CHAPTER X

THE LAST OUTLOOK ON LIFE

The view of life that man has on leaving it is the final test of his philosophy of life. These are my thoughts: It is time to detach thyself from this earth. The shadows are lengthening. Look around you and note the strange changes that have taken place in the men and women of your acquaintance. Those that you once knew in their prime are now old and wrinkled,—and how many already dead! As you survey the procession of life, how many vacant places are there in it! How many true and loyal comrades have been swept away! Or go into the busy streets of the city, and look at the multitude passing through them. You are still one of this multitude. Presently you will drop out. There will perhaps be a little ripple on the surface, and then the stream will flow on as before. How curious is it to think that this frame of life which sustains such high faculties should crumble into a little heap of dust at the touch of the wand of death! Detach thyself, therefore, relax thy hold by anticipation as thou shalt soon relax it actually. But detachment does not mean cold inattention or unnatural shrinking from the earthly scene, like that of the monk in his cell. Relax thy hold on what is earthly in the earthly scene, and fix thy loving attention all the more on what is _spiritually significant_ in it. Regard with a friendly eye the beauty of the natural landscape around thee—yonder lake and yonder noble mountain summit. They are earthly, yet are they also hieroglyphs and symbols.

Still more is this true of thy social relations. Detach thyself means relax thy hold on what is transient in those relations. Cling all the more firmly to what is spiritual in them. The earth is thy foundation, thou art Antæus as long as thou remainest in contact with the earth. Until the very last thou must lean for strength upon the earthly bases and substrata.

Consider the drive of the human race through the time and space world, and its net result. Thou standest now on a high tower. Lean over the parapet and peer as far out into the future as thou canst. Thou standest as did Moses on Mount Pisgah. Strain thy eyes to catch sight of the Promised Land. But remember that the Promised Land turned out to be a land still of promise, not of fulfilment,—a land in which the prophetic soul of Israel matured its visions of a fulfilment never on earth to be attained.

Remember that as thou art linked to thy ancestry, so art thou linked to posterity. The future centuries of the human race are like the future years of an individual. Thou art keenly interested in what may happen hereafter to the race with which thou art interlinked. But the race, like the individual, will be cut off and become extinct before ever the ideal is reached. Remember, therefore, that the purpose for which humanity exists is achieved at every moment in everyone who appropriates the fruits of partial success and frustration. Whosoever standing on the earth as a foundation builds up for himself the spiritual universe attains the purpose of human existence. There is indeed progress in the explicitness with which the spiritual ideal is conceived, and we are immeasurably interested in the greater light to be attained by our posterity. But the essential fruition of the contact of the infinite that is in us with the finite world is achievable at every moment in every human being. And this gives an entirely new meaning to the spiritual gains achieved in solitude, which seem vain because there are no witnesses. But neither will there be witnesses when the last human beings perish on earth. The spiritual bravery of the shipwrecked man who sinks on the lonely ocean springs from the conviction that though the sea can overwhelm him there is that in him greater than ocean’s immensity; a conviction achieved through the experience of living in the life of others. The same is the gain achieved by the sick man who lies in solitude like a helpless log in the darkened room. The altruistic philosophy fails in accounting for the moral grandeur that attaches to the spiritual victories gained in silence and solitude.

Face the terrors of life before you leave life. Be resolute to the last not to cherish illusions. Face the terrors of life, the absence of observable design, the cruelties, the ferocities. Think of William Blake’s poem “The Tiger”: “Did he who made the lamb make thee?” In your philosophy there is no question any longer of a Creator. Creation is an attempt to explain the coexistence of the imperfect with the perfect, to account for a lower stage in terms of a higher. The ultimate inability of man to understand, to explain, is one of the principal frustrations he meets with, is the crucifixion of man at the point of his intellect.

