Part 6
In the Management of things of much less moment, we employ such who are supposed to understand what they undertake, and believe they cannot be carryed on without them; Whilst the general Trade of the Nation (which is the support of all) lies neglected, as if the Coggs that direct its Wheels did not need skill to keep them true; Trade requires as much Policy as matters of State, and can never be kept in a regular Motion by Accident; when the Frame of our Trade is out of Order, we know not where to begin to mend it, for want of a set of Experienced Builders, ready to receive Applications, and able to judge where the Defect lies.
Such a Committee as this will soon appear to be of great Use and Service, both to the Parliament in Framing Laws relating to Trade, and also to the Government in the Treaties they make with Foreign Nations.
As to the First, It hath sometimes been thought, that when That Great and Glorious Assembly hath medled with Trade, they have left it worse than they found it; And the Reason is, because the Laws relating to Trade, require more time to look into their distant Consequences, than a Session will admit; whereof we have had many Instances.
To begin with the _French_ Trade; in the 22d _Car._ II. a new Import was laid on Wines, _viz._ Eight Pounds _per_ Tun on the _French_, and Twelve Pounds _per_ Tun on _Spanish_ and _Portuguese_; This Difference (with the low Subsidies put on their Linnens by former Acts, in respect to those of other Places) was a great Means of bringing the Ballance of That Trade so much against us, that the Parliament in the 7th and 8th of _Gul._ III. thought fit to make an Act, (and is continued by this present Parliament for a longer time) which in Effect prohibited all Trade with that Nation for One and Twenty Years, by laying a great Duty on the Importations thence, in order to prevent a Correspondence, till the Trade should be better regulated.
In the 14th _Car._ II. Logwood was permitted by Act of Parliament to be imported, paying Five Pounds _per_ Tun Duty; The same Act repeals two Statutes of Queen _Elizabeth_ against Importing and Using it in Dying here, and sets forth the Ingenuity of our Dyers, in finding out ways to fix the Colours made with it; and yet at the same time gave a Draw-back of Three Pounds Fifteen Shillings _per_ Tun on all that should be Exported, whereby Foreigners use it so much cheaper in their Manufactures than ours can here; which proceeded from a too hasty making that Law, and being advised, or rather abused, by those, who regarded more their own Interest, then That of the Nation.
By an Act made 1 _Ja._ II. an Impost of Two Shillings and Four Pence _per Ct._ was laid on Muscovado Sugars imported from the Plantations, to be drawn back at Exportation; the Traders to the Plantations stir’d in this Matter, and set forth, That such a Duty would discourage the Refining them here, by hindering the Exportation of Refined Sugars, which was then considerable, and carry that Manufacture to _Holland_ and _Flanders_; But the Commissioners of the Customs prevailed against them, and the Bill past; the Fatal Consequences whereof soon appear’d, for the Exporters of Muscavado Sugars, drawing back Two Shillings and Four Pence _per Cent._ by that Act, and nine Pence _per Cent._ by the Act of Tunnage and Poundage, Foreign Markets were supply’d with Refined Sugars from other places cheaper, by about Twelve _per Cent_, than we could furnish them hence, by which means we were beat out of that Trade; And tho’ the Duty of Two Shillings and Four Pence _per Ct._ was not continued on the Expiration of That Act by the Parliament 2d W. and M. (as they did the Threepence _per_ Pound on Tobacco) the bad Effects thereof being then apparent, yet ’tis difficult to retrieve a Lost Trade, Trading Nations being like Expert Generals, who make Advantages of the Mistakes of each other, and take care to hold what they get.
By a Statute 4th and 5th W. M. Twenty Shillings _per_ Tun was laid on _Lapis Caliminaris_ Dug here and Exported, on an Information given to the House of Commons, that it was not to be had any where else; the Merchants concerned in Exporting that Commodity made Application, and set forth, that such a Duty would bring in Nothing to the Crown, but be a total Bar to its Exportation; yet the Act past, and we were like to have made a fatal Experiment, for till the Statute of the 7th and 8th of the same King, which reduced the Duty to Two Shillings _per_ Tun, the Exportation ceased; and in the mean time, those Places, which had been discouraged from Digging and Calcining it, because we undersold them, set again to Work, and supplied the Markets where we Vended ours.
