CHAPTER IV

THE BASIS OF NATIONAL STRENGTH[54]

A LIBERAL EDUCATION FROM A NATIONAL STANDPOINT

I

KNOWLEDGE

We have from time to time given some attention to the failure of our attempts to educate “The Average Boy,” and it may be useful to look into one or two fundamental principles upon which this question and others seem to me to depend. For if our conceptions of education are heterogeneous and incoherent, naturally, we shall have a tangle of examination schemes evolved to test our ill-conceived work.

Educationally, we are in a bad way. We were told some time ago, in _Across the Bridges_, of the rapid deterioration of the bright intelligent responsive schoolboy who has passed through the sixth and seventh standards. Why? we ask. Industrial unrest often reveals virtue, even heroism of a sort, in the working man, but a lamentable want of knowledge--lack of education; he appears to have little insight, imagination, or power of reflection. The tendency in his class is that “dangerous tendency which we must all do our best to resist” indicated by Mr. Burns at a public meeting some few years ago; “the spirit of the horde,” he said, “is being developed; and whether it is in exhibitions, sports, or legislation, the individual is becoming less and less important and the mob more and more so.” And again, “the tendency of the present day in all modern movements is for great crowds to be brought together to see other people play; and that is extending not only to play, but to other fields of life.” Could the industrial movement of to-day be better diagnosed? Again we ask, Why? As for those young men from Public Schools who fail in the Dominions, enough has been said about them; but those other Public School men who succeed in a measure at outposts of the Empire because of the virtue that is in them, do they not fail sometimes in an equal measure for lack of the insight, imagination, intelligence, which come of knowledge? As for the people who stay at home, “educated” men and women, I write as an old woman who remembers how in the sixties and seventies “countenance” was much talked of; “an intelligent countenance,” “a fine countenance,” “a noble countenance,” were matters of daily comment. The word has dropped out of use; is it because the thing signified has dropped out of existence? Countenance is a manifestation of thought, feeling, intelligence; and it is none of these, but stolid indifference combined with physical well-being, that we read in many faces to-day.

If we have these grounds for discontent, education is no doubt the culprit at the bar, though there never was, I suppose, a more heroic and devoted body of teachers at work. They get for themselves the greater blessing of those who give; but the children suffer, poor little souls; “poured into like a bucket,” they receive without stint, and little comes of it. There is no lack of zeal on the part of the teaching profession, but there is a tendency amongst us to depreciate knowledge and to depreciate our scholars. Now, knowledge is the material of education, as flour is the material of bread; there are substitutes for knowledge, no doubt, as there are for flour. Before the era of free meals I heard of a little girl in East London whose mother gave her a penny, to buy dinner for herself and her little sister, when the two set out for school. The child confided to her teacher that a ha’porth of aniseed drops “stays your stomach” more than a halfpenny bun. Now, our schools are worked more or less upon aniseed drops--marks, prizes, scholarships, blue ribbons, all of which “stay the stomach” of the boy who does not get the knowledge that he needs. That is the point. He needs knowledge as much as he needs bread and milk; his appetite for knowledge is as healthy as his appetite for his dinner; and an abundant regular supply at short intervals of various knowledge is a constitutional necessity for the growing youth as well as for the curious child; and yet we stay his hunger pangs upon “aniseed drops.”

We do worse. We say, “What is the good of knowledge? Give a boy professional instruction, whether he is to be a barrister or a bricklayer, and strike out from his curriculum Greek or geography, or whatever is not of utilitarian value. Teach him to play the game and handle the ropes of his calling, and you have done the best for him.” Now, here is a most mischievous fallacy, an assertion that a child is to be brought up for the uses of society only and not for his own uses. Here we get the answer to the repeated question that suggested itself in a survey of our educational condition. We launch children upon too arid and confined a life. Now personal delight, joy in living, is a chief object of education; Socrates conceived that knowledge is for pleasure, in the sense, not that knowledge is one source, but is the source of pleasure.

It is for their own sakes that children should get knowledge. The power to take a generous view of men and their motives, to see where the greatness of a given character lies, to have one’s judgment of present events illustrated and corrected by historic and literary parallels, to have, indeed, the power of comprehensive judgment--these are admirable assets within the power of every one according to the measure of his mind; and these are not the only gains which knowledge affords. The person who can live upon his own intellectual resources and never know a dull hour (though anxious and sad hours will come) is indeed enviable in these days of intellectual inanition, when we depend upon spectacular entertainments _pour passer le temps_.

If knowledge means so much to us, “What is knowledge?” the reader asks. We can give only a negative answer. Knowledge is not instruction, information, scholarship, a well-stored memory. It is passed, like the light of a torch, from mind to mind, and the flame can be kindled at original minds only. Thought, we know, breeds thought; it is as vital thought touches our minds that our ideas are vitalized, and out of our ideas comes our conduct of life. The case for reform hardly needs demonstration, but now we begin to see the way of reform. The direct and immediate impact of great minds upon his own mind is necessary to the education of a child. Most of us can get into touch with original minds chiefly through books; and if we want to know how far a school provides intellectual sustenance for its scholars, we may ask to see the list of books in reading during the current term. If the list be short, the scholar will not get enough mind-stuff; if the books are not various, his will not be an all-round development; if they are not original, but compiled at second hand, he will find no material in them for his intellectual growth. Again, if they are too easy and too direct, if they tell him straight away what he is to think, he will read, but he will not appropriate. Just as a man has to eat a good dinner in order that his physical energies may be stimulated to select and secrete that small portion which is vital to him, so must the intellectual energies be stimulated to extract what the individual needs by a generous supply, and also by a way of presentation that is not obvious. We have the highest authority for the indirect method of teaching proper to literature, and especially to poetry. The parables of Christ remain dark sayings; but what is there more precious in the world’s store of knowledge?

How injurious then is our habit of depreciating children; we water their books down and drain them of literary flavour, because we wrongly suppose that children cannot understand what we understand ourselves; what is worse, we explain and we question. A few pedagogic maxims should help us, such as, “Do not explain” “Do not question,” “Let one reading of a passage suffice,” “Require the pupil to relate the passage he has read.” The child must read to know; his teacher’s business is to see that he knows. All the acts of generalization, analysis, comparison, judgment, and so on, the mind performs for itself in the act of knowing. If we doubt this, we have only to try the effect of putting ourselves to sleep by relating silently and carefully, say, a chapter of Jane Austen or a chapter of the Bible, read once before going to bed. The degree of insight, the visualization, that comes with this sort of mental exercise is surprising.

As I have said, a child in his seventh year will relate _The Pilgrim’s Progress_, chapter by chapter, though he cannot read it, and some half-dozen other books of the best we can find for him. In his eighth or ninth year he works happily with a dozen books at a time, books of history, adventures, travels, poems. From his tenth to his twelfth year he reads considerable books of English and French history, seriously written, Shakespeare’s historical plays, North’s _Plutarch’s Lives_, and a dozen other worthy books. As he goes up the school, his reading becomes wider and more difficult, but every one knows the reading proper at the ages of fifteen, seventeen, eighteen. The right books are given, but not enough of them. The reading dietary is too meagre for the making of a full man. A score of first-rate books should appear in the school curriculum term by term. The point that I insist upon, however, is that from his sixth year the child should be an “educated child” for his age, should love his lesson books, and enjoy a terminal examination on the books he has read. Children brought up largely on books compare favourably with those educated on a few books and many lectures; they have generous enthusiasms, keen sympathies, a wide outlook and sound judgment, because they are treated from the first as beings of “large discourse looking before and after.” They are persons of leisure too, with time for hobbies, because their work is easily done in the hours of morning school.

It is not necessary to speak of modern languages and mathematics, field work in natural history, handiwork, etc. Schools are pretty much agreed about the treatment of these subjects. As for Latin and Greek, the teaching of these and the possibility of getting in any work beyond these is a crucial question; but I think it is open to Public Schoolmasters to discover that, given boys who have read and thought, and who have maintained the habit of almost perfect attention that a child begins with, the necessary amount of work in the Classics may be done in a much shorter time, and that the mind of the pupil is the more alert because it is engaged in handling various subjects.

Perhaps, too, some enlightened Headmaster may come to distinguish between scholarship and knowledge--a distinction which practical men, like Napoleon, for example, have known how to draw. Probably there never was a life on which the ‘humanities’ exercised a more powerful influence; rarely has there been such an example of the power of the informed mind to conquer the world. Napoleon is the final answer to the contention that a knowledge of books has no practical value, for there was, perhaps, no incident in his career that was not suggested, inspired, illustrated by some historical precedent, some literary apophthegm. He was, as we know, no scholar, but he read diligently, even in the midst of absorbing affairs, Homer, the Bible, the Koran, poetry, history, Plutarch.

Nations grow great upon books as truly as do individuals. We know how that heroic young Queen, Louisa of Prussia, perceived that the downfall of her country was not due to Napoleon alone, but also to national ignorance, and that if Prussia were to rise it must be through the study of history. So she set herself to work at the history of modern Europe during that sojourn at Memel, when she knew poverty as a peasant woman knows it. The disciples of Kant founded a league of virtue to arouse Prussian students to the duty of patriotism; Fichte knew how to issue a trumpet call; the nation became a nation of students, and the son of Queen Louisa established the German Empire! Alas, that an age should have come when the ‘humanities’ were proscribed on German soil--and humanity followed them into exile! A noble view of education was as righteousness exalting a nation; but, alas, we all know what universal havoc and disaster have proceeded from the debased and materialised theory of education promulgated at Munich.

The Danes, again, as we all know, owe their rise out of illiteracy to the Napoleonic impulse. After we had seized their battleships, by way of clipping the claws of Bonaparte, they set to work to make themselves the first farmers in Europe; this they have done in and through their schools and their continuation schools, where they get, not technical instruction, but a pretty wide course in history and literature. As for the Japanese revolution of some fifty years ago, history has little to show of a finer quality; and this, again, was the work of a literary people.

If we would not be left behind by the East and the West we must, as other nations have done, “add to our virtue, knowledge”; and we are still competent, as some of these are not, to mount from the bottom rung of the Apostolic educational ladder. It rests with us to add to our faith, virtue, and to our virtue, knowledge. It is an unheard of thing that the youth of a great nation should grow up without those ideals, slow enough in maturing, which are to be gathered for the most part from wide and wisely directed reading.

II

LETTERS, KNOWLEDGE AND VIRTUE

The following fragments of a valuable letter illustrate the contention of the foregoing chapter:--

“There is one thing, however, one note of regret, and that is that one paragraph, that on classical education, was not more expanded. I am satisfied that your central view covers the whole truth; and I am going to give you a small individual experience illustrating this fact--viz., that an early education in the great books of our own language, read, with enjoyment, by children and appropriately given to them from year to year, is the true groundwork of later expansion. Here is the story:--My three daughters were suckled on Walter Scott and Shakespeare. Later, about the ages of from ten to twelve, off their own, they took up Plutarch’s Lives, Bunyan, Defoe, and in the same period they refused to learn arithmetic and geography, the former on the ground of its monotony, and the latter, because, although they loved it, they held that the existing system of teaching geography was ‘rotten,’ and that geography ought to be learnt by going to the places. I knew better than to remonstrate. I meekly suggested that perhaps they would substitute something else in their curriculum, and they said at once, in an obviously prepared sentence, ‘That’s just it, we want to learn Latin and harmony.’ Now here comes _your_ point (in that lamentably abbreviated paragraph):--

‘Given boys (or girls) who have read and thought, and who have maintained the habit of almost perfect attention that a child begins with, the necessary amount of work in the classics may be done in a much shorter time, and the mind of the pupil is the more alert because it is engaged in handling various subjects.’