The radical incompetence of man to grasp with his intellect the world as a “universe,” is to be faced by him and accepted without qualification. It marks off this philosophy of life from those philosophies and theologies which have attempted to explain the universe, and which, while affecting humility, are the dupes of an unwarranted self-confidence. Unqualified admission of the incompetence of the human intellect to resolve the world riddle is the determining factor in the more profound humility which characterizes the religion of ethical experience. Agnosticism on the intellectual side is the very condition of the transcending ethical conviction subsequently attained. Without intellectual agnosticism there is no ethical certainty.

Consider now frustration and its supreme outcome, or the various points at which man is crucified. I have mentioned the intellectual crucifixion, due to the incompetence of the mind to understand. I must now speak of still more poignant experiences due to the incompetence of man adequately to fulfill the moral law, or to carry out the spiritual relation in finite terms.

I have reached the bourne, or am very near it. The shadows lengthen, the twilight deepens. I look back on my life and its net results. I have seen spiritual ideals, and the more clearly I saw them, the wider appeared the distance between them and the empirical conditions, and the changes I could effect in those conditions. I have worked in social reform, and the impression I have been able to make now seems to me so utterly insignificant as to make my early sanguine aspirations appear pathetic. I have seen the vision of democracy in the air, and on the ground around me I have seen the sordid travesty of democracy—not only in practice but in idea. I have caught the far outlook upon the organization of mankind, the extension of the spiritual empire over the earth by the addition to it of new provinces, and I do not find even the faintest beginnings, or recognition of the task which the advanced nations should set themselves. I scrutinize closely my relations to those who have been closest to me,—and I find that I have been groping in the dark with respect to their most real needs, and that my faculty of divination has been feeble. I look lastly into my heart, my own character, and the effort I have made to fuse the discordant elements there, to achieve a genuine integrity there, and I find the disappointment in that respect the deepest of all.

These are the various points of my life at which I have undergone the crucifixion. I am like Arnold Winkelried, who gathered the sheaf of spears into his breast, and even pressed them inward, to make a way for liberty. So do I press the sharp-pointed spears of frustration into my breast to make way for spiritual liberty. For these cruel spears turn into shafts of light, radiating outward along which my spirit travels, building its final nest—the spiritual universe.

Consider the new and profounder humility. In ethical experience is revealed the plan of the spiritual relations, but the entities or substances which are thus related are incognizable, unknowable. Did I know them I should be able to solve the riddle of the universe. I should know how it is that the finite exists side by side with the infinite. But I cannot know. I cannot enter into the counsels of the multiform godhead. There are the mighty powers that weave and interweave behind the veil, but the veil between them and myself is down, not to be lifted. Within the palace of light is the solemn and serene assembly of the gods: I, man, stand at the gate.

The world as we know it is itself the veil, the screen, that shuts out the interplay, the weavings and the interweavings of the spiritual universe. But at least at one point, in the ethical experience of man, is the screen translucent. The plan of the spiritual relation is there traced in outline. It is this plan that conveys the certainty as to what verily exists beyond, within, beneath.

As to my empirical self, I let go my hold on it. I see it perish with the same indifference which the materialist asserts, for whom man is but a compound of physical matter and physical force. It is the real self, of which the empirical was the substratum, upon which I tighten my hold. I do not assert immortality, since immortality, like creation, is a bridge between the phenomenal and the spiritual levels. Creation is the bridge at the beginning; immortality the bridge at the end. Were I able to build the bridge, I should know. I do not affirm immortality. I affirm the real and irreducible existence of the essential self. Or rather, as my last act, I affirm that the ideal of perfection which my mind inevitably conceives has its counterpart in the ultimate reality of things, is the truest reading of that reality whereof man is capable. I turn away from the thought of the self, even the essential self, as if that could be my chief concern, toward the vaster infinite whole in which the self is integrally preserved. I affirm that there verily is an eternal divine life, a best beyond the best I can think or imagine, in which all that is best in me, and best in those who are dear to me, is contained and continued. In this sense _I bless the universe. And to be able to bless the universe in one’s last moments is the supreme prize which man can wrest from life’s struggles, life’s experience._

I look back upon my life once more, and am grateful for the eternal worth which it was permitted me in this frail vessel of my mortal existence to hold, for the shimmer of the spiritual reality of things which I was permitted to see; grateful especially to those who loved me, and whom I was permitted to love, and who were to me in some measure revealers of the eternal life.

