]. But the number of eggs laid by different species, sometimes even of the same natural family, is extremely various. Thus the pupiparous insects may be regarded as producing only a single egg; _Musca Meridiana_ L., a common fly, lays two[148], other flies six or eight; the flea twelve; the burying beetle (_Necrophorus Vespillo_[149]) thirty; May-flies (_Trichoptera_ K.) under a hundred; the silk-worm moth about 500; the great goat-moth(_Cossus ligniperda_) 1,000; _Acarus americanus_ more than 1,000[150]; the tiger-moth (_Callimorpha Caja_) 1,600; some Cocci 2,000, others 4,000; the female wasp at least 30,000[151]; the queen bee varies considerably in the number of eggs that she produces in one season, in some cases it may amount to 40,000 or 50,000 or more[152]; a small hemipterous insect, resembling a little moth (_Aleyrodes proletella_ Latr.) 200,000. But all these are left far behind by one of the white ants (_Termes fatale_ F. _bellicosus_ Smeath.)--the female of this insect, as was before observed[153], extruding from her enormous matrix not less than 60 eggs in a minute, which gives 3,600 in an hour, 86,400 in a day, 2,419,200 in a lunar month, and the enormous number of 211,449,600 in a year: probably she does not always continue laying at this rate; but if the sum be set as low as possible, it will exceed that produced by any other known animal in the creation.

v. _Size._ The size of the eggs is in proportion to that of the insect producing them, though in some instances small ones produce larger eggs than those laid by bigger species. Thus the eggs of many _Aptera_, as those of that singular mite _Uropoda vegetans_, and of the bird-louse found in the golden pheasant, are nearly as large, it is probable, as the parent insect; while those of the ghost-moth (_Hepialus Humuli_) and many other _Lepidoptera_, &c. are vastly smaller. This circumstance perhaps depends principally on the number they produce: the majority of them, however, are small. The largest egg known, if it be not rather an egg-case, is that of a spectre insect (_Phasma dilatatum_), figured in the Linnean Transactions[154], being five lines in length and three in width, which probably approaches near the size of that of some humming-birds. The largest egg of any British insect I ever saw was that of the common black rove-beetle (_Staphylinus olens_) sent me by Mr. Sheppard--this is a line and half long by a line in width. But we do not often meet with insect-eggs exceeding a line in length. A vast number are much smaller: those of Ephemeræ are more minute than the smallest grains of sand[155], and some almost imperceptible, as those of the subcutaneous moths, to the naked eye. Commonly the eggs laid by one female are all of the same size; but in several tribes, those containing the germe of the _female_ are larger than those that are to give birth to a _male_. This appears to be the case with those of the Rhinoceros beetle (_Oryctes nasicornis_[156]), and according to Gould with those of ants[157]. As the female in a vast number of instances is much bigger than the male, it is not improbable that this law may hold very extensively. It is stated, however, by Reaumur[158], that the reverse of this takes place in the eggs of the hive-bee, those that are to produce males being larger than the rest.

Another peculiarity connected with the present head is the augmentation in bulk which takes place, after exclusion, in the eggs of the great tribe of saw-flies (_Tenthredo_ L.), the gall-flies (_Cynips_ L.), the ants (_Formica_ L.) and the water-mites (_Hydrachna_ Maïll. _Atax_ F.). Those of the two former, which are usually deposited in the parenchymous substance of the leaves, or of the young twigs, of various plants, imbibe nutriment in some unknown manner, through their membranous skins, from the vegetable juices which surround them[159], and when they have attained their full size are nearly twice as large as when first laid. Except in the eggs of fishes, whose volume in like manner is said to augment previously to the extrusion of the young, there is nothing analogous to this singular fact in any other of the oviparous tribes of animals, the eggs of which have always attained their full size when they are laid.