What Injury was done by the Act made in the 9th and 10th W. IIId. for the more effectual Preventing the Importation of Foreign Bonelace, &c. doth sufficiently appear by the Preamble of That made in the 11th and 12th of the same Reign for repealing it Three Months after the Prohibition of our Wollen Manufactures in _Flanders_ (which was occasioned by it) should be there taken off; but I don’t understand that is yet done, and it may prove an irrecoverable Loss to the Nation.
I mention these things with great Submission to the Judgment of that Glorious Assembly, the Wisdom and Strength of the Nation; to whom I only presume with all Humility to offer my Thoughts, that it would very much tend to the putting Matters of Trade into a True Light before them, if they were first referred to a Body of Men, well verst in the true Principles thereof, and able to see through the Sophistical Arguments of contending Parties, to be by them considered, and well digested, before they received the Sanction of a Law.
And as to Foreign Treaties; I do not think our Trade hath been so much bettered by them as it might have been, for want of such a Committee; the Representations made by Private Merchants, (who generally differ according as their Interests clash with each other) tending rather to distract, than to inform the Government; which would not be, if their first Applications were made to an Experienc’d Committee, who had Judgment enough to subtract out of them what was proper to be offer’d; By which means, our Demands might be rendred short and comprehensive.
We have Natural Advantages in Trade above other Nations, besides the Benefit of our Scituation, the Foundation of our Woollen Manufactures being as it were peculiar to our own Growth, and may be retained amongst our selves; An Advantage the _French_ have not, whose Wealth arising chiefly from the Exportation of their Wines, Brandy, Salt, Paper, Silks, and Linnens, both we and other Nations, have made such a Progress in them all since the War began, as to render theirs less sought for; whereas, nothing but our own Neglects, and ill Managements, can let our Neighbours into our Manufactures, which we may soon put a stop to, by securing our Wool at Home.
[Sidenote: Insurance.]
I cannot close this Discourse, without speaking something of Insurance; The first Design whereof was to encourage the Merchants to Export more of our Product and Manufactures, when they knew how to ease themselves in their Adventures, and to bear only such a Proportion thereof as they were willing and able to do; but by the Irregular Practices of some Men, this first Intention is wholly obviated; who without any Interest, have put in early Policies, and gotten large Subscriptions on Ships, only to make Advantage by Selling them to Others; and therefore have Industriously promoted False Reports, and spread Rumours, to the Prejudice of the Ships and Masters, filling Mens Minds with Doubts, whereby the fair Trading Merchant, when he comes to Insure his Interest, either can get no one to Underwrite, or at such high Rates, that he finds it better to Buy the Others Policies at Advance; by this means these Stock-Jobbers of Insurance have as it were turn’d it into a Wager, to the great Prejudice of Trade; Likewise many ill designing Men, their Policies being over-valued, have (to the Abhorence of Honest Traders, and to the Scandal of Trade it self) contriv’d the Loss of their own Ships; On the other side, the Underwriters, when a Loss is ever so fairly proved, boggle in their Payments, and force the Insured to be content with less than their Agreements, for fear of engaging themselves in long and chargeable Suits.
Now if the Parliament would please to take these things into their Consideration, they may reduce Insurance to its first Intention, by obliging the Insured to bear such a Proportionable part of his Adventure (the Premio included) as to them shall seem fit, and also the Insurers, when a loss is fully made out, to pay their Subscriptions without Abatement, which will prevent both; and if any Differences should arise, to direct easy ways for adjusting them, without attending long Issues at Law, or being bound up to such nice Rules in their Proofs, as the Affairs of Foreign Trade will not admit.
[Sidenote: Wilful casting away Ships by the Owners.]