Consider lastly the peace that passeth understanding. Now, if ever, this peace should descend upon me. There is a kind of peace that is accessible to the understanding, and there is the peace that passeth understanding. The peace that can be understood is that which consists in the relief of pain. It arises in various ways. After an acute attack of physical pain how like balm is felt the succeeding absence of pain. After a prolonged sickness, when the convalescent takes his first walk, what a sweet tranquillity fills his mind! There is also the mental relief that comes when some danger has been safely passed; the peace of the sheltered fireside to one who has passed through a storm. Again, there is the peace that follows pecuniary anxiety, or the removal of some carking care, as when an erring son is reclaimed, or an estranged wife or husband is found anew.

But the peace that passeth understanding is that which comes when the pain is _not_ relieved, which subsists in the midst of the painful situation, suffusing it, which springs out of the pain itself, which shimmers on the crest of the wave of pain, which is the spear of frustration transfigured into the shaft of light.

It is upon those we love that we must anchor ourselves spiritually in the last moments. The sense of interconnectedness with them stands out vividly by way of contrast at the very moment when our mortal connection with them is about to be dissolved. And the intertwining of our life with theirs, the living in the life that is in them, is but a part of our living in the infinite manifold of the spiritual life. The thought of this, as apprehended, not in terms of knowledge, but in _immediate experience_, begets the peace that passeth understanding. And it is upon the bosom of that peace that we can pass safely out of the realm of time and space.

APPENDIX

APPENDIX I

SPIRITUAL SELF-DISCIPLINE

The preceding volume in its entirety and in every part is nothing else than a book of spiritual self-discipline. Every religion presents to its followers as real objects that the eye has not seen. The certainty of the existence of these objects, religious certainty, religious conviction, springs from one or other kind of need and distress. The object that the eye has not seen is believed in because it corresponds to that need, and relieves that distress. Furthermore, the conviction is strengthened, the certainty intensified, by two methods: (1) elaboration of the ideas presented; (2) performing acts in the doing of which the existence of the objects is presupposed. Thus the idea of the Heavenly Father corresponds to the childlike need of protection. The elaboration of this idea in theological systems strengthens its hold, every idea being powerful as an active force in proportion as it is worked out in detail and linked up with other ideas. And ceremonies, prayers, acts of worship in the doing of which the reality of the Father-God is presupposed, strengthen the belief in him. Conduct is one of the chief sources of belief. The more frequently a devout Roman Catholic prays to the Virgin Mary, the more firmly will he be convinced that she exists and hears him. These features are common to all religion: unseen objects are presented as real; the belief in their reality is augmented by elaboration of the ideas; and above all their hold is reinforced by practice founded on and presuming the reality of the ideas.

The unseen object which the religion of spiritual experience presents is the unique personality. The lines along which the ideas are to be elaborated have been sketched in the above. Conduct based on the presumption that the divine nature exists in every human being is the principal means of fortifying that conviction, and this presumption itself rests on the fundamental fact of worth.

The difference in rank between the various religions depends on the kind of need which they seek to satisfy. It may be physical, as when the worshiper prays for large herds and fruitful crops. It may be the urging of a passion, as when a man prays for revenge on his enemies. And it may be ethical. And if ethical, it may be purely ethical, or ethical with non-ethical elements admixed. A religion is neither approved nor condemned because it satisfies a need. The judgment passed on it depends on the kind of need it undertakes to satisfy.