It is to M. P. Huber that we are indebted for the knowledge of the fact that the eggs of _ants_ grow after being laid, a circumstance favoured probably by the moist situation in which the workers are always careful to keep them. By an accurate admeasurement he found that those nearly ready to be hatched were almost twice as big as those just laid[160]. A similar observation was made on the red eggs of a water-mite (_Hydrachna abstergens_) by Rösel, who conjectured that they draw their means of increase from the body of the water-scorpions (_Nepæ_), of which they form so singular an appendage[161], which opinion is confirmed by De Geer, who observes that when the water-scorpions are covered by an unusual number of the eggs of the water-mites, they grow weak and languid, and endeavour to rid themselves of their parasitic appendages[162]. It is most probable that the mite lately named (_Uropoda vegetans_), which is often found planted as it were upon the bodies of various beetles, by means of a long pedicle, through which, as the fœtus by an umbilical chord and placenta, it derives its nutriment from the above animals, is at first so fixed in the egg state, though before it is disengaged from the pedicle it is hatched, since it is often found with its legs displayed and quite active--this is the more probable, as the eggs of the water-mite are fixed by a pedicle to the animals to which they are attached[163]. I have met with a remarkable instance, in which pedunculated eggs seem to draw nutriment from the _mother_, which brings the pedicle still near to the nature of the umbilical chord. Those of the small hemipterous insect which infests the larch before alluded to, are attached to the anal end of the mother by a short foot-stalk not longer than the egg.

Dr. Derham seems to have observed, that the eggs of some _Diptera_, of the tribe of _Tipulidæ_, also increase in size before the larva is excluded[164]. It seems to me likely enough, that in this and many of the above cases in which the egg is supposed to grow, it is rather an extension of the flexile membrane that forms their exterior proportioned to the growth of the included embryo from food it finds within the egg, than from any absorption from without.

vi. _Shape._ We are accustomed to see the eggs of different species of oviparous animals so nearly resembling each other in form, that the very term _egg-shaped_ has been appropriated to a particular figure. Amongst those of birds, with which we are most familiar, the sole variations are shades of difference between a globular and oval or ovate figure. The eggs of insects, however, are confined by no such limited model. They differ often as much, both as to their shape, sculpture, and appendages, as one seed does from another; and it is not improbable that, if duly studied, they would furnish as good indications of generic distinctions as Gærtner has discovered in those of plants. Their most usual form indeed is globular, oval, or oblong, with various intermediate modifications. We meet with them ovate, or of the shape of the common hen's egg, flat and orbicular, elliptical, conical, cylindrical, hemispherical, lenticular, pyramidal, square, turban-shaped, pear-shaped, melon-shaped, boat-shaped, of the shape of an ale-stand, of a drum, &c.[165], and sometimes of shapes so strange and peculiar, that we can scarcely credit their claim to the name of eggs. Thus the eggs of the gnat are oblong and narrow, or nearly cylindrical, having at the top a cylindrical knob[166], so as to give them the precise form of the round-bottomed phial sometimes used by chemists: those of the common water-scorpion (_Nepa cinerea_) are oblong, and at the upper end are surrounded by a sort of coronet, consisting of seven slender rays or bristles of the length of the egg[167], so as to resemble somewhat the seeds of _Carduus benedictus_ (_Cnicus acarna_[168]) of the old botanists. One would think this spinous circlet a very awkward appendage to bodies which are to be gradually extruded through the fine membranous ovaries and oviduct which inclose them: but they are so admirably packed, the unarmed end of each egg fitting closely into the space inclosed by the spines of the one next below it, or, rather, the spines which are moveable, embracing it closely, that not only is no room lost, but the ovaries are perfectly secure from injury. The eggs of another species of this tribe (_Ranatra linearis_) have only two of these spines or bristles--they are inserted in the stem of a water-rush (_Scirpus_) or other aquatic plant, so as to be quite concealed, and are only to be detected by the two bristles which stand out from it[169]. The eggs of the beautiful lace-winged flies (_Hemerobius_), those golden-eyed insects so serviceable in destroying the plant-lice (_Aphides_[170]), are still more singular. Those of _H. Perla_ are oval, and each of them attached to a filiform pedicle not thicker than a hair, and seven or eight times as long as the egg. By this pedicle (which is supposed to be formed by a glutinous matter attached to one end, which the female draws out by abstracting her ovipositor with the egg partly in it from the leaf, to which she has previously applied it, to a proper length, when the gluten becoming sufficiently solid she wholly quits the egg,) the eggs are planted in groups of ten or twelve on the surface of leaves and twigs, from which they project like so many small fungi, to some of which they have a remarkable resemblance. When the included larva has made its way out of them by forcing open the top, they look like little vases, and were actually once figured by a Naturalist, as we learn from Reaumur, as singular parasitic flowers growing upon the leaves of the elder, for the origin of which he was extremely puzzled to account[171]. Eggs similarly furnished with a pedicle are also laid by other insects; but as most of these have been before alluded to, it is not necessary to describe them here[172]. The cause of these differences of form is for the most part concealed from us: in many instances it may perhaps be referred to that will to vary forms, and so to glorify his wisdom[173] and power, independently of other considerations, which, as Dr. Paley has well remarked[174], seems often to have guided the Great Author of Nature. But in some cases the end to be answered is sufficiently evident. The long footstalks of the eggs of the _Hemerobius_ just mentioned, there can be little doubt, are meant to place them out of the reach of the hosts of predaceous insects which roam around them, from whose jaws, thus elevated on their slender shaft, they are as safe as the eggs of the tailor bird in its twig-suspended nest from the attack of snakes. Reaumur has described the eggs of a kind of fly, common upon the excrements of the horse and other animals (_Scatophaga vulgaris_ Latr.), or one related to it, that requires to be immersed in the dung to which it is committed, on which the future grubs are to feed. He found that if not thus surrounded with moisture, they infallibly shrivelled up and came to nothing; but it is equally necessary that they should not be wholly covered: if they were, the young larva would be suffocated at its first exit from the egg. In what way is this nice point secured? In this manner. Each egg is provided at its upper end, at which the animal when hatched comes out, with two diverging horns[175]; these prevent it from being stuck into the excrement, in which the female deposits the eggs one by one, more than three-fourths of its length: and when examined they resemble not badly, as Reaumur remarks (except that their colour is white), a parcel of cloves stuck into a pudding, as they are neatly inserted at due distances in the disgusting mass[176]. The French Naturalists found these eggs in swine's dung; I have observed them in cow-dung. Latreille thinks that the bristles above described attached to the eggs of _Nepa_ and _Ranatra_ have a similar use, as the female plunges them all but these bristles into the stems of aquatic plants[177]: but may not this have something to do with their oxygenation? Reaumur has figured another egg of a dipterous insect which has a longitudinal wing or lateral margin attached to it, giving it the form of an oblong square, the object of which, he conceives, is to give a greater surface by which it may be more firmly fixed to the substance against which the fly attaches it[178].