Six months later these girls knew more Latin than I learnt in six years under distinguished scholars with very eminent names. They could sling passages from Horace appropriately; they knew the first two Eclogues and half the Æneid by heart; they regarded Cicero’s Letters to Atticus as a ‘penny post’ affair, and were quite unduly familiar with the private life of Seneca. But all this did not interfere with their painting or their horsemanship, and better authorities on cricket and the Turf I don’t happen to know. That is the illustrative episode. The point, in my mind, is that an early education from great books with the large ideas and the large virtues is the only true foundation of knowledge--the knowledge worth having.”

This interesting letter brings us straight to a question which I thought had been pretty fully threshed out; and I tackle it with diffidence, only because an outsider may see aspects overlooked by experts. The gist of the charges brought against Public Schools is,--Classics take up so much time that there is no opportunity for _Litteræ Humaniores_ in any other form. It is easy to say,--Gain time by giving up Greek; but, in the first place, Public Schools, with our old Universities in sequence, are our educational achievement. Other efforts are experimental, but this one thing we know--that men are turned out from this course who are practically unmatched for quality, culture, and power; even the average B.A. shows up better than his compeers, and a degree in Arts signifies more than one in any other faculty.

We return thus to my original contention--that letters, primarily, are the content of knowledge; that if Wellington ever said how Waterloo was won, it was not on the playing-fields only, but in the class-rooms of Eton; that Cæsar, Thucydides, _Prometheus Bound_, have won more battles than we know on fields civil and military. A little strong meat goes a long way, and even the average Public School boy turns out a capable man. But, alas, if capable, he is also ignorant; he does not know the history and literature of his own country or any other. He has not realised that knowledge is, not a store, but rather a state that a person remains within or drops out of. His degree taken, he shuts his books, reads the newspapers a little, perhaps a magazine or two, but otherwise occupies himself with the interests of sports, games, shows, or his employment. What is to be done, we wonder vaguely, to secure to this average boy some tincture of knowledge and some taste for knowledge? The expedient of dropping Greek to make room for other things recurs; but on reflection we say, “No”; for culture begins with the knowledge that everything has been known and everything has been perfectly said these two thousand years ago and more. This knowledge, slowly drummed into a youth, should keep him from swelled head, from joining in the “We are the people” cry of the blatant patriot; and there is no better way of knowing a people than to know something of their own words in their own speech.

It is well, by the way, that we should remember that we have as a nation an enormous loss to make good; time was, and not so long ago, when rich and poor were intimately familiar with one of the three great classical literatures. Men’s thoughts were coloured, their speech moulded, their conduct more or less governed, by the pastoral idylls called “Genesis,” the impassioned poetry of Isaiah, the divine philosophy of John, the rhetoric of Paul--all, writings, like the rest of the Bible, in what Matthew Arnold calls “the grand manner.” Here is the well of English undefiled from which men have drawn the best that our literature holds, as well as their philosophy of life, their philosophy of history, and that principal knowledge we are practising to do without--the knowledge of God. And we wonder that the governing classes should forget how to rule as those who serve; and that the working man, brought up on “Readers” in lieu of a great literature, should act with the obstinate recklessness proper to ignorance.

But to return to the main issue. How shall we instruct the ignorance and yet retain the classical culture of the average Public School boy? I should like to suggest, again, with diffidence, that he, like his more brilliant compeer, is driven through a mill the outpour of which should be scholarship. Now, scholarship is an exquisite distinction which it would be ill for us as a nation to miss; but if all the men in an assemblage were decorated, who would care to wear an order? Some things are precious for their rarity, and to put a school in the running for this goal is as absurd as the ambition of the little boy who meant to be a Knight of the Garter when he grew up. The thing is not to be done; some men are born to be scholars, as the shape of their heads testifies. The rest of us take pleasure in their decoration, but are not envious, for scholarship is not the best thing, and does not necessarily imply that vital touch of mind upon mind out of which is got knowledge. As for erudition, we may leave that out of count, it is hardly even an aim at the present time. The geniuses, as one to some thousands, say, of our best, do not trouble themselves much about the regimen we offer--classics or modern languages, or what not; an idle tale, a puppet show, the meanest flower that blows, is enough for them. Anyway, they take care of themselves, and we come back to the average boy.

He must learn his Greek and Latin, but there is an easier way; the girls mentioned in the letter I cite had hit upon it. That favourite girl pupil of Vittorino’s who spoke and wrote Greek with “remarkable purity” at twelve, having, so to speak, done with Latin at an earlier age--she, we may be sure, had not been through the grammar school grind. Nor had any of the learned ladies of the Italian and the French Renaissance, the list of whose accomplishments leaves us breathless. While still children, we know how early they married, their knowledge of the classics was copious (and not too wholesome), they knew two or three modern languages, could treat the wounded, nurse the sick, prepare simples, govern great households, ride to chase, yes, and kill too! and do exquisite embroidery. Our own women of the Tudor times appear likewise to have been “infinitely informed” and to have carried their learning gaily; Maria Theresa, by no means a learned lady, could make speeches and converse with her Magyar nobles in Latin, and they could respond, neither knowing the native speech of the other. If these things were true of girls and women, how much more was expected of boys and men!

Are we persons of less intelligence, or how did they do it all? _Every preparatory school knows how._ Perhaps few boys enter Public Schools who could not pass “Responsions,” that is, who are not, as far as Greek goes, ready for Oxford. I once heard a Headmaster say:--

“A boy does as much Latin now by the age of twelve as he will ever need for examination purposes, and he spends the next eight years in doing over again and again the same work! A clever boy of twelve could easily pass Responsions.”

A headmaster in Newfoundland mentions in his school report for 1905 a boy who “began Greek in October and passed the Oxford Responsions in January.”

There is a leakage somewhere, and there is overlapping, and both are due to the examinations upon which scholarships are awarded. Something must be done, because Public Schools, with all their splendid records, are not effective in the sense that they turn out the average boy a good all-round man. For better or for worse, who knows? the Democracy is coming in like a flood, and our old foundations will be tossed about in the welter unless we make haste to strengthen our weak places. Might not a commission--consisting of two or three headmasters, as many preparatory school masters, University “Dons,” and public men (once public school boys and now the fathers of such boys) look into the question and devise examination tests which shall safeguard Letters, ancient and modern, without putting too high a premium upon scholarship?

Once the hands of schoolmasters were united, they would no doubt devise means by which our friend, the average boy, would get such a knowledge of the classics as should open life-long resources to him. Like the ‘Baron of Bradwardine’ he would go about with a pocket Livy (as he would say, “Titus Livius,”) to be read, not laboured at a few lines at a time: _The Seven against Thebes_, _Iphigenia in Aulis_, the few tragedies left to us by the great dramatists would form part of the familiar background of his thoughts. He would know somewhat of the best that has been written in Greek and Latin, whether through printed translations or through the text itself rendered in the sort of running translation which some masters know how to give. _Pari passu_, he would do his share of gerund-grind, and construe the two or three books of his present limited acquaintance. But his limitations would be recognised, and he would not be required to turn out Greek and Latin verse.

Meantime his master will require him to know pretty intimately a hundred worthy books in addition to the great novels--to be read in class periods, in vacation, and in leisure time--his knowledge of each to be tested by a single bit of oral description or written work in verse or prose. “Ground he at Grammar,” sums up every successful school boy’s record as it did that of the dead “Grammarian”; but the ten or twelve years of school life should yield more than this.

I say nothing now about the teaching of science, for which most schools provide, except that for our generation, science seems to me to be the way of intellectual advance. All the same, the necessity incumbent upon us at the moment is to inculcate a knowledge of _Letters_. Men and their motives, the historical sequence of events, principles for the conduct of life, in fact, practical philosophy, is what the emergencies of the times require us to possess, and to be able to communicate. These things are not to be arrived at by any short cut of economics, eugenics, and the like, but are the gathered harvests of many seasons’ sowing of poetry, literature, history. The nation is in sore need of wise men, and these must be made out of educated boys.

III

KNOWLEDGE, REASON, AND REBELLION

We have been very busy about education these sixty years or more--diligently digging, pruning, watering; but there is something amiss with our tree of knowledge; its fruits, both good and evil, are of a mean, crabbed sort, with so little to choose between them that superior persons find it hard to determine which is which. To examine the individual apples would be a long process, but let me take one at a venture: is it not true that a conviction of irresponsibility characterises our generation?

If this be true, seeing that we all think as we have been brought up to think, our education is at fault. Faulty education is to blame if private property be recklessly injured in broad day, if working men do vital injury to their country thinking to serve their caste, if there be people who love to have it so, as long as their own interests are immune. The melancholy fact is that the people who do damage to private property, to public interests, and to that more delicate asset of a nation, public opinion, are all by way of being educated in their several degrees. All of them can write and speak clearly, think logically if not sincerely, and exhibit a certain practical ability. It is true that the War has changed much and has brought us a temporary salvation, but education must secure to us our gains or the last state of the nation may be worse than the first.

No doubt we are better and not worse than our forefathers; and, where we err, it is through ignorance. “Through ignorance ye did it,” was said of the worst crime that men have done; and that appalling offence was wrought for no worse reason than because it is the habit of more or less lettered ignorance to follow specious arguments to logical conclusions. The sapient East knows all about it. Lady Lugard tells us how “the Copts have a saying that ‘in the beginning when God created things He added to everything its second.’ ‘I go to Syria,’ said Reason; ‘I go with you,’ said Rebellion.” We need not follow the other pairs that went forth, but still Reason is apt to be accompanied by Rebellion when it sets out in search of a logical issue.

For it is a fatal error to think that reason can take the place of knowledge, that reason is infallible, that reasonable conclusions are of necessity right conclusions. Reason is a man’s servant, not his master; and behaves like a good and faithful servant--a sort of ‘Caleb Balderstone,’ ready to lie royally in his master’s behoof--and bring logical demonstration of any premiss which the will chooses to entertain. But the will is the man, the will chooses; and the man must _know_, if the will is to make just and discriminating decisions. This is what Shakespeare, as great a philosopher as a poet, set himself to teach us, line upon line, precept upon precept. His ‘Leontes,’ ‘Othello,’ ‘Lear,’ ‘Prospero,’ ‘Brutus,’ preach on the one text--that a man’s reason brings certain infallible proofs of any notions he has wilfully chosen to take up. There is no escape for us, no short cut; art is long, especially the art of living.

In the days when the working man represented only the unit of his family he picked up enough knowledge to go on with at church and chapel, by scrutinizing his neighbour’s doings, in the village parliament, held at pump or “public,” from the weekly news-sheet. But we have changed all that: bodies of working men have learned by means of union to act with a momentum which may be paralysing or propelling _according to whether the men have or have not knowledge_. Without knowledge, Reason carries a man into the wilderness and Rebellion joins company. The man is not to be blamed: it is a glorious thing to perceive your mind, your reasoning power, acting of its own accord as it were and producing argument after argument in support of any initial notion; how is a man to be persuaded, when he wakes up to this tremendous power he has of involuntary reasoning, that his conclusions are not necessarily right, but rather that he who reasons without knowledge is like a child playing with edged tools? Following his reason, he acquires this and the other sort of freedom; but is it not written:--

“Nor yet (Grave this upon thy heart!) if spiritual things Be lost through apathy, or scorn, or fear, Shalt thou thy humbler franchises support, However hardly won or justly dear.”