Seek to raise the plus traits to the Nth degree. Seek through spiritual sex interaction to release the spiritual life in the child. Bring to birth in thyself the idea of the state, etc. Every chapter of this volume contains some direction as to the lines of conduct to be followed. The principal self-discipline consists in the effort to follow these lines.

But experience tells us that the effort may be hindered or helped in certain ways. I shall mention a few of the helps and hindrances:

Physical and Mental _Athleticism_ are helps to Moral Athleticism. Ethics is a science of energetics. Bodily and mental energy is favorable to ethical energizing. By mental energy I understand especially the habit of vigorously attacking complex and difficult mental problems.

Right _Asceticism_ is related to Ethical Development. I exclude self-abnegation and self-repression practiced as drill apart from any particular occasion requiring them, holding that self-repression should always be incidental to self-expression. This applies especially to the hygiene of the sex passion. A positive ideal of the sex relation, as in marriage, is an invaluable help in ennobling and thereby restraining the passion.

The Ethical Life is the supremely Planful Life. There is a hierarchy of ends of which the ethical is the apex. The ethical end is the supreme end to which all others are to be planfully subordinated. The habit of conducting one’s life planfully is favorable to ethical behavior. I say planfully, not pedantically, due regard being always had to spontaneity.

Among hindrances to Ethical development may be mentioned the tendency to be satisfied with the _minor perfections_. The better is the greatest enemy of the best. The disproportionate value set on the embellishments of life is but one illustration of this point.

A great hindrance to the spiritual life is the necessity under which we lie of restricting our actual ethical relations to a _few persons_. We cannot extend our influence to the millions of China and India. We cannot even deeply influence a considerable number of our fellow citizens. On ethical grounds we do acknowledge the claims of each individual, of all these myriads of human beings. Yet as far as any actual good we can do them is concerned, we are powerless, and must leave them to their fate. The tragic aspect of life comes home to us sharply at this point. Intensity must take the place of extensity. Intensive spiritual relations with a few will teach us at least to conceive worthily of those personalities whom we cannot directly affect, and to invest them in idea with the honor which is their due.

Intimate spiritual relations with a few will also counteract the unethical habit of labeling those with whom we come into casual contact according to the special functions they happen to exercise. Thus a letter-carrier is apt to be thought of as an animated machine to carry letters, a stenographer as a kind of animated machine to take dictation, the servant in the house a machine to render physical service. The more complete our appreciation of personality is in the case of the few, the more we shall be impelled to transfer the concept of personality, at least in its outlines, to all others. In this way our friendships, our close relations, will not restrict our ethical horizon. In the narrower circle we shall engender those ideas which in thought at least we can carry out to the farthest limits of human society.

But among the hindrances to ethical practice the two most conspicuous must not be omitted. They are _pity_ and _terror_, pity for the pain suffered by others, fear of pain for oneself. Aristotle regarded it as the high function of the tragic drama to liberate men from these disturbing factors. The two are combined and in consequence exacerbated to an extreme degree in those situations where the pain suffered by another person is at the same time poignantly felt as one’s own pain. And the anguish felt in seeing the physical suffering of another is even exceeded in witnessing the moral degradation of another, as of an erring son or an apparently irreclaimable husband or wife. The doctrine of frustration as explained in this volume is intended to show the way of relief in such situations. But it is only by not shirking the pain, by permitting it fully to penetrate, by uncovering the breast entirely to the entrance of the pointed spear that we shall have the experience of the transformation of it into the shaft of light.

APPENDIX II[103]

THE EXERCISE OF FORCE IN THE INTEREST OF FREEDOM

Force is a moral adiaphoron. The stigma attaching to the use of force belongs rather to its abuse. The employment of force is good or bad according as the ends for which it is used are good or bad.

The precept of non-resistance in the Sermon on the Mount is to be understood as a piece of ethical irony.