Besides these more striking variations in figure, their surface, though often smooth, is frequently curiously and most elegantly _sculptured_, a circumstance that distinguishes the eggs of no other oviparous animals. Some, as the margined egg just mentioned, are only sculptured on one side, the other being plain; or, as those of the Tusseh silk-worm[179] (_Attacus Paphia_) and other _Bombyces_, which have orbicular depressed eggs with a central cavity above and below, have their circumference crossed with wrinkles corresponding with the rings of the inclosed embryo[180]. Others again are sculptured all over. Of these, in some, the sculpture of the two sides is not symmetrical, as in those of a fly figured by Reaumur[181]: but in general there is a correspondence in this respect between the different parts of the egg. In those elegant ones before alluded to of some bird-louse attached to the golden pheasant, the shell resembles the purest wax, and is scored with longitudinal striæ, each distinguished by a series of impressed points, which give it a beautiful appearance of net-work. In the others, as in a common butterfly (_Hipparchia Ægeria_) and moth (_Geometra cratægata_), the whole surface is covered with hexagonal reticulations[182]. Others, as those of another butterfly (_Hipparchia Hyperanthus_), are beset with minute granules or tubercles[183]. Others again, like those of the cabbage and hawthorn butterflies (_Pieris Brassicæ_ and _Cratægi_), are remarkable for beautiful longitudinal ribs, often connected by elevated lines crossing them at right angles[184]; and in some, as in another butterfly (_Hipparchia Jurtina_), crowned by imbricated scales[185]. Many other minor differences in this respect might be noticed, but these will suffice to give some idea of the infinite variety exhibited in this respect by these little atoms. If the Creator has wrought them with so much art and skill, can it be beneath his reasonable creatures to examine and admire them, that they may glorify those attributes which they serve to illustrate?