If, then, the manners and the destinies of men are shaped by knowledge, it may be well to inquire further into the nature of that evasive entity. Matthew Arnold helps us by offering a threefold classification which appeals to common sense--knowledge of God, knowledge of men, and knowledge of the natural world; or, as we should say, Divinity, the Humanities, and Science. But I think we may go further and say that Letters, if not (as I said before) the main content of knowledge, constitute anyway the container--the wrought salver, the exquisite vase, even the alabaster box to hold the ointment.

If a man cannot think without words, if he who thinks with words will certainly express his thoughts, what of the monosyllabic habit that is falling upon men of all classes? The chatter of many women and some men does not count, for thought is the last thing it is meant to express. The Greeks believed that a training in the use and power of words was the chief part of education, recognising that if the thought fathers the word, so does the word in turn father the thought. They concerned themselves with no language, ancient or modern, save their own, but of that they acquired a consummate appreciation. With the words came the great thoughts, expressed in whatever way the emergencies of the State called for--in wise laws, victorious battles, glorious temples, sculpture, drama. For great thoughts anticipate great works; and these come only to a people conversant with the great thoughts that have been written and said. In what strength did the youngest and greatest of our Premiers bring about the “revival of England”? He was fortified by illimitable reading, by a present sense of a thousand impossibilities that had been brought to pass--of a thousand things so wisely said that wise action was a necessary outcome. To say that we as a nation are suffering from our contemptuous depreciation of knowledge is to say that we scorn Letters, the proper vehicle of _all_ knowledge.

Let us glance at the three departments of knowledge to see in regard to which of the three we are most in error. Some of us are content with such knowledge of Divinity as is to be picked up from the weekly sermon heard in church, but even with the qualification of a degree in Arts I wonder do our divines lift us as much as they might into that serener region where words fitly spoken beget thoughts of peace and holy purpose? That worship is the main end of our Church services is a sublime ideal, but, “The Way, without which there is no going, the Truth, without which there is no knowing, the Life, without which there is no living,” must needs be set before us in “words that burn,” and we wait for preachers like those of a bygone day, “Whose pulpit thunders shook a nation’s soul.”

It is possible that the Church may err in keeping us underfed upon that knowledge which is life, but she does not send us away empty. We get some little share, too, of literature, poetry, history: a phrase, a line, lights up a day for us; to read of Charles Fox’s having said, “Poetry’s everything,” of that black conqueror of the Soudan who said, “Without learning life would have neither pleasure nor savour”--these things do us good, we cannot tell why.

But there is a region of apparent sterility in our intellectual life. Science says of literature, “I’ll none of it,” and science is the preoccupation of our age. Whatever we study must be divested to the bone, and the principle of life goes with the flesh we strip away: history expires in the process, poetry cannot come to birth, religion faints; we sit down to the dry bones of science and say, Here is knowledge, all the knowledge there is to know. “I think that is very wonderful,” a little girl wrote in an examination paper after trying to explain why a leaf is green. That little girl had found the principle--admiration, wonder--which makes science vital, and without wonder her highest value is, not spiritual, but utilitarian. A man might as well collect matchboxes, like those charming people in one of Anatole France’s novels, as search for diatoma, unless the wonder of the world be ever fresh before his eyes. In the eighteenth century science was alive, quick with emotion, and therefore it found expression in literature. Still, a Lister, a Pasteur, moves us, and we feel that in one department of science, anyway, men stirred by the passion of humanity (“letters” at the fountain head?) are doing monumental work.

But for the most part science as she is taught leaves us cold; the utility of scientific discoveries does not appeal to the best that is in us, though it makes a pretty urgent and general appeal to our lower avidities. But the fault is not in science--that mode of revelation which is granted to our generation, may we reverently say?--but in our presentation of it by means of facts and figures and demonstrations that mean no more to the general audience than the point demonstrated, never showing the wonder and magnificent reach of the law unfolded. The Hebrew poet who taught us that “Breadcorn is bruised ... because his God doth instruct him and doth teach him,” glorified life. Coleridge has revealed the innermost secret, whether of science or literature: speaking on the genesis of an idea, he says, “When the idea of Nature (presented to chosen minds by a Higher Power than Nature herself),” etc. The man who would write for us about the true inwardness of wireless telegraphy, say, how truly it was a discovery, a revealing of that which was there and had been there all along, might make our hearts burn within us. No doubt there are many scientific men who are also men of letters, and some scientific books as inspiring as great poems--but science is waiting for its literature; and, though we cannot live in shameful ignorance and must get what we can out of the sources open to us, science as it is too commonly taught tends to leave us crude in thought and hard and narrow in judgment.

We are told that in times of great upheaval it profits not to cast blame on this or that section of the community; that we are all to blame even for the offences of individuals; and we partly believe it because our fathers have told us; thus did the prophets humble themselves before God, and bemoaned each his exceeding great sin in the sin of his people. We, too, are meek under chastisements, but we are vague and, to that extent, insincere. Perhaps our duty is to give serious thought to the problems of our national life; then we may come to realise that man does not live by bread alone; we may perceive that “bread” (or cake!) is our sole and final offer to all persons of all classes; that we are losing our sense of any values excepting money values; that our young men no longer see visions, and are attracted to a career in proportion as “there’s money in it.” Nothing can come out of nothing, and, if we bring up the children of the nation on sordid hopes and low ambitions, need we be surprised that every man plays for his own hand?

We recognise now and then, when the shoe pinches, that the nation is in the threes of a revolution, but do we take trouble to find out the cause of “industrial unrest” and the correct attitude of the public towards that unrest? The revolution which is in progress may, it seems to me, develop on either of two lines: the men may get those “humbler franchises” they covet, but at the loss of “spiritual things”--such as the character for fair play, straight dealing, and loyalty to contract, which we like to think of as distinctively English. But what about the warning that these “humbler franchises” will be likewise lost? Trade unionism is no new thing; centuries ago and for centuries, as we know, England and Europe were under the dominion of those states within the State--the Trades Guilds. At this distance of time we can afford to admire these for the spiritual things to which they held fast; their religious organisation, the thorough training they afforded to their apprentices, and the obligation every member of a guild was under to use just weights and measures and to turn out first rate work of whatever kind. But, notwithstanding these moral safeguards, the tyranny of the guilds became insupportable, and they disappeared into the limbo of things no longer serviceable. Could any dream of Socialism, again, offer more perfect conditions than did the Russian village communes? But these too established a tyranny which was felt to be more oppressive than serfdom itself: the _Mir_ disappeared, lost in that Gehenna which engulfed the guilds.

Wordsworth’s prophetic lines should instruct us. “However hardly won or justly dear” those humbler franchises for which men are standing out in their tens of thousands with unanimity, courage, devotion to a cause justified by their REASON, they will not be able to support those same franchises if spiritual things, the real things of life, be lost in gaining them. Therefore we may predict that the present movement may well issue in worse things but will not issue in the triumph of either trade unionism or syndicalism.

Here is our opportunity. We blame the workmen for their irresponsible action, for what seems to us the reckless way in which the poorest are impoverished and multitudes of workers are compelled to unwilling idleness. But those of us who are neither miners nor owners may not allow ourselves irresponsible thought or speech, and we may contribute our quota towards appeasement. It is within everybody’s province to influence public opinion, if it be only the opinion of two or three; we may raise the whole question to a higher plane, the plane of those spiritual things--duty, responsibility, brotherly love (towards all men)--which make the final appeal. We could not, and we need not try to, obstruct the revolution of which we are vaguely conscious, but we may help to make it a turn of the wheel which shall bring us out of the darkness of a Simplon Tunnel into the light and glory of a Lombard plain. We may, respecting the claims of working men, perceive that they demand too little, and that the things they demand are not those which matter. Even the shock of a revolution is not too high a price for an experience which should convince us that knowledge is the basis of a nation’s strength.

IV

NEW AND OLD CONCEPTIONS OF KNOWLEDGE

I have so far advanced that “knowledge” is undefined and probably indefinable; that it is a state out of which persons may pass and into which they may return, but never a store upon which they may draw; that knowledge-hunger is as universal as bread-hunger; that our best provision for conveying knowledge is marvellously successful with the best men, but rather futile with the second best; that persons whose education has not enriched them with knowledge store up information (statistics and other facts), upon which they use their reasoning powers; that the attempt to reason without knowledge is disastrous; and that, during the present distress, England is, for various economical reasons, in a condition of intellectual inanition consequent upon a failure in her food supply, in this case the supply of food proper for the mind. I have glanced at Knowledge under the three headings suggested by one who speaks with authority, and have contended that, even if the knowledge be divisible, the vehicle by which it is carried is one and indivisible, and that it is generally impossible for the mind to receive knowledge except through the channel of letters.

But the mediæval mind had, as we know, a more satisfactory conception of knowledge than we have arrived at. Knowledge is for us a thing of shreds and patches, knowledge of this and of that, with yawning gaps between.

The scholastic mediæval mind, probably working on the scattered hints which the Scriptures offer, worked out a sublime _Filosofica della Religione Cattolica_, pictured, for example, in the great fresco painted by Simone Memmi and Taddeo Gaddi (which Ruskin has taught us to know), and implied in “The Adoration of the Lamb” painted by the two Van Eycks. In the first picture we get a Pentecostal Descent, first, upon the cardinal virtues and the Christian graces, then, upon prophets and apostles, and below these upon the seven Liberal Arts represented each by its captain figure, Cicero, Aristotle, Zoroaster, etc., none of them Christian, not one of them a Hebrew. Here we get the magnificent idea that all knowledge (undebased) comes from above and is conveyed to minds which are, as Coleridge says, previously prepared to receive it; and, further, that it comes to a mind so prepared, without question as to whether it be the mind of pagan or Christian; a truly liberal catholic idea, it seems to me, corresponding marvellously with the facts of life. As sublime and even more explicit is the Promethean fable which informed the Greek mind. With the sense of a sudden plunge we come down to our own random and ineffectual notions, and are tempted to cry with Wordsworth,--

“Great God! I’d rather be A Pagan suckled in a creed outworn,”

and know that a God had brought gifts of knowledge to men at awful cost, than to sit serene in the vague belief that knowledge arrives in incoherent particles, no one knows how and no one knows whence; or that it is self-generated in a man here and there who gets out of himself new insight into the motions of mind and heart, a new perception of the laws of life, the hint of a new amelioration in the condition of men.

Because the notion that we entertain of knowledge as being heterogeneous lies at the root of our heterogeneous theories of education, it may be as well to quote a passage from Ruskin’s description of that picture in the chapel of the Church of Santa Maria Novella to which I have referred:--

“ ... On this side and the opposite side of the Chapel are represented by Simon Memmi’s hand, the teaching power of the Spirit of God and the saving power of the Christ of God in the world according to the understanding of Florence in his time.

