c. 400 Marriages of nuns still valid 104

450-458 Conflicting legislation 105

Strictness of the Eastern church—Political necessity of controlling monachism 106

390-456 Monks confined to their convents 108

532-545 Justinian renders monastic vows irrevocable 108

Disorders of Western monachism 109

528 St. Benedict of Nursia—vows not irrevocable under his rule 111

590-604 Gregory I. enforces the inviolability of vows 113

Continued irregularities of monachism 115

VIII.—THE BARBARIANS.

The Church and the Barbarians 117

The Merovingian bishops 118

The Spanish Arians 120

589-711 Neglect of discipline in Spain 121

557-580 State of discipline in Italy 122

Dilapidation of ecclesiastical property 123

590-604 Reforms of Gregory the Great 123

IX.—THE CARLOVINGIANS.

Demoralization of the VII. and VIII. centuries 126

Reorganizing efforts of the Carlovingians 128

742-755 Labors of St. Boniface 131

Resistance of the married clergy 132

755 Pepin-le-Bref undertakes the reform 134

Sacerdotal celibacy reëstablished 135

Reforms of Charlemagne and Louis-le-Débonnaire—Their inefficiency 135

840-912 Increasing demoralization under the later Carlovingians 139

874 Legal procedures prescribed by Hincmar 140

893 Sacerdotal marriage resumed 142

X.—THE TENTH CENTURY.

Barbarism of the tenth century—Debasement of the papacy 144

Tendency to hereditary benefices—Dilapidation of church property 145

938 Leo VII. vainly prohibits sacerdotal marriage 148

952 It is defended by St. Ulric of Augsburg 153

925-967 Unsuccessfully resisted by Ratherius of Verona and Atto of Vercelli 150

Opposing influences among prelates 152

Relaxation of the canons 154

942-1054 Three Archbishops of Rouen 155

Indifference of Silvester II. 157

Celibacy practically obsolete 158

XI.—SAXON ENGLAND.

Corruption of the ancient British church 159

Asceticism of the Irish and Scottish churches 160

597 Celibacy introduced among the Saxons by St. Augustin 161

Disorders in the Saxon nunneries 163

747, 787 Councils of Clovesho and Chelsea 164

Neglect of discipline in the ninth and tenth centuries 165

964 St. Dunstan undertakes a reformation 166

964-974 Energy of Edgar the Pacific 168

975 Reaction after the death of Edgar 170

1006 Failure of Dunstan’s reforms 171

1009 Council of Enham—Sacerdotal polygamy 172

1032 Legislation of Cnut 173

Sacerdotal marriage established 175

XII.—PETER DAMIANI.

1022 Council of Pavia—Efforts to restore discipline 178

1031 Council of Bourges 179

Clerical marriage and profligacy 180

Revival of asceticism—San Giovanni Gualberto 183

1046 Henry III. undertakes the reformation of the church—Clement II. 184

St. Peter Damiani 185

1049 Leo IX. 187

Damiani’s Liber Gomorrhianus 188

Reformatory efforts of Leo—Councils of Rheims and Mainz 188

1051-1053 Attempts to reform the Italian clergy 189

Failure of the Reformation 190

1058 The Papacy independent—Damiani and Hildebrand 192

1059 Appeal to the laity for assistance 194

1059 Council of Melfi—Deposition of Bishop of Trani 197

1060 Damiani endeavors to reform the prelates 198

The persecuted clergy organize resistance 199

1061 Schismatic election of Cadalus 200

He is supported by the married clergy 201

1063 Renewed efforts of Alexander II. and Damiani 202

Their failure 204

XIII.—MILAN.

Milan the centre of Manichæism 207

1045 Election of an archbishop—four disappointed competitors 209

Marriage universal among Milanese clergy 210

Landolfo and Arialdo excite the people 211

1056 Popular tumults—Plunder of the clergy 212

1058 The Synod of Fontaneto defends the married priests 212

A furious civil war results 213

1059 Damiani obtains the submission of the clergy 213

1061 Milan embraces the party of Cadalus 215

Death of Landolfo—Erlembaldo takes his place 215

1062 His success 216

1066 Excommunication of Archbishop Guido—Martyrdom of Arialdo 216

1067 Compromise and temporary truce 217

1069 Guido forced to resign—War between Gotefrido and Azzo for the succession 218

1075 Death of Erlembaldo—Tedaldo archbishop in spite of Gregory VII. 219

Influence of celibacy on the struggle 220

1093-1095 Triumph of sacerdotalism 221

Similar trouble throughout Tuscany 222

XIV.—HILDEBRAND.

1073 Election of Gregory VII.—His character 223

Necessity of celibacy to his scheme of theocratic supremacy 225

1074 Synod of Rome—Repetition of previous canons 227

Attempts to enforce them throughout Europe—Resistance of the clergy 228

Three bishops—Otho of Constance—Altmann of Passau—Siegfrid of Mainz 229

1074 Gregory appeals to the laity 232

Resultant persecution of the clergy 234

1077 Violent resistance of the married clergy 236

Political complications 237

1085 Papalists and Imperialists both condemn sacerdotal marriage 239

XV.—CENTRAL EUROPE.