Some eggs after exclusion occasionally become slightly corrugated: Malpighi supposed that this occurs only when the eggs are barren, having observed that those of the moth of the silk-worm which preserved their plumpness always produced caterpillars, while those which lost their original rotundity and became wrinkled were constantly unprolific. Bonnet, however, found exactly the reverse take place in another moth[186], so that these appearances are scarcely to be depended upon. Kuhn asserts, that a virgin female of the puss-moth (_Cerura Vinula_) having begun to lay eggs, which were yellow above, green below, and depressed, he introduced to her an hour afterwards a male, and some minutes subsequently to the union, she again deposited eggs, which were wholly of a dark brown and convex[187].

vii. _Colour_. The colour of the eggs of insects is as various as their shape and sculpture. They are very often white, those of some spiders like minute pearls[188]; some are yellow, as those of the silk-worm; others orange, such are the eggs of the bloody-nosed beetle (_Timarcha tenebricosa_); others again of a golden hue; sometimes they are of a sanguine red. I remember once being much surprised at seeing the water at one end of a canal in my garden as red as blood: upon examining it further I found it discoloured by an infinite number of minute red eggs, belonging probably to some dipterous insect of the Tipulidan tribe. There are also eggs of every intermediate shade between red and black; some again are blue and others green. They are not always of whole colours, for some are speckled like those of many birds, of which I can show you specimens, that are also shaped like birds' eggs; these I think were laid by a common moth (_Odenesis potatoria_); others are banded with different colours--thus the blue eggs of the lappet-moth (_Gastropacha quercifolia_) are encircled by three brown zones[189]; others are brown with a white zone[190].

Many eggs assume a very different colour after being laid a few days. In general upon their first exclusion they are white. Those of the chameleon-fly (_Stratyomis Chamæleon_) which I once found in great numbers, arranged like tiles on a roof one laid partly over another, on the under side of the leaves of the water-plantain, from white become green, and then change to olive green. Those of the hemipterous enemy of the larch, more than once mentioned in this letter, are first mouse-coloured, then they assume a reddish hue, and lastly a blackish one. Those of the gnat from white in a short time assume a shade of green, in a few hours they are entirely green, and at length become gray[191]. Those of the silk-worm, which at first are of a yellow or sulphur colour, acquire a violet shade. The eggs of that rare moth _Endromis versicolor_, are at first sulphur-coloured, then green, next rose-coloured, and lastly blackish. The colour of almost all eggs changes when they are near hatching; but this change depends more frequently upon the colour of the included larva, which appears through the transparent shell of the egg, than upon any actual alteration in the egg itself.

viii. _Period of hatching._ The general rule for the hatching of the eggs of insects is the absorption by the embryo of all the superabundant moisture included in them; but the time varies according to the state of the atmosphere, to the action of which they are subjected. Like those of other animals, they require a certain degree of heat for the due evolution of the included larva. This heat in much the greater number of instances is derived from the temperature of the air, but often also from other sources. The eggs of the gad-fly tribe are hatched principally by the heat of the body of the animal to which they are committed; and doubtless the vital heat of various larvæ, small as it may be, must contribute something to the hatching of the eggs deposited in them by various Ichneumons. In the fermenting bark in which the instinct of the rhinoceros beetles (_Oryctes nasicornis_ &c.) impels them to place theirs, the dung which the _Scarabæidæ_ select for that purpose, and the decaying vegetables chosen by many other insects, a degree of artificial heat must exist: and the eggs, or rather egg-like pupæ, of the spider-fly of the swallow (_Ornithomyia Hirundinis_) are hatched by the heat of those birds which sit upon them along with their own eggs.

Fabricius says, "Insects never sit upon their eggs[192];" but certainly, as I formerly related to you[193], the female earwig does this, and one would be induced to suppose, from the circumstance of the young ones following their mother, as chickens do the hen, that _Pentatoma grisea_ (_Cimex_ Linn.), formerly mentioned, may do the same[194].