“We will take the side of intellect first. Beneath the pouring forth of the Holy Spirit in the point of the arch beneath are the three Evangelical Virtues. Without these, says Florence, you can have no science. Without Love, Faith and Hope--no intelligence. Under these are the four Cardinal Virtues ... Temperance, Prudence, Justice, Fortitude. Under these are the great Prophets and Apostles.... Under the line of Prophets, as powers summoned by their voices are the mythic figures of the seven theological or spiritual and the seven geological or natural sciences; and under the feet of each of them the figure of its Captain-teacher to the world.” (_Mornings in Florence._)

That is, the Florentines of the Middle Ages believed in “the teaching power of the Spirit of God,” believed not only that the seven Liberal Arts were fully under the direct outpouring of the Holy Ghost, but that every fruitful idea, every original conception, be it in geometry, or grammar, or music, was directly derived from a Divine source.

Whether we receive it or not, and the Scriptures abundantly support such a theory regarding the occurrence of knowledge, we cannot fail to perceive that here we have a harmonious and ennobling scheme of education and philosophy. It is a pity that the exigencies of his immediate work prevented Ruskin from inquiring further into the origin, the final source, of knowledge, but we may continue the inquiry for ourselves. In “the teaching power of the Spirit of God” we have a pregnant and inspiring phrase. Supposing that we accept this mediæval philosophy tentatively for present relief, what would be our gains?

First, the enormous relief afforded by a sense of unity of purpose, of progressive evolution, in the education of the race. It induces great ease of mind to think that knowledge is dealt out to us according to our preparedness and according to our needs; that God whispers in the ear of the man who is ready in order that he may be the vehicle to carry the new knowledge to the rest of us. “God has a few of us whom He whispers in the ear,” ‘Abt Vogler’ is made to say; and another poet causes his Explorer to cry:--

“God chose me for His whisper, and I’ve found it, and it’s yours!”

Next, that knowledge, in this light, is no longer sacred and secular, great and trivial, practical and theoretical. All knowledge, dealt out to us in such portions as we are ready for, is sacred; knowledge is, perhaps, a beautiful whole, a great unity, embracing God and man and the universe, but having many parts which are not comparable with one another in the sense of less or more, because all are necessary and each has its functions. Next, we perceive that knowledge and the mind of man are to each other as are air and the lungs. The mind lives by means of knowledge; stagnates, faints, perishes, deprived of this necessary atmosphere.

That, it is not for a man to choose, “I will learn this or that, the rest is not my concern”; still less is it for parent or schoolmaster to limit a child to less than he can get at of the whole field of knowledge; for, in the domain of mind at least as much as in that of morals or religion, man is under a Divine Master; he has to know as he has to eat.

That, there is not one period of life, our school days, in which we sit down to regular meals of intellectual diet, but that we must eat every day in order to live every day.

That, knowledge and what is known as “learning” are not to be confounded; learning may still be an available store when it is not knowledge; but by knowledge one grows, becomes more of a person, and that is all that there is to show for it. We sometimes wonder at the simplicity and modesty of persons whose knowledge is matter of repute; but they are not hiding their light; they are not aware of any unusual possessions; they have nothing to show but themselves, but we feel the force of their personalities. Now, forceful personalities, persons of weight and integrity, of decision and sound judgment, are what the country is most in need of; and, if we propose to bring such persons up for the public service, the gradual inception of knowledge is one condition amongst others.

There are various delightfully “new” educational systems in favour, in all of which a grain of knowledge is presented in a gallon of warm diluent. We have the theory that it does not matter what a child learns, but only how he learns it; which is as sound as, It does not matter what a child eats, but only how he eats it, therefore feed him on sawdust! Then, we have Rousseau’s primitive man theory, that a child must get all his knowledge through his own senses and by his own wits, as if there were no knowledge waiting to be passed on by the small torch-bearer; and there is the theory which obtained in Catholic England, exemplified in more than one of the Waverley Novels, in the sports purveyed for her tenantry by ‘Lady Margaret Bellenden,’ for example. Those men and maidens had been trained as children to be “supple, active, healthy, with senses alert, ready for dance and song, with an eye and ear ready for the beautiful, intelligent, happy, capable.” (I quote from a valuable letter in _The Times_). What with our morris-dances, pageants, living pictures, miracle plays, and so on, we are reviving the Stuart educational ideals, and no doubt we do well to aim at increasing the general joy. But our age requires more of us; in the sort of self-activity and self-expression implied in these and in half a dozen other educational theories, knowledge plays no part, and the city _gamin_ exhibits in perfection every quality of gaiety, alert intelligence, delight in shows, which we set ourselves to cultivate.

“With all thy getting, get understanding,” is the message for our needs, and understanding is, in one sense, the conscious act of the mind in apprehending knowledge, which is in fact relative, and does not exist for any person until that person’s mind acts upon the intellectual matter presented to it. “Why will ye not understand?” is the repeated and poignant question of the Gospels.

That is what ails us as a nation, we do not understand; not ignorant persons only, but educated men and women, employ fallacious arguments, offer prejudices for principles, and platitudes for ideas. If it be argued that these failures are due less to ignorance than to insincerity, I should reply that insincerity is an outcome of ignorance; the darkened intelligence cannot see clearly. “The day is unto them that know,” but knowledge is by no means the facile acquirement of those who, according to Ruskin, “cram to pass and not to know.”

I would not be understood as passing strictures upon the vast and excellent educational work nearly all teachers are doing; it is impossible to go into an Elementary School without being impressed by the competence of the teachers and the intelligence of the children; I have already paid a worthless tribute to Public Schools, and should like here to add a word of affectionate and hearty appreciation of the High School girl as I know her, thoughtful and well educated--a person quite undeserving of the slings and arrows of outrageous criticism too freely aimed at her. As for our new Universities, they remove the stigma under which many of us have suffered in presence of the numerous centres of intellectual life which add dignity and grace to continental cities. The new Universities are full of promise for the land.

We have, no doubt, arrived at a good starting place, but we may not consider that the journey is accomplished. I need not repeat the charges to which we have laid ourselves open because of our ignorance, but I shall endeavour to take a closer survey of the field of education as regarded from the standpoint of knowledge and the innate affinities existing in the mind with that knowledge which is proper for it. For the present the need is that “abstract knowledge” should present itself to practical persons as the crying demand of the nation; the “mandate,” let us say, pronounced by certain general failures to understand the science of relations, and that other neglected form of knowledge, “the science of the proportion of things.”

V

EDUCATION AND THE FULLNESS OF LIFE

“I must live my life!” said the notorious bandit who before the War terrorized Paris; and we have heard the sort of cant often, even before _The Doll’s House_ gave to “self-expression” the dignity of a cult; nevertheless, the brigand Bonnot has done an ill turn to society, for a misguiding theory neatly put is more dangerous than an ill-example.

We are tired of the man who claims to live his life at the general expense, of the girl who will live hers to her family’s annoyance or distress; but there really is a great opportunity open to the nation which will set itself to consider what the life of a man should be and will give each individual a chance to live his life.

We are doing something; we are trying to open the book of nature to children by the proper key--knowledge, acquaintance by look and name, if not more, with bird and flower and tree; we see, too, that the magic of poetry makes knowledge vital, and children and grown-ups quote a verse which shall add blackness to the ashbud, tender wonder to that “flower in the crannied wall,” a thrill to the song of the lark. As for the numerous field clubs of the northern towns, the members of which, weavers, miners, artisans, reveal themselves as accomplished botanists, birdmen, geologists, their Saturday rambles mean not only “life,” but splendid joy. It is to be hoped that the opportunities afforded in the schools will prepare women to take more part in these excursions; at present the work done is too thorough for their endurance and for their slight attainments.

In another direction we are doing well; we are so made that every dynamic relation, be it leap-frog or high-flying, which we establish with Mother Earth, is a cause of joy; we begin to see this and are encouraging swimming, dancing, hockey, and so on, all instruments of present joy and permanent health. Again, we know that the human hand is a wonderful and exquisite instrument to be used in a hundred movements exacting delicacy, direction and force; every such movement is a cause of joy as it leads to the pleasure of execution and the triumph of success. We begin to understand this and make some efforts to train the young in the deft handling of tools and the practice of handicrafts. Some day, perhaps, we shall see apprenticeship to trades revived, and good and beautiful work enforced. In so far, we are laying ourselves out to secure that each shall “live his life”; and that, not at his neighbour’s expense; because, so wonderful is the economy of the world that when a man really lives his life he benefits his neighbour as well as himself; we all thrive in the well-being of each. We are perceiving, too, that a human being is endowed with an ear attuned to harmony and melody, with a voice from which music may issue, hands whose delicate action may draw forth sounds in enthralling sequence. With the ancient Greeks, we begin to realise that music is a necessary part of education. So, too, of pictorial art; at last we understand that every one can draw, and that, because to draw is delightful, every one should be taught how; that every one delights in pictures, and that education is concerned to teach him what pictures to delight in.

A person may sing and dance, enjoy music and natural beauty, sketch what he sees, have satisfaction in his own good craftsmanship, labour with his hands at honest work, perceiving that work is better than wages; may live his life in various directions, the more the merrier. A certain pleasant play of the intellect attends the doing of all these things; his mind is agreeably exercised; he thinks upon what he is doing, often with excitement, sometimes with enthusiasm. He says, “I must live my life,” and he lives it in as many of these ways as are open to him; no other life is impoverished to supply his fullness, but, on the contrary, the sum of general joy in well-being is increased both through sympathy and by imitation.

This is the sort of ideal that is obtaining in our schools and in the public mind, so that the next generation bid fair to be provided with many ways of living their lives, ways which do not encroach upon the lives of others. Here is the contribution of our generation to the science of education, and it is not an unworthy one; we perceive that a person is to be brought up in the first place for his own uses, and after that for the uses of society; but, as a matter of fact, the person who “lives his life” most completely is also of most service to others because he contains within him provision for many serviceable activities which are employed in living his life; and, besides, there is a negative advantage to the community in the fact that the man is able to live on his own resources.

But a man is not made up only of eyes to see, a heart to enjoy, limbs delightful in the using, hands satisfied with perfect execution: life in all these kinds is open more or less to all but the idly depraved. But what of man’s eager, hungry, restless, insatiable mind? True, we teach him the mechanical art of reading while he is at school, but we do not teach him to read; he has little power of attention, a poor vocabulary, little habit of conceiving any life but his own; to add to the gate-money at a football match is his notion of adventure and diversion.

We are, in fact, only taking count of the purlieus of that vast domain which pertains to every man in right of his human nature. We neglect mind. We need not consider brain; a duly nourished and duly exercised mind takes care of its physical organ provided that organ also receives its proper material nourishment. But our fault, our exceeding great fault, is that we keep our own minds and the minds of our children shamefully underfed. The mind is a spiritual octopus, reaching out limbs in every direction to draw in enormous rations of that which under the action of the mind itself becomes knowledge. Nothing can stale its infinite variety; the heavens and the earth, the past, the present, and future, things great and things minute, nations and men, the universe, all are within the scope of the human intelligence. But there would appear to be, as we have seen, an unsuspected unwritten law concerning the nature of the “material” which is converted into knowledge during the act of apprehension. The idea of the _Logos_ did not come by chance to the later Greeks; “The Word” is not a meaningless title applied to the second Person of the Trinity; it is not without significance that every utterance which fell from Him is marked by exquisite literary fitness; (a child’s comment on a hymn that was read to her was, “that is not poetry; Jesus would have said it _much_ better”); in rendering an account of His august commission Christ said:--“I have given unto them _the words_ which Thou gavest me”; and one disciple voiced the rest when he said, “Thou hast _the words_ of eternal life.” The Greeks knew better than we that words are more than things, more than events; with all primitive peoples rhetoric appears to have been a power; the grand old sayings which we have scorned as inventions are coming to their own again, because, what modern is capable of such inventions? Men move the world, but the motives which move men are conveyed by words. Now, a person is limited by the number of things he is able to call by their names, qualify by appropriate epithets; this is no mere pedantic ruling, it belongs to that unfathomable mystery we call human nature; and the modern notion of education, with its shibboleth of “things not words,” is intrinsically demoralizing. The human intelligence demands letters, literature, with a more than bread-hunger. It is almost within living memory how the newly emancipated American negroes fell upon books as the famished Israelites fell upon food in the deserted camp of Sennacherib.