The right, or to be more explicit, the duty, of society to coerce individual members of it rests on the same ground and holds within the same limits as the duty of the individual to coerce himself. Self-coercion depends on the difference in the quality of one’s impulses, on the choice one is bound to make between competitive ends. Self-coercion is of two kinds: stimulative and repressive; stimulative to overcome inertia, repressive to subject wrong to right impulses.

He who denies the duty of self-coercion, to be consistent, must fall back on the position of the Cynics. For the Cynics were indeed consistent. They asserted not only the right of the individual to be free from outside compulsion, but also the right of each individual moment of the individual’s life to be lived without regard or subjection to future moments. Hence they rejected civilization and its tasks, inasmuch as the prosecution of any task involves the subordination of the present to the content of some future moment.

But if the coercion of a man by himself be admitted, it follows that the exercise of force upon a man by society must in principle be likewise admitted. For we are social by nature; we take an interest in the achievement by each one of his ends, and we regard such achievement as a social-benefit.

As to the limits within which outside interference is to be permitted and welcomed, these can best be ascertained by fastening attention upon the end to be attained. And here the positive conception of freedom seems to be the most helpful,—freedom defined as the release in each one of his essential self, that is, of his distinctive gift and capability, or of that in him which is unique or most nearly so. A society in which such valuable contributions were elicited from each would be the ideal society. Stimulative and repressive social coercion are justified in so far as they provoke energy and check disturbing impulses,—always of course without discouraging spontaneity, which is the very good to be secured.

The antithesis of reason and force common in discussions of this subject seems misleading and inadequate; since reason is a faculty of inference and not of preference, has to do with the adapting of means to ends, and does not of itself afford guidance in the choice of ends.

The concept of freedom as defined is more illuminating. Let freedom and force be contrasted, not reason and force.

The idea of law that would follow from what has been said may be illustrated by comparing the action of law with that of automatism in the human body. The system of co-ordinations by which we learn to walk, or acquire any kind of skill, such as that of performing on a musical instrument, is at first painfully and consciously acquired. Consciousness superintends every step in the process. But after a time the sequences reel off automatically. Consciousness retires from the field, ascends to a higher plane, and devotes itself to more interesting and significant business. Law, taking it in its broadest sense, may be regarded as the automatic machinery of freedom. It is the system of stimulations and repressions which the experience of mankind at any given time has found conducive to the attainment of the superior ends of life. In the minds of the more advanced members of the community repressive laws like the prohibitions of murder, theft, etc., have already become automatic. Such a thing as questioning or transgressing these laws never once in a lifetime occurs to them. (Of the stimulative laws, such as the requirement to pay taxes in support of the progressive interests of society, the same is not yet true.) As regards the backward members of society, however, the repressive laws are educative. Just as in certain diseases the convalescent needs to acquire anew the art of walking, which his neighbors exercise without thinking, so the backward members of society have to learn painfully those habits of repression which for others have sunk below the threshold of consciousness.

Social compulsion therefore may be defined as discipline in the interest of positive freedom. We may expect that in future this salutary kind of compulsion will go to even much greater lengths than it has yet gone. Society as organized in the state has undoubtedly the right to interfere in the choice of the sexes by prohibiting the marriage of persons afflicted with infectious disease. If the study of human character could ever be so far developed as to determine what kind of temperaments are radically incompatible with one another (a bare throw in the air of course), it would be within the province of the state to prohibit the conjugal union of such temperaments, and thus to prevent the disastrous effects on real freedom which such incompatibilities are apt to cause.

I am well aware of the perils of this point of view. There is a brutal factor in the action of society, as in that of individuals. A given community is apt to mistake its prejudices for principles, its torpor for conservatism, its superstitions for spirituality. Such apprehensions as those that weighed on the mind of John Stuart Mill as set forth in his _Essay on Liberty_ are not to be lightly dismissed. And yet the main trend of his argument was plainly determined by an individualistic conception of liberty which many of us no longer share. It is safe to say that on the whole the benefits of coercion outweigh the detriments. We have only to picture to ourselves a state of society in which these coercions should not exist to realize that this is so. The dangers are real, but are due to the abuse of force and not to the exercise of it under the controlling idea of positive freedom which is here proposed.