I know, that by a Clause in a Statute made _primo Annæ_, the wilful Casting away, Burning, or otherwise destroying a Ship, by any Captain, Master, Mariner, or other Officer belonging to it, is made Felony, without Benefit of Clergy; But that Statute is so qualify’d, that it is difficult to Convict the Offender, because the Fact must be done, to the Prejudice of the Owner or Owners, or of any Merchant or Merchants that shall load Goods thereon, else he doth not come within its Penalty, so it doth not reach the Evil I here mention, _viz._ the Abominable Contrivance of the Owners to have their own Ships destroyed, in order to make an Advantage by their Insurances; (a Crime so black in it self, that it cannot be mentioned without Horror). These Men, when they frame their dark Designs, will take care, for the Security of those they employ, that none besides themselves shall load Goods on the Ships they intend shall be thus destroyed, and it cannot be supposed that they receive Prejudice thereby themselves, so the Prosecution on that Statute is evaded; But if the Insured were bound to make out their Interests, and to bear a Proportionable part of the Loss themselves, this would as it were Naturally prevent such Scandalous Practices.
[Sidenote: Whether the Price of Labour is a Hindrance to Improvements in our Products and Manufactures.]
Before I enter on the Business of the Poor, I will consider of a Question that hath arisen, and I have heard sometimes debated by Men of good Understanding, which is, Whether the Labour of the Poor being so high, does not hinder Improvements in our Product and Manufactures; Which having some Relation to the Subject Matter of this Discourse, I shall offer my Thoughts thereon, with Submission to better Judgments, _viz._ That both our Product and Manufactures may be carry’d on to Advantage, without running down the Labour of the Poor.
As to the first, our Product, I am of opinion, that the running down the Labour of the Poor is no advantage to it, nor is it the Interest of that part of the Kingdom called _England_ to do it, nor can the People thereof live on so low Wages as they do in other Countries; for we must consider, that Wages must bear a Rate in all Nations according to the Price of Provisions; where Wheat is sold for One Shilling _per_ Bushel, and all things suitable, a labouring Man may afford to work for Three Pence a day, as well as he can for Twelve Pence, where it is sold for Four Shillings; and this Price of Wheat arises chiefly from the Value of Land; For it cannot be imagined, that the Farmer who gives Twenty Shillings _per_ Acre, can afford it as low as he whose Lands cost him but Five Shillings _per_ Acre, and produces the same Crop, nor can Labour be expected to be so low in such a Country, as in the other; This is the Case of _England_, whose Lands yielding great Rents, require good Prices for the Product; and this is the Freeholders Advantage; for supposing Necessaries to be the Current Payment for Labour, in such cases, whether we call a Bushel of Wheat One Shilling, or Four Shillings, it will be all one to him, for so much as he pays, but not for the Overplus of his Crop, which makes a great Difference into his Pocket; you cannot fall Wages, unless you fall Product; and if you fall Product, you must necessarily fall Lands.
And as for the Second, our Manufactures, I am of Opinion, that they may be carryed on to Advantage, without running down the Labour of the Poor; for which I offer
1. Observation, or Experience of what hath been done; we have and daily do see that it is so; the Refiners of Sugars sell for Six Pence _per_ Pound, what yielded formerly Twelve Pence; the Distillers sell their Spirits for one half of what they formerly did; Glass Bottles, Silk-Stockins, and other Manufactures (too many to be here enumerated) are sold for not much more than half the Price they were some years since, without falling the Labour of the Poor.
But then the Question will be, how this is done? Truly it proceeds from the Ingenuity of the Manufacturer, and the Improvements he attains to in the ways of his Working; Thus the Refiners of Sugars go through that Operation by easier Methods, and in less time, than their Predecessors did; Thus the Distillers draw more Spirits from the things they work on, than those formerly did who taught them the Art; The Glass-Maker hath found a Quicker way of making it out of things which cost him little; Silk-Stockings are Wove; Tobacco is cut by Engines; Books are Printed; Deal-Boards are Sawn with Mills; Lead is Smelted by Wind-Furnaces; all which save the Labour of many Hands, so the Wages of those employed need not be fallen.
Besides which, there is a Cunning crept into Trades; The Clock-maker hath improved his Art to such a degree, that Labour and Materials are the least Part the Buyer pays for; The variety of our Woollen Manufactures is so pretty, that Fashion makes a thing worth twice the Price it is sold for after, the Humour of the Buyer carrying a great Sway in its Value; Artificers, by Tools and Laves, fitted for different Uses, make such things, as would puzzle a stander by to set a Price on, according to the worth of Mens Labour; the Plummer by new Inventions casts a Tun of shot for Ten Shillings, which might seem to deserve Forty.