Only as he has been and is nourished upon books is a man able to “live his life.” A great deal of mechanical labour is necessarily performed in solitude; the miner, the farm-labourer, cannot think all the time of the block he is hewing, the furrow he is ploughing; how good that he should be figuring to himself the trial scene in the _Heart of Midlothian_, the “high-jinks” in _Guy Mannering_, that his imagination should be playing with ‘Ann Page’ or ‘Mrs. Quickly,’ or that his labour goes the better “because his secret soul a holy strain repeats.” People, working people, do these things. Many a one can say out of a rich experience, “My mind to me a kingdom is”; many a one cries with Browning’s ‘Paracelsus,’ “God! Thou art mind! Unto the master-mind, Mind should be precious. Spare my mind alone!” We know how “_Have mynde_” appears on the tiles paving the choir of St. Cross; but “_mynde_” like body, must have its meat.

Faith has grown feeble in these days, hope faints in our heavy ways, but charity waxes strong; we would make all men millionaires if we could, or, at any rate, take from the millionaires to give to the multitude. No doubt some beneficent and venturous Robin Hood of a minister will arise (has arisen?) to take steps in that direction; but when all has been done in the way of social amelioration we shall not have enabled men to “live their lives” unless we have given them a literary education of such sort that they choose to continue in the pleasant places of the mind. “That is all very well in theory,” some one objects, “but look at the Masses, are they able to receive Letters? When they talk it is in journalese, and anything in the nature of a book must be watered down and padded to suit their comprehension.” But is it not true that working men talk in “journalese” because it is only the newspapers that do them the grace to meet them frankly on their own level? Neither school education nor life has put books in their way, and their adoption of the only literary speech that offers but proves a natural aptitude for Letters. One cannot always avoid appeal to the authority one knows to be final, and I will not apologise for citing the fact at which no doubt we have all wondered that Christ should expose the profoundest philosophy to the multitude, the “Many,” whom even Socrates contemns.

May I quote, with apologies to the writer, a letter signed “A Working Man,” written in answer to one of mine which was honoured by being reprinted in _The Times Weekly Edition_? (It is good, by the way, that such a journal should be in the hands of working men). My correspondent “thanks Heaven that there are still a few persons left in this country who regard education as somewhat different from a means of _keeping a shop_.” We may all thank Heaven that there are working men who value knowledge for its own sake and hate to have it presented to them as a means of getting on.

The fact is, Letters make a universal appeal because they respond to certain innate affinities: young Tennysons, De Quinceys, and the like, are, as we all know, inordinate readers, but these are capable of foraging on their own account; it is for the average, the dull, and the backward boy I would lay urgent claim to a literary education; the minds of such as these respond to this and to no other appeal, and they turn out perfectly intelligent persons, open to knowledge by many avenues. For working men whose intelligence is in excess of their education, Letters are the accessible vehicle of knowledge; having learned the elements of reading, writing, and summing, it is unnecessary to trouble them with any other “beggarly elements”; their natural intelligence and mature minds make them capable of dealing with difficulties as they occur; and for further elucidation every working men’s club should have an encyclopædia. Some men naturally take to learning, and will struggle manfully with their Latin grammar, and Cicero, their Euclid and trigonometry. Happy they! But the general conclusion remains, that for men and women of all ages, all classes, and all complexions of mind, Letters are an imperative and daily requirement to satisfy that universal mind-hunger, the neglect of which gives rise to emotional disturbances, and, as a consequence, to evils that dismay us.

VI

KNOWLEDGE IN LITERARY FORM

I have so far urged that knowledge is necessary to men, and that, in the initial stages, it must be conveyed through a literary medium, whether it be knowledge of physics or of Letters, because there would seem to be some inherent quality in mind which prepares it to respond to this form of appeal and no other. I say in the initial stages, because possibly, when the mind becomes conversant with knowledge of a given type, it unconsciously translates the driest formulæ into living speech; perhaps it is for some such reason that mathematics seem to fall outside this rule of literary presentation; mathematics, like music, is a speech in itself, a speech irrefragably logical, of exquisite clarity, meeting the requirements of mind.

To consider Letters as the staple of education is no new thing; nor is the suggestion new that to turn a young person into a library is to educate him. But here we are brought to a stand; the mind demands method, orderly presentation, as inevitably as it demands knowledge; and it may be that our educational misadventures are due to the fact that we have allowed ourselves to take up any haphazard ordering that is recommended with sufficient pertinacity.

But no one can live without a philosophy which points out the order, means and end of effort, intellectual or other; to fail in discovering this is to fall into melancholia, or more active madness: so we go about picking up a maxim here, a motto there, an idea elsewhere, and make a patchwork of the whole which we call our principles; beggarly fragments enough we piece together to cover our nakedness and a hundred phrases which one may hear any day betray lives founded upon an ignoble philosophy. No doubt people are better than their words, better than their own thoughts; we speak of ourselves as “finite beings,” but is there any limit to the generosity and nobility of almost any person? The hastily spoken “It is the rule at sea,” that distressed us a while ago, what a vista does it disclose of chivalric tenderness, entire self-sacrifice! Human nature has not failed; what has failed us is philosophy, and that applied philosophy which is called education. Philosophy, all the philosophies, old and new, land us on the horns of a dilemma; either we do well by ourselves and seek our own perfection of nature or condition, or we do well by others to our own loss or deterioration. If there is a mean, philosophy does not declare it.

There are things of which we have desperate need: we want a new scale of values: I suppose we all felt when, in those days before the War, we read how several millionaires went down in the “Titanic” disaster, not only that their millions did not matter, but that they did not matter to them; that possibly they felt themselves well quit of an incessant fatigue. We want more life: there is not life enough for our living; we have no great engrossing interests; we hasten from one engagement to another and glance furtively at the clock to see how time, life, is getting on; we triumph if a week seems to have passed quickly; who knows but that the approach of an inevitable end might find us glad to get it all over? We want hope: we busy ourselves excitedly about some object of desire, but the pleasure we get is in effort, not in attainment; and we read, before the War, of the number of suicides among Continental schoolboys, for instance, with secret understanding; what is there to live for? We want to be governed: servants like to receive their “orders”; soldiers and schoolboys enjoy discipline; there is satisfaction in stringent Court etiquette; the fact of being “under orders” adds dignity to character. When we revolt it is only that we may transfer our allegiance. We want a new start: we are sick of ourselves and of knowing in advance how we shall behave and how we shall feel on all occasions; the change we half-unconsciously desire is to other aims, other ways of looking at things. We feel that we are more than there is room for; other conditions might give us room; we don’t know; any way, we are uneasy. These are two or three of the secret matters that oppress us, and we are in need of a philosophy which shall deal with such things of the spirit. We believe we should be able to rise to its demands, however exigeant, for the failure is not in us or in human nature so much as in our limited knowledge of conditions.

The cry of decadence is dispiriting, but is it well-founded? The beautiful little gowns that have come down as heirlooms would not fit the “divinely tall” daughters of many a house where they are treasured. We have become frank, truthful, kind; our conscientiousness and our charity are morbid; we cannot rest in our beds for a disproportionate anxiety for the well-being of everybody; we even exceed the generous hazard, that, peradventure for a good man one might be found to die; almost any man will risk his life for the perishing without question of good or bad; and we expect no less from firemen, doctors, life-boatmen, parsons, the general public. And what a comment on the splendid magnanimity of men does the War afford!

An annoying inquiry concerning risks at sea almost resulted in a ruling that no one should let himself be saved so long as others were in danger; it is preposterous, but is what human nature expects of itself. No, we are not decadent on the whole, and our uneasiness is perhaps caused by growing pains. We may be poor things, but we are ready to break forth into singing should the chance open to us of a full life of passionate devotion. Now, all our exigeant demands are met by words written in a Book, and by the manifestations of a Person; and we are waiting for a Christianity such as the world has not yet known. Hitherto, Christ has existed for our uses; but what if a time were coming when we, also, should taste the “orientall fragrancie” of, “My Master!” So it shall be when the shout of a King is among us, and are there not premonitions? But these things come not by prayer and fasting, by good works and self-denial, alone; there is something prior to all these upon which our Master insists with distressful urgency, “Why will ye not know? Why will ye not understand?”

My excuse for touching upon our most intimate concerns is that this matter, too, belongs to the domain of Letters; if we propose to seek knowledge we must proceed in an orderly way, recognising that the principal knowledge is of most importance; the present writer writes and the reader reads, because we are all moved by the spirit of our time; these things are our secret preoccupation, for we have come out of a long alienation as persons “wearied with trifles,” and are ready and anxious for a new age. We know the way, and we know where to find our rule of the road; but we must bring a new zeal and a new method to our studies; we may no longer dip here and there or read a perfunctory chapter with a view to find some word of counsel or comfort for our use. We are engaged in the study of, in noting the development of, that consummate philosophy which meets every occasion of our lives, all demands of the intellect, every uneasiness of the soul.

The arrogance which pronounces judgment upon the written “Word” upon so slight an acquaintance as would hardly enable us to cover a sheet or two of paper with sayings of the Master, which confines the Divine teaching to the great Sermon, of which we are able to rehearse some half-dozen sentences, is as absurd as it is blameworthy. Let us give at least as profound attention to the teaching of Christ as the disciples of Plato, say, gave to his words of wisdom. Let us observe, note-book in hand, the orderly and progressive sequence, the penetrating quality, the irresistible appeal, the unique content of the Divine teaching; (for this purpose it might be well to use some one of the approximately chronological arrangements of the Gospel History in the words of the text). Let us read, not for our profiting, though that will come, but for love of that knowledge which is better than thousands of gold and silver. By and by we perceive that this knowledge is the chief thing in life; the meaning of Christ’s saying, “Behold, I make all things new,” dawns upon us; we get new ideas as to the relative worth of things; new vigour, new joy, new hope are ours.

If we believe that knowledge is the principal thing, that knowledge is tri-partite, and that the fundamental knowledge is the knowledge of God, we shall bring up our children as students of Divinity and shall pursue our own life-long studies in the same school. Then we shall find that the weekly sermons for which we are prepared are as bread to the hungry; and we shall perhaps understand how enormous is the demand we make upon the clergy for living, original thought. It is only as we are initiated that science and “Nature” come to our aid in this chief pursuit; then, they “their great Original proclaim”; but while we are ignorant of the principal knowledge they remain dumb. Literature and history have always great matters to speak of or suggest, because they deal with states or phases of moral government and moral anarchy, and tacitly indicate to us the sole key to all this unintelligible world; and literature not only reveals to us the deepest things of the human spirit, but it is profitable also “for example of life and instruction in manners.”