With these exceptions, the eggs of all insects are hatched by atmospheric heat alone, the variations in which determine the more speedy or more tardy disclosure of the included insect. The eggs of such species as have several broods in the year, as the nettle butterfly (_Vanessa Urticæ_) when laid in summer are hatched in a few days; but if not laid till the close of autumn, they remain dormant through the winter, and are only hatched at the return of spring. That this difference is to be attributed to the influence of heat has been often proved by experiment: the autumnal eggs if brought into a warm room may be hatched as soon as those laid in the height of summer. Silk-worms' eggs naturally are not hatched till they have been laid six weeks, but in countries where they are reared, the women effect their exclusion in a much shorter period by carrying them in their bosoms: yet to retard their hatching with particular views is in many circumstances impossible. When the heat of the atmosphere has reached a certain point, the hatching cannot be retarded by cellars; and M. Faujas has remarked, that in June the silk-worm's eggs would hatch in an ice-house[195].

The period of exclusion does not, however, depend solely upon temperature: the hardness or softness of the shell, and possibly differences in the consistence of the included fluid, intended to serve this very purpose, cause some eggs to be hatched much sooner than others exposed to the same degree of heat. Thus the eggs of many flesh-flies are hatched in twenty-four hours[196]; those of bees and some other insects in three days; those of a common lady-bird (_Coccinella bipunctata_) in five or six days; those of spiders in about three weeks; those of the mole-cricket in a month; while those of many _Lepidoptera_ and _Coleoptera_ require a longer period for exclusion. The hard eggs of _Lasiocampa Neustria_ and _castrensis_, noticed above, remain full nine months before being hatched[197], as do those of another moth (_Hypogymna dispar_), which, though laid in the beginning of the warm month of August, do not send forth the included caterpillar till the April following[198]. We know no more of the cause of this difference than of that which takes place in the period of exclusion of the eggs of the different species of birds.

Some eggs change considerably both their form and consistence previously to being hatched. M. P. Huber found that those of different species of ants when newly laid are cylindrical, opaque, and of a milky white; but just before hatching their extremities are arched, and they become transparent with only a single opaque whitish point, cloud, or zone, in their interior[199]. An analogous change takes place in the eggs of many spiders, which just before hatching exhibit a change of form corresponding with that which the included spider receives when its parts begin to be developed, the thin and flexible skin of the egg moulding itself to the body it incloses[200].

In proportion as the germe included in the egg is expanded, it becomes visible through the shell when transparent: this is particularly the case with spiders, in which, as was before observed, every part is very distinctly seen. At length, when all the parts are consolidated so as to be capable of motion, which in spiders takes place in four or five days after they begin to be visible in the egg, the animal breaks the pellicle by the swelling of its body and the movement of its legs, and then quits it, and disengages all its parts one after the other[201]. In general, at least where the shell is harder than that of spiders, insects make their way out by gnawing an opening with their mandibles in the part nearest their head, which, when the shell is very strong (as in _Lasiocampa Neustria_, &c.), it is often several hours in accomplishing[202]. In many instances, however, the larva is spared this trouble, one end of the egg being furnished with a little lid or trap-door, which it has but to force up, and it can then emerge at pleasure: such lids are to be found in the eggs of several butterflies and moths, as _Satyrus Mæra_, _Saturnia pavonia major_, &c. and the common louse[203]. In those exquisitely elegant eggs, before described, of some kind of bird-louse (_Nirmus_) found adhering to the base of the neck feathers of the golden pheasant[204], there is a lid or cap of this kind of a hemispherical form terminating in a tortuous style. Those of a species of bug (_Pentatoma_ Latr.), found by our friend the Rev. R. Sheppard, besides a convex lid are furnished with a very curious machine, as it should seem, for throwing it off. This machine is dark-brown, of a corneous substance, and of the shape of a cross-bow[205], the bow part being attached to the lid or pushing against it, and the handle, by means of a membrane, to the upper end of the side of the egg.

When the included animal has made its way out of the egg, it enters upon a new state of existence, that of _Larva_, to which I shall direct your attention in the following letter.