The same Art is crept into Navigation; Freights are much fallen from what they formerly were at, and yet Sailor’s Wages are still the same; Ships are built more for Stowage, and made strong enough to be loaden between Decks, and Voyages are performed in less time; Wool is Steved into them by such proper Instruments, that three or four Baggs are put, where one would not else lye; Cranes and Blocks help to draw up more for one Shilling, then Mens Labour without them would do for Five.
New Projections are every day set on Foot to render the making our Woollen Manufactures easy, which should be render’d cheaper by the Contrivance of the Manufacturers, not by falling the Price of Labour; Cheapness creates Expence, and Expence gives fresh Employments, whereby the Poor will be still kept at Work.
The same for our Product; Mines and Pitts are drained by Engines and Aquæducts instead of Hands; the Husband-Man turns up the Ground with his Sullow, not Diggs it with his Spade; covers his Grain with the Harrow, not with the Rake; brings home his Harvest with Carts, not on Mens Backs; and many other easy Methods are used, both for Improving of Land, and raising its Product, which lessen the number of Labourers, and make room for better Wages to be given those that are Imployed.
Nor am I of their Opinion, who think the running down the Price of our Growth and Product, that so they may buy Provisions cheap, an Advantage to the Inland Trade of this Kingdom, but of the contrary.
To understand this rightly, let us begin with the Shop-keeper, or Buyer and Seller, who is the Wheel whereon the Inland Trade turns, as he buys of the Importer and Manufacturer, and sells again to the Country; suppose this Man spends Two Hundred Pounds _per_ Annum in all things necessary for himself and Family, as Provisions, Cloaths, House-Rent, and other Expences, the Question will be, what part of this is laid out in Flesh, Corn, Butter, Cheese, &c. barely considered according to their first Cost in the Market? I presume Fifty or Sixty Pounds _per_ Annum to be the most, whereon the Advance to him will not be so much by keeping up our Product to a good Rate, as the Profits which will consequently arise in his Trade will amount unto; For by this means the Farmer will be enabled to give a better Rent to his Landlord, who may then keep a more Plentiful Table, spend more Wine, Fruit, Sugars, Spices, and other things wherewith he is furnished from the City, suit himself and his Family oftner, and carry on a greater Splendour in every thing; the Farmer according to his condition may do the same, and give higher Wages to the Labourers imployed in Husbandry, who may then live better, and buy new Cloaths oftner, instead of patching up old ones; by this means the Manufacturers will be encouraged to give a better Price for Wooll and Labour, when they shall find a Vent as fast as they can make; and a Flux of Wealth causing a Variety of Fashions, will add Wings to their Inventions, when they shall see their Manufactures advanced in their Values by the Buyer’s Fancy; This likewise will encourage the Merchants to encrease their Exports, when they shall find a quick Vent for their Imports; By which regular Circulation, Payments will be short, and all will grow rich; But when Trade deadens in the Fountain, when the Gentlemen and the Farmers are kept low, every one in his order feels it, It being most certain, and grounded on the Observation of all Men who have lookt into it, That in those Countrys where Provisions are Cheap, the People are generally Poor, both proceeding from the want of Trade; so that he who will give a right Judgment in this Matter, must not consider things only as they offer themselves at the first Sight, but as they will be in their Consequences.
As to the other part of _Great Britain_ called _Scotland_, I can say little with Relation to this Matter, my Knowledge of that part of the Kingdom being not sufficient to enable me to do it: But I am apt to believe, that the same General Maxim must hold good there also, _viz._ That the Rates of Labour must be according to the Prices of Provisions, and those according to the Rents of the Lands.
[Sidenote: The Poor.]
Having thus gone through the State of the Nation with respect to its Trade, I will next consider it with respect to the Poor.