We are at the parting of the ways; our latest educational authority, one who knows and loves little children, would away with all tales and histories that appeal to the imagination; let children learn by means of things, is her mandate; and the charm and tenderness with which it is delivered may well blind us to its desolating character. We recognise Rousseau, of course, and his _Emile_, that self-sufficient person who should know nothing of the past, should see no visions, allow no authority. But human nature in children is stronger than the eighteenth century philosopher and the theories which he continues to inform. Whoever has told a fairy tale to a child has been made aware of that natural appetency for letters to which it is our business to minister. Are we not able to believe that words are more than meat, and, so believing, shall we not rise up and insist that children shall have a liberal diet of the spirit? Rousseau, in spite of false analogies, fallacious arguments, was able to summon fashionable mothers and men of the world throughout Europe to the great task of education, because his eloquence convinced them that this was their assigned work and a work capable of achievement; and we who perhaps see with clearer eyes should do well to cherish this legacy--the conviction that the education of the succeeding generation is the chief business of every age.

Nevertheless, though we are ourselves emerging from the slough of materialism, we are willing to plunge children into its heavy ways through the agency of a “practical” and “useful” education; but children have their rights, and among these is the freedom of the city of mind. Let them use things, know things, learn through things, by all means; but the more they know Letters the better they will be able, with due instruction, to handle things. I do not hesitate to say that the whole of a child’s instruction should be conveyed through the best literary medium available. His history books should be written with the lucidity, concentration, personal conviction, directness, and admirable simplicity which characterizes a work of literary calibre. So should his geography books; the so-called scientific method of teaching geography now in vogue is calculated to place a child in a somewhat priggish relation to Mother Earth; it is impossible, too, that the human intelligence should assimilate the sentences one meets with in many books for children, but the memory retains them and the child is put in the false attitude of one who offers pseudo-knowledge. Most of the geography books, for example, require to be translated into terms of literature before they can be apprehended. Great confidence is placed in diagrammatic and pictorial representation, and it is true that children enjoy diagrams and understand them as they enjoy and understand puzzles; but there is apt to be in their minds a great gulf between the diagram and the fact it illustrates. We trust much to pictures, lantern slides, cinematograph displays; but without labour there is no profit, and probably the pictures which remain with us are those which we have first conceived through the medium of words; pictures may help us to correct our notions, but the imagination does not work upon a visual presentation; we lay the phrases of a description on our palette and make our own pictures; (works of art belong to another category). We recollect how Dr. Arnold was uneasy until he got details enough to form a mental picture of a place new to him. So it is with children and all persons of original mind: a map to put the place in position, and then, all about it, is what we want.

Readings in literature, whether of prose or poetry, should generally illustrate the historical period studied; but selections should be avoided; children should read the whole book or the whole poem to which they are introduced. Here we are confronted by a serious difficulty. Plato, we know, determined that the poets in his “Republic” should be well looked after lest they should write matter to corrupt the morals of youth; aware of what happened in Europe when the flood-gates of knowledge were opened, Erasmus was anxiously solicitous on this score, and it is a little surprising to find that here, Rossetti was on the side of the angels. Will the publishers, who, since Friedrich Perthes discovered their educational mission, have done so much for the world, help us in this matter also? They must excise with a most sparing hand, always under the guidance of a jealous scholar; but what an ease of conscience it would be to teachers if they could throw open the world of books to their scholars without fear of the mental and moral smudge left by a single prurient passage! Many, too, who have taken out their freedom in the republic of letters would be well content to keep complete library editions in costly bindings in their proper place, while handy volumes in daily use might be left about without uneasiness.

The Old Testament itself after such a (very guarded) process would be more available for the reading of children; and few persons would feel that Shakespeare’s plays suffered from the removal of obscenities here and there. In this regard we cherish a too superstitious piety. In another matter, let that great “remedial thinker,” Dr. Arnold, advise us:--“Adjust your proposed amount of reading to your time and inclination; but whether that amount be large or small let it be varied in its kind and widely varied. If I have a confident opinion on any one point connected with the improvement of the human mind it is on this.” Here we get support for a varied and liberal curriculum; and, as a matter of fact, we find that the pupil who studies a number of subjects knows them as well as he who studies a few knows those few.

Children should read books, not about books and about authors; this sort of reading may be left for the spare hours of the dilettante. Their reading should be carefully ordered, for the most part in historical sequence; they should read to _know_, whether it be _Robinson Crusoe_ or Huxley’s _Physiography_; their knowledge should be tested, not by questions, but by the oral (and occasionally the written) reproduction of a passage after one reading; all further processes that we concern ourselves about in teaching, the mind performs for itself; and, lastly, this sort of reading should be the chief business in the class room.

We are at a crucial moment in the history of English education. John Bull is ruminating. He says, “I have laboured at the higher education of women; let them back to the cooking-pot and distaff and learn the science (!) of domestic economy. I have tried for these forty years to educate the children of the people. What is the result? Strikes and swelled head! Let them have ’prentice schools and learn what will be their business in life!” John Bull is wrong. In so far as we have failed it is that we have offered the pedantry, the mere verbiage, of knowledge in lieu of knowledge itself; and it is time for all who do not hold knowledge in contempt to be up and doing; there is time yet to save England and to make of her a greater nation, more worthy of her opportunities. But the country of our love will not stand still; if we let the people sink into the mire of a material education our doom is sealed; eyes now living will see us take even a third-rate place among the nations, for it is knowledge that exalteth a nation, because out of duly-ordered knowledge proceedeth righteousness and prosperity ensueth.

“Think clear, feel deep, bear fruit well,” says our once familiar mentor, Matthew Arnold, and his monition exactly meets our needs.

SUPPLEMENTARY

TOO WIDE A MESH

“The wide world dreaming on things to come” is concentrating on a luminous figure of education which it beholds, dimly, emerging from a cloudy horizon. This gracious presence is to change the world, to give to all men wider possibilities, other thoughts, aims: but, alas, this Education which is to be open to all promises no more on a nearer view than to make Opportunity universal--that is, in spiritual things, he may take who has the power and he may keep who can.

The net is cast wide no doubt and brings in a mighty haul but the meshes are so wide that it will only retain big fishes. Now this is the history of education since the world was and is no new thing. The mediæval schools of castle or abbey, the Renaissance schools, the very schools of China, have all been conducted upon this plan. Education is for him who wants it and can take it but is no universal boon like the air we breathe or the sunshine we revel in.

We are a little sorry for the effect of this limitation upon the ‘working classes’: only a small percentage of the children of these are ‘big’ enough to be retained in the examination net which, to do it justice, explores all waters. A few of the pass men may do big things and fill big posts, but for the rest, a large percentage is, in practice, illiterate except for the spelling out of a local ‘rag’ for football and parish news.

But is the mischief confined to what we call the ‘working classes’? Is it not a fact that in most schools the full force of instruction is turned on upon a few boys who are likely to distinguish themselves? While for the rest of the school teaching is duly given no doubt but the boys find they may take it or leave it as the humour takes them.

We were all fascinated a while ago by the story of a pair of charming ‘Twins’; these went through the usual preparatory school education and then passed on to a great Public School where they remained until they were nineteen; that is, they had ten or twelve good years among most excellent opportunities. As they were attractive boys we may take it that their masters were not at any rate unwilling to teach them. Their record should have been quite a good one, and, though it is the fashion to sneer a little at Public Schools, we know that these have turned out and do turn out the best and most intellectual men the country has occasion for. Therefore what happened in the case of these ‘Twins’ does not cast any reflection upon Public Schools but solely upon the system of the Big Mesh. Here are some of the things we read in that delightful biography:--

“While in hospital after a smash at polo R---- wrote to F----:--‘I enjoyed it immensely. What lucky people we are taking an interest in so many things!’”

Surely here was material for a schoolmaster to work upon! Again, we read:--

“They never ceased to wonder at the magnificence of the world and they carried a divine innocence into soldiering and travel and sport and business and, not least,--into the shadows of the Great War.”

And this ‘wonder’ of theirs was the note that marked them at school. Again, what material for their instructors!

“But,” we read, “at X---- they showed little interest in books and, later, were wont to lament to each other that ‘_They had left school wholly uneducated._’” (The italics are ours.)

Their kindly biographer and dear friend goes on to say:--

“But they learnt other things,--the gift of leadership, for instance, and the power of getting alongside all varieties of human nature.”

But was not this nature rather than nurture, school nurture at any rate, for these gifts seem to have been a family inheritance? Born in 1880, they left school in 1899, when there follows a delightful record for the one brother of successful and adventurous sport while--

“R---- was soon absorbed in the city ... and beginning to lament his want of education.” “F----, while in Egypt was greatly impressed by Lord Cromer and writes to R----, ‘he is quite the biggest man we have!... to hear him talk is worth hearing.’”

The two brothers correspond constantly and R---- takes the part of mentor to his brother. He advises him to learn _The Times_ leaders by heart to improve his style,--“because they are very good English.” Again,--

“I will send you out next mail a very good book, _Science and Education_, by Professor Huxley which I have marked in several places, the sort of book you can read over again.” R---- “had discovered that he was very badly educated and was determined to remedy this defect:--‘It don’t matter ... I do believe not having learned at X---- so long as one does so now.’”

See the fine loyalty of the young man; his failures were not to be put down to his school!

If the schools take credit for any one thing it is that they show their pupils ‘how to learn’; but do they? We are told that R---- set to work at a queer assortment of books and writes to F----:--

“Anyone can improve his memory: the best way is by learning by heart--no matter what--and then when you think you know it, say it or write it.... After two or three days you are sure to forget it again and then instead of looking at the book ‘strain your mind’ and try to remember it. Above all things always keep your mind employed. One great man (I forget which) used to see a number on a door, say 69, and tried to remember all that had happened in the years ending in 69. Or, see a horse and remember how many you have seen that day.... Asquith always learns things by heart, he never wastes a minute; as soon as he has nothing to do he picks up some book. He reads till 1-30 every night. When driving to the Temple next morning he thinks over what he has read. Result: he has a marvellous memory and knows everything.”

Think of the Herculean labours the poor fellow set for both himself and his brother! They ran an intellectual race across a ploughed field after heavy rain and the marvel is that they made way at all. Yet these two brothers had sufficient intellectual zeal to have made them great men as Ambassadors, Governors of Dominions, Statesmen, what not; whereas so far as things of the mind go, they spent their days in a hopeless struggle, alert for any indication which might help them to make up lee-way, and all because, according to their own confession, they ‘had learned nothing at school.’ Here are further indications of R----’s labours in the field of knowledge:--

“I am reading Rosebery’s _Napoleon_ and will send it to you. What a wonder he was! Never spent a moment of his life without learning something.... I enclose an essay from Bacon’s book. Learn it by heart if you can. I have and think it a clinker.... I have also finished _Life of Macaulay_. I have always wondered how our great politicians and literary chaps live.... I also send you a Shakespeare. I learnt Antony’s harangue to the Romans after Cæsar’s death; I am also trying to learn a little about electricity and railroad organization, so have my time filled up. _Pickwick Papers_ I also send to you. I have always avoided this sort of books but Dickens’ works are miles funnier than the rotten novels one sees.... I have learnt one thing by my reading and my conversation with Professors,--_you and I go at a subject all wrong_.” (Italics ours.)