FOOTNOTES:

[61] The word μεταμορφοω, and its derivative μεταμορφωσις, are not extant in any Greek writer before the date of the New Testament. They are used to express any _external_ change of form or colour, and metaphorically an _inward_ change and progressive improvement of the mind. Comp. Matth. xvii. 2. Ælian. _Var. Hist._ l. i. c. 1. Rom. xiii. 2. 2 Cor. iii. 18. They are, therefore, not improperly applied, as some have supposed, to the changes of insects.

[62] _Entwickelungsgeschichte der Schmetterlinge_ 12-27. 105--.

[63] Dr. Virey's observations under the article _Embryo_ (_N. Dict. d'Hist. Nat._ x. 195.) deserve here to be considered. "Il y a donc quelque chose au dessus de l'intelligence humaine dans cette formation des êtres; en vain on veut l'approfondir, c'est un abime dans lequel on ne voit que la main de Dieu. A quoi bon s'appesantir sur le mystère de la formation des êtres, sans esperance de l'expliquer? Ne vaut-il pas mieux observer les opérations de la nature autant qu'il est permis à l'œil humain de les appercevoir?"

[64] § xiv.

[65] _N. Dict. d'Hist. Nat._ x. 193.

[66] _Œuv._ v. 279. "Il n'est pas exact de dire que le cœur, la tête, et la moelle épinière, sont formés les premiers dans les fœtus des animaux à sang rouge et vertébrés," says Dr. Virey; "mais il faut dire seulement que tel est l'ordre dans lequel ces organes commencent à devenir visibles." _N. Dict. d'Hist. Nat._ x. 196.

[67] _Ibid._ 193.

[68] _Œuvr._ viii. 315.

[69] _Hor. Entomolog._ 446.

[70] See on this subject _N. Dict. d'Hist. Nat._ xx. article _Metamorphosis_.

[71] _N. Dict. d'Hist. Nat._ xx. 349--.

[72] _N. Dict. d'Hist. Nat._ xx. 348.

[73] _Bibl. Nat._ Ed. Hill. ii. 138.

[74] _Œuvr._ v. 283--.

[75] _N. Dict. d'Hist. Nat._ xx. 355.

[76] Leeuwenhoek discovered in the incipient fœtus of a sheep, not larger than the eighth part of a pea, all the principal parts of the future animal. _Arc. Nat._ I. ii. 165, 173.

[77] Bonnet, _Œuvr._ v. 284.

[78] _N. Dict. d'Hist. Nat._ xx. 352.

[79] Select Works by Hoole, i. 132. The fact is confirmed by M. L. Dufour, who, having opened the abdomen of a female scorpion, found in the midst of some eggs nearly mature a little scorpion a quarter of an inch long; it lay without motion, with its tail folded under the body. _N. Dict. d'Hist. Nat._ xxx. 426.

[80] Reaum. iv. 425--.

[81] _Ibid._ 428--. _t._ xxix. _f._ 10, 11.

[82] Busch, a German author, affirms that many _Cimicidæ_ are subject to this law. _Schneid._ i. 206.

[83] Quoted in Huber _Fourmis_, 208. Some reptiles also are at one time oviparous, and at another ovo-viviparous. _N. Dict. d'Hist. Nat._ xii. 568.

[84] I say _almost_ all insects, because the larvæ of _Hymenoptera_ and _Diptera_ are supposed not to undergo this change. _N. Dict. d'Hist. Nat._ xx. 365.

[85] Reaum. vi. _Mém._ xiv. De Geer, vi. 280.

[86] See VOL. I. Lett. xi.

[87] See VOL. II. p. 36.

[88] De Geer i. 494--.

[89] Called by M. l'Abbé Preaux, who observed it near Lisieux in Normandy, _Mouche Baliste._ _N. Dict. d'Hist. Nat._ xxi. 442.

[90] PLATE XX. FIG. 20.

[91] Reaum. vi. 509. _t._ XLV. _f._ 11, 12.

[92] Reaum. vi. 434.

[93] _Ibid._ vi. 494.