Depression of the Catholic party—Sacerdotal marriage connived at 241

1089 Urban II. renews the persecution 242

1094 Contumacy of the German priesthood 243

1105 Deposition of Henry IV.—Germany restored to Catholic unity 244

1118-1175 Sacerdotal marriage nevertheless common 245

1092-1257 First introduction of celibacy in Hungary 248

1197-1279 Introduction of celibacy in Poland 251

1213-1248 Disregard of the canons in Sweden 252

1117-1266 Their enforcement in Denmark 253

1219-1271 Their neglect in Friesland 254

XVI.—FRANCE.

1056-1064 Efforts to introduce sacerdotal celibacy 255

1074-1078 Contumacy of the clergy 256

1080 William the Conqueror intervenes—First allusion to licenses to sin 257

Successful resistance of the Norman and Breton clergy 258

1076-1094 Troubles in Flanders 259

Confusion caused by the attempted reform 262

1095 Council of Clermont—Its canons disregarded 263

Condition of the monastic establishments 264

Hereditary transmission of benefices 265

Miracles invoked in aid of the reform 266

1119 Calixtus II. commences a new reform 267

Resistance of the Norman priesthood 268

Abelard and Heloise—Standard of morals erected by the church 269

1212 Continuance of clerical marriage 270

XVII.—NORMAN ENGLAND.

1066 Canons not enforced by William I. 271

1076 First effort made by the Council of Winchester 272

1102 St. Anselm undertakes the reform—Council of London 273

Resistance of the priests—Failure of the movement 275

1104 Henry I. uses the reform as a financial expedient 276

1108 He enforces outward obedience 277

1126 Stubborn contumacy of the priesthood 279

1129 Henry again speculates on clerical immorality 280

1138-1171 Disorders of the English church 281

Consorts of priests no longer termed wives 283

1208 King John discovers their financial value 283

Venality of the ecclesiastical officials 284

“Focariæ” still universal 285

1215 Indignation of the clergy at the reforms of Innocent III. 286

1237 Cardinal Otto and the Council of London 288

Popular poems concerning the reform 289

1250-1268 Gradual extinction of clerical marriage in England 290

Robert Grosseteste, Bishop of Lincoln 292

Fruitless legislation against concubinage 293

12th-15th C. Sacerdotal marriage in Wales 293

XVIII.—IRELAND AND SCOTLAND.

Degradation of the Irish church prior to the twelfth century 295

1130-1149 Reforms of St. Malachi—Influence of Rome 296

Monastic character of the reformed church 297

1186-1320 Condition of the church in the English Pale 298

Degeneration of the Scottish Culdees 299

1124-1153 David I. reforms the church and reestablishes celibacy 300

1225-1268 Immorality of the Scottish clergy 301

XIX.—SPAIN.

11th Cent. Independent barbarism of the Spanish church—Marriage universal 302

1068-1080 Encroachments of Rome—sacerdotal marriage condemned 303

1101-1129 Reforms of Diego Gelmirez—Marriage not interfered with 305

1260 Legislation of Alfonso the Wise—Concubinage universal 308

1323 Concubinage organized as a safeguard by the laity 310

Corruption throughout the middle ages 311

XX.—GENERAL LEGISLATION.

1123 Marriage now first dissolved by Holy Orders 313

1130 The innovation not as yet enforced 314

1139 Sacerdotal marriage formally declared void by the Second Council of Lateran 315

1148 Confirmed by the Council of Rheims—Denied by Gratian 316

1150 The new doctrine receives no obedience 318

1158-1181 Alexander III. insists upon it 319

But excepts immoral ecclesiastics 320

Conflict of rules and exceptions 322

1206-1255 Case of Bossaert d’Avesnes 323

Alexander III. proposes to restore clerical marriage 325

1187-1198 Efforts of the popes to enforce the canons 326

1215 Fourth Council of Lateran—Triumph of Sacerdotalism 327

XXI.—RESULTS.

Recognition of the obligation of celibacy 330

Increase of immorality 331

13th-15th C. Fruitless attempts to restrain corruption 333

1231 Recognition of children of ecclesiastics 335

1225-1416 Efforts to restrict hereditary transmission 338

1317 Recognition of concubinage 339

Successful resistance to reform 340

12th-15th C. Morals of the papal court 341

Influence on society of sacerdotal celibacy 346

Influence of monachism 357

XXII.—THE MILITARY ORDERS.

1120 Knights of St. John vowed to celibacy 362

1128 Knights of the Temple vowed to celibacy 362

1175 Knights of St. James of the Sword allowed to marry 363

1441 Marriage permitted to the Order of Calatrava 364

1496 And to the Orders of Avis and Jesus Christ 365

1167 Order of St. Michael allowed to marry once 365

Reforms attempted in the Order of St. John 366

The Teutonic Knights 366

XXIII.—THE HERESIES.

Asceticism of mediæval Manichæism 367

Difficulty of combating it 369

1146 Antisacerdotalism—The Petrobrusians and Henricians 370

1148 Éon de l’Étoile 371