And here it cannot but seem strange, that this Kingdom, which so much abounds in Product and Manufactures, besides the Imployment given in Navigation, should want work for any of its People; the _Dutch_, who have little of the two former, if compared with us, and do not exceed us in the latter, suffer no Beggars; whereas we, whose Wealth consists in the Labour of our Inhabitants, seem to encourage them in an Idle way of Living, contrary to their own and the Nations Interest.
The Curse under which Man first fell was Labour; That by the Sweat of his Brows he should eat his Bread; This is a state of Happiness, if compared to that which attends Idleness: He that walks the Streets of _London_, and observes the Fatigues used by the Beggars to make themselves seem Objects of Charity, must conclude, that they take more Pains than an Honest Man doth at his Trade, and yet seem not to get Bread to eat: Beggary is now become an Art or Mystery, to which Children are brought up from their Cradles; any thing that may move Compassion is made a Livelyhood, a Sore Leg or Arm, or for want thereof a Pretended one; the Tricks and Devices I have observed to be used by these People, have often made me think, that those Parts, if better employed, might be made useful to the Nation.
Here I will consider,
1. What hath been the Cause of this Mischief of Idleness, and how it hath crept in upon us.
2. What must be done to restrain its going farther.
3. What Methods are proper to be used, in order to make a Provision for those who are past their Labour.
As to the First; we shall find that it hath proceeded, partly from the Abuse of those Laws we have, and partly from want of better; Licences for Ale-houses were at first granted for good Ends, not to draw Men aside from their Labour by Games and Sports, but to support and refresh them under it; and as they were then a Maintainance to the Aged, so Poor Families had Opportunities of being supplied with a Cup of Ale from Abroad, who could not keep it at Home; great Observation was also made to prevent Idle Tipling, our Fore-Fathers considered, that time so spent was a Loss to the Nation, whose Interest was improved by the Labour of its Inhabitants; Whereas Ale-houses are now encouraged, to promote the Income of Excise, on whom there must be no Restraint, lest the King’s Revenue should be lessened; Thus we live by Sense, and look only at things we see, without revolving on what the Issue will be, not considering, that the Labour of each Man, if well employ’d, whilst he sits in an Ale-house, would be worth much more to the Nation, than the Excise he pays.
But above all, our Laws to set the Poor at Work are short and Defective, tending rather to Maintain them so, then to raise them to a better way of Living; ’Tis true, those Laws design well, but consisting only in Generals, and not reducing things to Practicable Methods, they fall short of answering their Ends, and thereby render the Poor more bold, when they know the Parish Officers are bound, either to provide them Work, or to give them Maintenance.
Now, if we delighted more in the Encouraging our Manufactures, our Poor might be better Employed, and then ’twould be a shame, for any Person capable of Labour, to live Idle; which leads me to the Second Consideration, What must be done to restrain this Habit of Idleness from going farther.
Here I find, that nothing but good Laws can do it, such as may provide Work for those who are willing, and force them to Work that are able; And for this use I think Work-houses very expedient, but they must be Founded on such Principles, as may employ the Poor, for which they must be fitted, and the Poor for them; wherein Employments must be provided for all sorts of People, who must also be compelled to go thither when sent, and the Work-houses to receive them; and the Materials which seem most proper for them are Simples, such as Wooll, Hemp, Cotton, and the like, which may either be sent in by the Manufacturers, or be bought up on a Stock raised for that End; These will employ great Numbers, of both Sexes, and all Ages, either by Beating and Fitting the Hemp, or by Dressing and Spinning the Flax, or by Carding and Spinning the Wool and Cotton, of Different Finenesses; and if a Reward was given to that Person who should spin the Finest Thread of either, as they do in _Ireland_ for their Linnen, to be adjudged Yearly, and paid by the County, or by any other manner as shall be thought fit, ’twould very much promote Industry and Ingenuity, whilst every one being stir’d up by Ambition, and Hopes of Profit, would endeavour to exceed the rest; by which means we should also grow more excellent in our Manufactures.
Nor should these Houses hinder any who desire to Work at Home, or the Manufacturers from Employing them, the Design being to Provide places for those who care not to Work any where, and to make the Parish Officers more Industrious to find them out, when they know whither to send them, by which means they would be better able to maintain the Impotent.