[94] The vesicles, which Reaumur thinks may be pulmonary vesicles, as well as assisting in the extrusion of the masses of eggs, he has figured _t._ xliv. _f._ 10. _u u._

[95] De Geer ii. 534. _t._ xiii. _f._ 13.

[96] Coquebert _Illustr. Ic. t._ i. _f._ A. B.

[97] PLATE XX. FIG. 25.

[98] _Ent. Carniol._ 269. _n._ 705.

[99] Reaum. ii. 401.

[100] In Raii _Hist. Ins._ 264.

[101] PLATE XX. FIG. 24.

[102] Goeze _Naturf._ xvii. 183--. _t._ iv. _f._ 16-19. Comp. _N. Dict. d' Hist. Nat._ iii. 475. and xix. 239. De Geer iii. 533.

[103] _Second Journey through Persia_, 100--.

[104] See VOL. II. p. 36.

[105] VOL. I. p. 359--.

[106] Latr. _Hist. Nat. des Fourmis_, 334. _N. Dict. d'Hist. Nat._ ii. 284.

[107] Lister _De Aran._ Tit. 13, 14. _N. Dict. d'Hist. Nat._ ii. 284.

[108] Lister _Ibid._ 56. Tit. 15.

[109] _N. Dict. d'Hist. Nat._ xxvi. 447.

[110] _Ins. Surinam, t._ i.

[111] A striking instance of this may be seen in her forty-ninth plate, in which she has clapped the rostrated head of _Fulgora laternaria_ upon the body of a _Cicada_ Latr., affirming it to be the former fly in its previous state! This might be a trick upon her.

[112] _N. Dict. d'Hist. Nat._ xv. 489.

[113] _Lesser_ L. i. 300.

[114] _Annales du Muséum_, xiv. 441.

[115] _Lesser_ L. i. _t._ ii. _f._ xvi.

[116] Miger _Ann. du Mus._ ubi supr. Comp. _N. Dict. d'Hist. Nat._ xv. 482--.

[117] De Geer i. 192.

[118] Ibid. ii. 982.

[119] Reaum. ii. 97. 159.

[120] Ibid. 107--. _t._ iii. _f._ 15.

[121] De Geer iii. 48. 51.

[122] Reaum. v. 122.

[123] See above, VOL. I. p. 196. 202.

[124] _Journ. de Phys. Philos. Mag._ ix. 244.

[125] Reaum. iv. _Mem._ i.

[126] Rösel, ix. 157. _t._ 265?

[127] Ibid. iii. 197.

[128] See above, VOL. I. p. 195.

[129] PLATE XX. FIG. 14.

[130] Reaum. i. 95-- _f._ 1-13.

[131] Reaum. iv. 615--. _t._ xliv. _f._ 2-7.

[132] _N. Dict. d'Hist. Nat._ xv. 445. Rös. iii. 156.

[133] _Epist._ 1687.

[134] VOL. I. p. 448--.

[135] See above, VOL. I. p. 344--.

[136] Reaum. iii. 8--.

[137] VOL. I. 349--. 371--.

[138] _N. Dict. d'Hist. Nat._ xxviii. 271.

[139] De Geer vii. 194.

[140] Compare _N. Dict. d'Hist. Nat._ xvi. 246. with xx. 352-; but as the _Amnios_ immediately envelops the fœtus, the pellicle seems most analogous to it, and the shell to the _Chorion_.

[141] Swamm. _Bibl. Nat._ ed. Hill. l. 133. a. Comp. _N. Dict. d'Hist. Nat._ xvi. 246.

[142] Swamm. _Ibid._

[143] Sepp. iv. _t._ iii. _f._ i. _c._ v. _t._ iv. _f._ 2.

[144] See above, VOL. I. p. 208: it is there called an _Aphis_, but it is a distinct genus.

[145] De Geer iii. 245. _t._ xiii. _f._ 20-22.

[146] Sepp. iv. _t._ xiii. _f._ 2. 3.

[147] The sturgeon is said to lay 1,500,000 eggs, and the cod-fish 9,000,000.

[148] Reaum. iv. 392.

[149] See above, VOL. I. p. 350.

[150] De Geer vii. 159.