FOOTNOTES:

[103] A paper read before the Fourth Conference on Legal and Social Philosophy at Columbia University, November, 1915. (Reprinted from the _International Journal of Ethics_, April, 1916, pp. 420-423.)

INDEX

Achilles, 210

Africa, exploitation of, 187f, 335

Altruism, 79, 218, 220, 256

Antæus, 355

ἄπαξ λεγόμενον, 228

A priori knowledge, 105f, 111

Architecture, 286n

Aristotle, 105, 127, 168n, 190, 281, 305, 319, 365

Ark of the Covenant, 77

Arnold, Matthew, 10, 298

Arnold von Winkelried, 358

Art, relation to Ethics, 277f; limitations, 287n; students of, 296

Asceticism, 363

Bacon, _On Studies_, 10

Baptism, 353

Beatrice, 170

Beauty, 281f

Bereavement, 64, 162f

Bergson, 108, 131n

Blackstone, 185

Blake, William, 356

Bloch, 242

Bluntschli, 327f

Buddha, 16, 32, 199, 347

Cæsar Borgia, 172

Cana, feast at, 206

Categorical Imperative, 75f; and hypothetical, 80

Causality, “prejudice of,” 110f, 136, 141, 171

Christianity, an estimate of, 30-42; other-worldliness of, 140, 268; national, 321; forced on the East, 331

Church, 347

Citizenship, 322

Confucius, 16, 31, 299

Congo, atrocities in, 330, 335, 338

Conscience, origin of, 78

Copernicus, 141

Creation, doctrine of, 139, 356

Cromer, Lord, 331n

Crucifixion, of man, 357f

Cynics, 366

Dante, 198n, 283

Darwinism, 59, 78f, 120

“Death in Life,” 225

Decalogue, 198

Democracy, ethical aspect of, 125, 143; political, 319n; evils in, 321, 330n; new conception of, 340n

Dependence, 226

Dilke, Sir Charles, 335n

Discipline, 244f

Duality, of character traits, 208f

Duty, in Kant, 75f; conflicts of, 317f

Education, state, 252; as vocation, 291f; for adults, 301f; moral, 302n

Edwards, Jonathan, 163

Egoism, 220

Elisha, the prophet, 61

Emerson, estimate of, 27-29; _Essay on Love_, 164n

Ends, proximate and ultimate, 50-51; in Kant, 74, 89; instrumental, 138, 166, 229f, 268; unattainable in finite world, 149f, 158; hierarchy of, 363

Enemies, 205; intellectual, 207n

Erastianism, 342

Ethical Culture, Society for, 58, 346n; School, 58n, 276

Ethics, as non-violation of personality, 7, 35, 54; individuality of, 24; as science of ends, 40, 50f; and social reform, 48; relation to other subjects, 66; Kantian, 73f; an independent discipline, 84f, 132f; energizing quality of, 93, 101, 135n, 221, 228, 274, 363; contrast with physical science, 93, 99; its peculiar manifold, 109f, 114f, 126, 132, 141; verification in, 112; and social structure, 191; and empirical traits, 212f, 223f, 242f; the law of levitation, 222; as science of relations, 233; and industry, 272f; and art, 277f; and nationality, 325f; historical systems of, 346; and worship, 349, 352