These letters are pathetic documents and, that they are reassuring also, let us be thankful. They do go to prove that the desire of knowledge is inextinguishable whatever schools do or leave undone; but have these nothing to answer for when a pursuit which should yield ever recurring refreshment becomes dogged labour over heavy roads with little pleasure in progress?

Here, again, is another evidence of the limitations attending an utter absence of education. A cultivated sense of humour is a great factor in a joyous life, but these young men are without it. Perhaps the youth addicted to sports usually fails to appreciate delicate nonsense; sports are too strenuous to admit of a subtler, more airy kind of play and we read:--

“R---- heard Mr. Balfour and Lord Reay praising _Alice in Wonderland_. Deeply impressed he bought the book as soon as he returned to London and read it earnestly. To his horror he saw no sense in it. Then it struck him that it might be meant as nonsense and he had another try, when he concluded that it was rather funny but he remained disappointed.”

We need not follow the career of these interesting men further. Both fell early before they were forty. Their fine qualities and their personal fascination remained with them to the end, as did also, alas, their invincible ignorance. They laboured indefatigably, but, as R---- remarked,--“You and I go at a subject all wrong!”

The schools must tell us why men who attained mediocre successes and the personal favour due to charming manners and sweet natures were yet somewhat depressed and disappointed on account of the ignorance which they made blind and futile efforts to correct; but they never got so far as to learn that knowledge is delightful _because one likes it_; and that no effort at self-education can do anything until one has found out this supreme delightfulness of knowledge.

It must be noted that this failure of a great school to fulfil its purpose occurred twenty years ago, and that no educational body has made more well-considered and enlightened advances than have the Headmasters of the great Public Schools. Probably that delightful group of Eton boys in _Coningsby_ has always been and is to-day typical; there is a certain knightly character in the fine bearing and intelligent countenances of the Head Boys one comes across there which speaks well for their intellectual activity. The question is whether more might not be done with the average boy.

The function of the schools is no doubt to feed their scholars on knowledge until they have created in them a healthy appetite which they will go on satisfying for themselves day by day throughout life. We must give up the farce of teaching young people how to learn, which is just as felicitous a labour and just as necessary as to teach a child the motions of eating without offering him food; and studies which are pursued with a view to improve the mind must in future take a back seat.

The multitudinous things that every person wants to know must be made accessible in the schoolroom, not by diagrams, digests, and abstract principles; but boys and girls, like ‘Kit’s little brother,’ must learn ‘what oysters is’ by supping on oysters. There is absolutely no avenue to knowledge but knowledge itself, and the schools must begin, not by qualifying the mind to deal with knowledge, but by affording all the best books containing all the sorts of knowledge which these ‘Twins,’ like everyone else, wanted to know. We have to face two difficulties. We do not believe in children as intellectual persons nor in knowledge as requisite and necessary for intellectual life. It is a pity that education is conducted _in camera_ save for the examination lists which shew how the best pupils in a school have acquitted themselves, the half-dozen or dozen best in a big school. Finely conscientious as teachers are they can hardly fail to give undue importance to their group of candidates for examination and a school of four or five hundred stands or falls by a dozen head boys.

[See note under Table of Contents for (_a_) the large number of children’s answers, and (_b_) Book IV of which only Chapter 1 appears in this volume].

Index

abridged editions, 183

_Abt Vogler_, 324

academic solution of educational problems, the, 254, 288

Academy (French), 252, 256

_Across the Bridges_, by A. Paterson, 118, 119, 300

act of knowing, 99, 254, 271, 292, 298; knowledge acquired by, 291

Adams, Professor John, 112

æsthetic sense, 43; open to disaster, 56

affections, mis-directed, 58

Albrecht, Dr., 162

allusions, literary, 264

Ambleside, 212, 217

_Ambleside Geography, The_, 226-229

Amyot, on history, 273

anarchy, 69

‘Angelic Doctor,’ The, 284

‘aniseed drops,’ educational, 302

_aphasia_, our national, 269

‘appetency,’ 56, 107

apprenticeship, 328

architecture, 77, 217, 220

arithmetic, 59, 73, 141, 151, 152, 230-233

Armstrong, Dr., 280

Arnold, Dr., 257, 340, 341

Arnold, Matthew, 239, 252, 258, 309, 315, 342

art, xxx, 14, 43, 45, 63, 154, 157, 254; teaching of, 213-217, 275; is of the spirit, 214; power of appreciating, 214; reverent knowledge of, 214

Arthur, King, 28

assimilation, 259

astronomy, 50, 220, 222

Astrophel, 100

athleticism and mental activity, 72

atmosphere, education is an, xxix, 94-99

attention, 259; a habit, 100; a natural function, 171; how secured, 13-15, 17, 28, 45, 76, 255; must not have crutches, 258; power of, present in children, xxxi, 7, 14, 18, 76, 154, 171, 255, 263, 290; the hall-mark of an educated person, 99; the prime agent in education, 16, 76, 247; weakened by efforts to memorise, 17; unfailing, 17, 171, 291

_Aus Meinem Leben_ (Goethe), 161

Austen, Jane, 16, 77, 193, 294

authority, natural, necessary and fundamental, xxix, 68-78, 97, 134; deputed, 68; the condition of liberty, 69; order, outcome of, 69; chastened, 71; _vide_ self-authority

average boy, the, 300, 310, 312

Bacon, 7, 29, 61, 105, 124, 143

_Barnaby Rudge_, 259, 282

‘Baron of Bradwardine,’ the, 312

Bergson, Henri, 173

Bernhardi, F. von, 3

Bible, The, 143, 186, 272, 273; in curriculum, 30, 40, 61-65, 160-165, 254; fine English of, 160, 309; method of, lesson, 159-169; and critical teaching, 163

Big Mesh, The system of the, 344

biology, 221

Blake, William, 79

Board of Education, 250

body, well-being of, 46; a sound, 189

Bompas Smith, Professor, 27

Bonnot, 327

books, many, xxx, 7, 12, 15, 30, 59, 76, 267, 271, 303; living, xxx, 303; worthy, 12, 18, 26, 52, 75, 104, 191, 260, 268; delight in, 28; text-books, 50, 53, 105, 256, 263, 271, 275; difficulty of choosing, 187, 248; choice of, 248, 272; P.U.S., tested by examinations, 248; ‘classes’ and ‘masses’ must read the same, 264; about books, 341

Bosanquet, Bernard, 149

Bose, Professor Sir Jagadis Chandra, 95

botany, 220, 221

brain, adaptation of, to habits, xxx, 101; thought not a function of, 2, 4, 260; subject to same conditions as body, 38; should not know fatigue, 38; mind takes care of, 330

British Association, The, 222, 251

British Museum, The, 77, 175, 176, 274

Browning, Robert, 100, 133, 215, 331

Büchner, 4

Burns, John, 300

_Bushido_, 133

‘Caleb Garth,’ 61

‘Caleb Balderstone,’ 314

Carlyle, Thomas, 238, 288

Catechism, The, 169

Cavell, Nurse, 77, 141

Character, the one achievement possible, 129; more important than conduct, 129; formation of, 264, 278; magnanimity of, 248

Charles IX, 50

chemistry, 254

_Childe Harold_ (Byron), 186

child-garden, 24

children, waiting for call of knowledge, xxv; are born persons, xxix, 13, 18, 29, 36, 80, 238; have good and evil tendencies, xxix, 47-49, 52, 61, 66, 85, 86, 88, 89; must live under natural conditions, xxix, 96-99; have appetite for knowledge, xxx, 10, 11-13, 14, 18, 29, 44, 53, 58, 62, 77, 89, 91, 124; can deal with knowledge, xxx, 10, 14, 18, 40, 72, 109, 117, 154, 237, 263; require much and various knowledge, xxx, 11, 12, 14, 19, 25, 72, 109, 111, 116, 125, 154, 157, 253, 256, 263, 288-290; and in literary form, xxxi, 13, 17, 18, 29, 30, 51, 92, 109, 154, 160, 172, 218, 248, 256, 260, 291; have power of attention, xxxi, 7, 14, 18, 29, 75, 154, 171, 255, 263, 291; enormous educability of, xxxi; must have principles of conduct, xxxi, 62; must have responsibility of learning, 6, 74, 99; have powers common to _all_, 8; backward, 9, 62, 183, 245, 255, 291; are ignorant, 10; have imagination, 10, 18, 36, 41, 50; and judgment, 10, 18; hindered by apparatus of teacher, 11, 54; made apathetic by spiritual malnutrition, 11, 54; must have great thoughts, 12, 40; must read many books, xxx, 7, 12, 15, 30, 59, 76, 267, 271, 303; must read to know, 13, 99; are bored by talk, 15, 19, 41, 44, 52, 58; intellectual capacity of, belittled, 26, 31, 75, 81, 158, 192, 238, 246; are not all alike, 30, 241; first notions of, 35; and language, 35; early thoughts of, 36, 238; experience what they hear and read, 40; hearts of, thoroughly furnished, 43, 60; of the slums, 44, 63, 256, 260, 293; all, persons of infinite possibilities, 44, 156; start fair, 47; muscles and nerves of, 48; have power to sense meaning, 51, 181; not intellectual ruminants, 53; dangers of feeding, morally, 59; must think fairly, 61; capacity and needs of, 66, 157; and the sense of ‘must,’ 73; offences against, 81; must be relieved of decisions, 97; need bracing, not too stimulating, atmosphere, 98; should not ‘run wild,’ 98; must form good habits, 100; grow upon ideas, 109; should know something of their own capacities, 131, 187, 189; must follow arguments and detect fallacies, 147; must know what religion is, 149; educational rights of, 157, 339; howlers of _v._ mistakes, 158, 256; have affinity for God, 158; able for school education at five, but no conscious mental effort desirable until six, 159; examination answers of, 167, 168, 185, 191, 193, 194, 195-209, 244; enjoy classical names, 181; must see life whole, 187; must learn science of proportion, 187; chastely taught, watch their thoughts, 188; do not generalise, 224; devitalised, 237; not products of education or environment, 238; not incomplete beings, but ignorant, 238; powers of, 9, 238, 255; shown in verses, 242-243; offer a resisting medium, 253; need physical and mechanical training, 255; beings ‘of large discourse,’ 305; should be persons of leisure, 305

China, schools of, 343

Chinese Empire, 179

Christ, parables of, 304; gave profoundest philosophy to the multitude, 332; does not exist for our uses only, 336; teaching of, must receive profound attention, 337

Christianity, 336

Chrysostom, St., Prayer of, 64

cinematograph displays, 340

Circe, 186, 267

_Citizens to Be_, by Miss M. L. V. Hughes, 235

citizenship, 185-189, 254, 274; the inspiration of, 185; ancillary to history, 185; problem of good and evil in, 186

Cizek, Herr, 216

Coleridge, S. T., 35, 56, 105-108, 110, 233, 290, 318, 322

Colet, Dean, xxvi, 247

Collingwood, Lord, 60

Comenius, 8, 20, 291

composition, 190-209; oral, 190, 269; art of, should not be taught, 190, 192, 269; not an adjunct of education, 192; in verse, 193, 242; definite teaching of, in Forms V and VI, 193, 194; power of, innate in children, 191; written, 192; comes of free and exact use of books, 193; children’s, 195-209

concentration, 8, 15; innate, 171

_Coningsby_, 348

conscience, present in infant, 37; governing power of man, 131

_Continuation Schools_, edited by Sir Michael Sadler, 285

Continuation Schools, a Liberal Education in, 119, 124, 127, 147; the scope of, 279-299; movement and technical education, 279; not for technical instruction, but for things of the mind, 287

Copenhagen, 285

Copts, 314

Cornwell, Jack, 141

correlation, principle of, 276

correlation lessons, 114, ff.