[151] See above, VOL. II. p. 109.

[152] Ibid. 159. 166.

[153] Ibid. 36--.

[154] iv. _t._ xviii. _f._ 4. 5.

[155] De Geer ii. 638.

[156] _Bibl. Nat._ i. 132. b.

[157] Gould 36.

[158] Reaum. v. 477.

[159] Ibid. iii. 579. v. 121.

[160] _Fourmis_, 69--.

[161] Rösel iii. 152.

[162] De Geer vii. 145.

[163] Ibid. 123--. See above, VOL. I. p. 393.

[164] Raii _Hist. Ins._ 265.

[165] Eggs of various shapes are given PLATE XX. FIG. 3-23. See also Brunnich. _Entomologia_ 4. _N. Dict. d'Hist. Nat._ xvi. 245. Reaum. ii. _t._ iii. iv. xiv. xxvi. xxvii. &c.

[166] PLATE XX. FIG. 18.

[167] PLATE XX. FIG. 23. Swamm. _Bibl. Nat. t._ iii. _f._ 7, 8. In a specimen I opened of this insect the bristles converged so as to form a kind of tail to the egg.

[168] Darwin _Phytolog._ 512.

[169] Geoffr. _Ins. Par._ i. 480. _t._ x. _f._ 1. _b. c._

[170] See above, VOL. I. p. 261.

[171] Reaum. iii. 386--. _t._ xxxii. _f._ 1. _t._ xxxiii. _f._ 5.

[172] I allude to _Ophion luteum_ F. (_Ichneumon_ L.) Vol. i. Ed. 3. p. 269, figured PLATE XX. FIG. 22; and the _Hydrachnæ_ or _Trombidia_. See above, and De Geer vii. 145.

[173] From this circumstance called πολυποικιλος σοφια by the Apostle, _Ephes._ iii. 10.

[174] _Nat. Theol._ 11th Ed. 375.

[175] PLATE XX. FIG. 19. _a a._

[176] Reaum. iv. 376--. _t._ xxvii. _f._ 9, 10.

[177] _Hist. Nat. gen. et partic. des Crust. et Ins._ xii. 282.

[178] Reaum. iv. 381. _t._ xxvi. _f._ 19, 20.

[179] Roxburgh in _Linn. Trans._ vii. 34.

[180] Some of the _Noctuæ_ have similar eggs, as _N. Lappa._ Sepp iv. _t._ iii. _f._ 1. _c._

[181] Reaum. _ubi supr. f._ 22, 23.

[182] PLATE XX. FIG. 6. 8.

[183] PLATE XX. FIG. 5.

[184] Ibid. FIG. 3. 4. 7. 9. &c.

[185] Ibid. FIG. 15.

[186] Bonnet _Œuvr._ ii. 9.

[187] _Naturf._ xiii. 229.

[188] _N. Dict. d'Hist. Nat._ xvi. 245.

[189] Reaum. ii. 286.

[190] PLATE XX. FIG. 11. Sepp _t._ iv. _f._ 2.

[191] Reaum. iv. 617.

[192] _Philos. Ent._ 76.

[193] See above, VOL. I. 358--.

[194] See above, VOL. I. Ibid.

[195] Young's _France_, ii. 34. This author asserts, that no art will hatch the eggs of the common silk-worms the first year, or that in which they are laid; but that there is a sort brought from Persia, which are hatched three times a year, and which will hatch in fifteen days in the proper heat. In 1765, it is said, the common sort hatched in the first year. _Ibid._ 226--.

[196] In the _N. Dict. d'Hist. Nat._ xii. 564. the eggs of the flesh-fly are said to hatch in two hours. This is true I believe in very warm weather.

[197] Brahm. 310.

[198] Rimrod _Naturf._ xvi. 131.

[199] _Fourmis._ 69.

[200] De Geer vii. 195.

[201] Ibid. 196.

[202] Reaum. ii. 167.

[203] Brahm. 249. Rösel. iv. 130. Swamm. _Bibl. Nat. t._ i. _f._ 2.

[204] By Mr. White, jun. cordwainer at Ipswich.

[205] PLATE XX. FIG. 16. _a._