Evil, problem of, 32-34; immediate reform, 49; contrasted with sin, 172f

Family, as empirical group, 133, 249f; spiritual view of, 251f

Festivals, religious, 353

Feudalism, 142

Force, as ethical discipline, 356f; and freedom, 366f

Forgiveness, 202f

Fouillée, Alfred, 209, 324

Freedom, 148f, 300, 306, 366f

Freud, 79

Friendship, 234f

Froebel, 295

Frustration, in marriage, 62f, 235; in bereavement, 64; in intellectual ambition, 65f, 227; cosmic, 67; in social betterment, 69; in achieving ethical uniqueness, 118; and ethical plan, 137, 140, 147, 150f; mission of, 152f, 165, 195, 365; in science, 265; in vocation, 269; final realization of, 356f

“Functional Finalities,” 106, 111f

Galileo, 97n

Gang Loyalty, 77

George, Henry, 44

Goethe, 67n, 176n, 198n, 220, 243, 285

God, idea of, 136, 139, 362; submission to will of, 156; worship, 350

Greek, art, 16n; philosophy, 105; treatment of suffering, 155, 166; idea of evil, 172; social system, 190f; epic, 283; education, 299

Grotius, 332

Hague Conference, 326

Happiness, 227f

Harnack, Adolf, 39

Hebrews, sex purity, 7; religion, 14-26; as elect people, 19; their mission, 21f; and problem of evil, 33

Hegel, 139, 343

Helmholtz, 196, 267

History, value of, 247n; ethical aim of, 275f

Humboldt, William von, 126

Hume, 111

Ilion, 283

Imagination, 267

Immortality, 139, 166f, 359

Individual, the, 246, 250, 295, 319f

Industry, organization of, 271, 274; representation of, 312

Insanity, 161n

Intellect, 227

Internationalism, 325f; obstacles to, 332f; organized, 338n

Isaiah, 22

Jerusalem, siege of, 33

Jesus, as exemplar, 25; his teaching, 30-42; and the problem of evil, 33f; and socialism, 37; attitude toward sin, 204n, 205

Jews, 347

Justice, social, 194f; commercial, 215f; ethical, 217; legal, 289

Kant, individualistic ethics, 9; and holiness idea, 59; Critique of Ethical Ideal, 73f, 137f; his pre-occupation with physical science, 84f, 88, 100, 133; doctrine of ends, 74, 80, 87, 100; _Critique of Pure Reason_, 84, 95, 102; not a pure rationalist, 95f; _a priori_ doctrine, 111; doctrine of worth, 119; and God idea, 126f; and ontological argument, 129; on marriage, 257

Keats, 282

Labor, remuneration of, 193

Lange, Albert, _Die Arbeiterfrage_, 10; _History of Materialism_, 11

Law, 290, 307; international, 332f; divine, 345; and freedom, 367

Lawyer, vocation of, 289

Lear, King, 282

Leibnitz, 196, 247n, 332

Lessing, 150

Life, right to, 179f

Louis XIV, 316

“Lycidas,” 282

Manifold, of time and space, 96; in physical science, 107f; ethical, 109f, 132, 134, 141

Marcus Aurelius, 120

Marriage, and happiness, 61f; _tabu_ notion of, 77; spiritual relation in, 163, 258f; monogamic, 251, 254; infelicitous, 257; state control of, 307

Marx, Karl, _Das Kapital_, 44; type of socialism, 45f

Materialism, of middle class, 52

Mayer, Robert, 196

Mill, J. S., 368

Mommsen, 276n

Monasticism, 40

Monotheism, 20f

Moral Law, as worshipful, 10, 12; obligation to obey, 75; universality of, 177; and worship, 350

More, Sir Thomas, 205n

Moses, 26, 355

National Character, 324; sins of, 330, 336f

Nature, exploitation of, 186f

Necessity, applied to ethics, 85f; Kantian, 88

Newton, 84, 94, 196

Nietzsche, 47, 152, 214

Non-resistance, doctrine of, 182

_Noumena_, Kantian, 127n

_Numen_, spiritual, 220, 224, 228, 231

_Œdipus Rex_, 173, 281n

Ontological Argument, 129f

Ostwald, 94

Pantheism, 8n

Paul, St., 38

Peace, spiritual, 360

Pekin, 330

Personal Factor in Ethics, 3-6

Personality, 197, 222, 247, 321

Pestalozzi, 295

Peters, Karl, 335

Philistinism, 52

Philosophy, monism and pluralism, 110

Plagiarism, 197

Plato, transcendent vision of, 16; his idea of justice, 31; ethics of, 74, 120, 132; influence of, 198n; and eugenics, 214; and art, 286; and the State, 305, 313, 319

Poverty, evils of, 44f; relief of, 51

Pragmatism, 106n, 136n

Prayer, 351f

Property, its rights, 185f; as a social concept, 189

Ptolemy, 105n

Public Good, 314

Punishment, its object, 176, 203; capital, 204

Race Prejudice, 236n

Ranke, 247n

“Reality-producing functions,” 114f, 124n, 126, 130, 132, 265

Religion, Types of, 363

Religious Society, 341f; its teaching, 343f; organization, 347f; worship, 349f

Repentance, 203f

Representation, in State, 310n, 322; proportional, 322

Reputation, right to, 196f

Responsibility, definition, 173f; for others’ life, 180; for poverty and suffering, 183f

Reverence, three-fold, 241f, 250; in family, 253; in artist, 284f; in education, 292; among nations, 324

Reymond, Dubois, 128

Rousseau, _Confessions_, 6; idea of State, 305

Schiller, 285n

School, 292; and home, 294; objects of, 295f; prevocational, 298; moral education in, 303; self-government in, 304

Schopenhauer, 120, 131n

Science, as vocation, 263f; and internationalism, 334

Self-discipline, 362f

Self-sacrifice, 212f

Sermon on the Mount, 4, 198, 366

Service, 226f

Shelley, 282

Sin, 171f, 202f

Social reform, 48f; fallacies of, 53f, 268; spiritual view of, 56; its object, 261; various schemes of, 273; ethical program of, 275n

Socialism, 11, 37, 43f, 56n, 196, 271f, 274

Socrates, 122

Sophocles, 173

Spencer, Herbert, 94

Spinoza, 8

Spiritual Nature, 148, 224, 231

State, ethical conception of, 305f; sovereignty of, 308f; organization of, 310f; as lawmaker, 313; duty towards, 319; and individual, 319n; international relations, 326f; and religion, 342f

Stephen, the Martyr, 38

Stevenson, R. L., 208n, 211n

Stoicism, 154, 159

Suffering, various attitudes toward, 154f; ethical attitude, 159f

Sympathy, as ethical motive, 49f, 99n, 156

_Tabus_, 77, 179

Tariff, 314, 315n

Tasks of Life, 268

Thomas à Kempis, 258

Tolstoy, 184

Trade, international, 334f; slave, 335

Tyndall, 268

Tyrrel, Father, 39, 150n

Universe, spiritual, 125f, 134; last blessing of, 360

University, ideal of, 298f; American, 300f

Value, _vs._ Worth, 117n

Vattel, 332

Verification in ethics, 112, 118, 135n

Virtue, 211

Vocation, influence on development, 58f; _vs._ occupation, 260f; an ethical classification, 262f; practical, 270f; educational, 289f; represented in State, 310f, 322

Wages and wage-earners, 194, 215n, 216

Waitz, _Anthropologie_, 209

War, when justified, 182f

Wealth, 51; stewardship of, 192

Whole, ideal of, in ethics, 100f, 114f, 121

Women, in State, 311; in religious societies, 348

Wordsworth, 282

Worship, religious, 349

Worth, in human personality, 57, 68, 70, 224n, 247; Kant’s doctrine of, 82f, 89f, 101; ethical justification of, 91f, 98n; attributed to man, 101n, 102f; as member of ethical manifold, 117, 119, 121; _vs._ value, 117n; homage to, 349, 360

Zeno, 108

Zionism, 24

Zoroaster, 15