Council Schools, P.U.S. work in, xxv, 77, 81, 181, 182, 195, 241, 290, 293

‘countenance,’ a manifestation of thought, 301

‘Creakle, Mr.’ 81, 101

Curie, Madame, 141

curriculum, a full, xxx, 14, 19, 30, 154, 263; a common, 12, 293; principles bearing upon the, 13, 31, 156-158; in P.U.S., 15, 28, 154-234; in Grammar and Public Schools, 85; and the formation of habits, 99; in Elementary Schools, 155; standard set by examinations, 233; a complete, suggested by the nature of things, 156

Damien, Father, 60

dancing, 234

Darwin, 3, 4, 5, 54

_David Copperfield_, 81, 111, 238

democracy, 312

Demos clamours for humanistic education, 299

Denmark, education in, 123, 283-287, 291, 306

De Quincey, 29, 103, 333

Departmental Committee on English, 269

desires, which stimulate mind, 11, 88; cater for spiritual sustenance, 11; atrophy of, 89; _v._ other desires, 247; must be used wisely, 56; right and wrong, 84

Dewey, Professor, 280

Dickens, 81, 111

discipline, xxix, xxx; secured by knowledge-hunger, 11; education a, 99-104

discrimination, 259

diversion, xxxi

Divine Spirit, xxxi; Divine sanctions, 20

docility, 68; universal, 69; _v._ subservience, 71; implies equality, 71

_Doll’s House, The_ (Ibsen), 327

drawing, 217, 329

Drighlington Girls’ School, xxv, 236

economics, 73, 313

education; a liberal, xxv, 8, 21, 78, 92, 127, 235, 250, 261, 264, 266, 271, 294, 296; gives stability of mind, 248; makes for sound judgment, 56; three instruments of, xxix, 94; and atmosphere, xxix, 94-99; and discipline of habit, xxix, xxx, 99-104; is a life, xxix, 104-111; is the Science of Relations, xxx, 31, 154; little dependent on heredity and environment, xxxi; errors in, 2, 5, 24, 26, 38, 41, 44, 53, 58, 59, 75-77, 82-89, 91, 94-96, 98, 105, 110, 114-122, 129, 155, 178, 190, 237, 246, 254, 304; a philosophy of, 2, 18, 67; and training, 3, 5, 6, 20, 39, 48, 147, 287; must nourish mind, 6, 72, 105, 111, 253, 255, 260; discoveries in, 9, 62, 68, 104, 255, 256, 290; and the Desires, 11, 58, 84-90; Knowledge the concern of, 2, 93, 266; is of the spirit, 12, 26, 30, 38, 39, 125; attention, the prime agent of, 16, 76, 247; lacks exact application of principles, 19; “new,” 27; distinguished from psychology, sociology, pathology, 27; in want of a unifying theory, 32; does not produce mind, 36; and use of leisure, 42, 79, 121; the work of, 46, 60, 248, 281, 287; the handmaid of Religion, 46, 79, 248; business of, always with us, 54; of the feelings, 59; of the soul, 63; drowned by talk, 65; and capacity of child, 66; a going forth of the mind, 66, 137; popular, 76; a free, 85, 146; definite progress a condition of, 91; not mainly gymnastic in function, 108, 236; in Denmark and Scandinavia, 123, 125, 283-287, 291, 306; in Germany, 123, 125, 279, 280, 306; utilitarian, 125, 156, 180, 224, 279-283, 302; co-existent with moral bankruptcy, 281; in France, 125; in Switzerland, 125; Secondary, 127, 250-278; less liberty than in Primary, 155; character, the aim of, 129, 287; must fortify will, 131; title deeds of, 156; beginning of definite, 159; a science of proportion, 231-233; a social lever, 245; solves problems of decent living, 245; a venture of faith, 245; part and parcel of Religion, 246; _v._ Civilisation, 248; a common, 249, 264, 296; a democratic, 265; not for the best children only, 254; hindered by materialism, 259; an exclusive, our great achievement, 265; overlapping in, 265; a literary, open to all, 268; humanistic, affects conduct, 293; an early, from great books, the true foundation of knowledge, 308; of the race, 324; new systems of, 325; result of forty years’, 342; should be universal boon like air, 343; as exemplified by two Public School boys, 343-348

Education Act, 121, 122

Eliot, George, 61

efficiency, 125

Elementary Schools, 326; P.N.E.U. propaganda on behalf of, xxvii; P.U.S. methods in, xxxi, 13, 14, 39, 44, 50, 268; books in, 53; concentration schemes in, 115; A Liberal Education in, 235-249; gain by no marks, no places, 247

_Emile_, by J. J. Rousseau, 338

_Encyclopædia Britannica_, 5, 17

‘English,’ 86, 147, 209-211

English Literature, 124, 298

environment, xxix, 94-99; educability of children little dependent on, xxxi, 155; not way to mind, 38; _v._ atmosphere, 96; children not products of, 238

Erasmus, 187, 340

erudition, 310

ethics, 14, 254, 274

_Ethics of the Dust_, by John Ruskin, 223

Eton, 252, 308, 348

Eucken, Professor, 249, 296

Euclid, 152, 233

eugenics, 313

eurhythmics, 251, 255

examinations, 231, 256, 277, 291; University entrance, 155, 233; and scholarships, 155; P.U.S., 158, 167, 168, 171, 178, 220, 221, 241-243, 262, 270, 272, 293-296; should set less exacting standard, 256; tests which shall safeguard Letters, 312; papers and children’s answers, 195-209

Ezekiel, 55

faculties, 11, 17, 259, 263, 266; out-of-date, 2, 230, 255; Büchner on, 4; none to develop, 255, 276

fallacious arguments, 326

Fichte, 279, 306

Fisher, Mr. H. A. L., 53, 122, 126

Fouillée, M., 110

Fox, Charles, 29; on poetry, 317

_Four Georges, The_, by Thackeray, 171

France, Anatole, 317

France, education in, 125

Francis, St., 60

Franklin, the Hon. Mrs., xxviii

Frederick the Great, 3

French, the teaching of, 211-213

French Revolution, The, 4, 92

Fuller, Thomas, xxvii

Gaddi, Taddeo, 322

games, 188; should be joyous relaxation rather than stern necessity, 267

Genesis, 309

geography, teaching of, 14, 30, 40, 59, 177, 220, 221, 224-230; dangers of ‘scientific,’ 41; suffers from utilitarian spirit, 224; and travel, 226; the romance of, 227; not generalisations, 227; inferential method of teaching, 227-228; panoramic method, 227-228; literary character of, 228

geology, teaching of, 221

geometry, the teaching of, 233

German, the teaching of, 213

Germany, moral breakdown of, 3, 123; influence of Darwin on, 3, 4; utilitarianism in, 6, 123, 125, 280, 286, 306; cult of æstheticism in, 95; philosophers of, 3, 4; school curriculum in, 6; efficiency in, 282, 283

Gibbon, 124

Gladstone, W. E., 281

Gloucester teachers’ P.U.S. conference, 183

Gloucestershire, 51, 90

God, knowledge of, 64, 65, 158-169, 239, 246, 254, 287, 289, 310, 315; the principal knowledge, 272, 338

‘Godfrey Bertram,’ 122

Goethe, 40, 160-162, 273, 299

Gordon, General, 141

Gordon Riots, 130

Gorky, Maxim, 62

Gospels, The, 165, 166, 169

grammar, the teaching of, 7, 10, 141, 151, 152, 209-211, 269

Greek, 124, 155, 254, 308

Greeks and the power of words, 316

Gregory, Sir Richard, on science teaching, 222

Grundtvig, 125, 283, 284, 291

_Guy Mannering_, 122, 331

gymnastics, intellectual and physical _v._ knowledge, 236

Habit, xxix, 53, 99-104, 128, 147; is inevitable, 101; a bad master, 101; act repeated becomes, 102; religious, 103

Haeckel, Ernst, 4

Hague, The, 285

Haldane, Lord, 26

Hall, Professor Stanley, 280

_Hamlet_, 179, 183

handicrafts, xxx, 31, 73, 154, 217, 234, 251, 255, 328

_Heart of Midlothian_, The, 331

_Henry VIII_, 170, 173

Herbart, 112, 113, 114, 117

Herbartian doctrine, xxx, 113, 117

Herbert, George, 64

heredity, educability of children little dependent on, xxxi, 155

High School girl, the, 326

history, 14, 30, 42, 50, 59, 62, 73, 77, 151, 157, 169-180, 254, 267; a vital part of education, 169, 273; church, 169; English, 170-175, 176, 177; French, 175, 176, 177; ancient, 175, 176, 177, 274; Indian, 176, 267; European, 176, 177; British Empire, 176; and literature, 176, 177, 180, 184, 269, 274; and citizenship, 185, 274; geographical aspects of, 177; as a background for thought, 178; time given to, 170; necessary for a sane life, 178; gives weight to decision, consideration to action, stability to conduct, 179; charts, by Miss Beale, 177

_Home Education Series_, 6, 27

Homer, 182, 190

home work, 9

hope, we want, 335

Horace, 78, 264

horde, spirit of, a dangerous tendency, 300

Household, Mr. H. W., 90, 212

House of Education, The, 15, 212, 213, 276

“howlers,” 158, 256

Humanism, 240; for the people at large, 235

humanistic training surest basis for business capacity, 285

‘Humanities,’ The, 14, 157, 235, 239, 260, 297, 305; in English, 298

human nature, prefers natural to spiritual law, 3; a composite whole, 156; possibilities of, infinite and various, 156; an ordered presentation of the powers of, 189; has not failed, 335

Huxley on the teaching of science, 218

hygiene, 220

Ideas, xxix, xxx, 290; mind feeds on, xxx, 10, 20, 25, 39, 40, 105, 109, 110, 117, 256; informing, xxx, 26, 154; initial, xxxi; Platonic, 10, 108; that influence life, 25; give birth to acts, 80, 102, 303; potency of, 105; rise and progress of, 106, 107; Coleridge’s ‘captain,’ 110; behaviour of, 113; correlation of, 114; instruct conscience and stimulate will, 130; choice between, 134; growth of, 297

Ignorance, dangers of, 1, 5, 279, 299, 310, 314; is not incapacity, 63; our national stumbling-block, 239; only one cure for, 239

Imagination, 25, 259; present in children, 11, 18, 36, 41, 50; present in infant, 37; may be stored with evil images, 55

_Incuria_ of children, 52, 254, 292

India, 267

influence, 83

information _v._ knowledge, 26, 184, 303, 321

initiative, 25

insincerity an outcome of ignorance, 326

integrity, 61

intellect not a class prerogative, 12; enthroned in every child, 50

intellectual conversion, xxv, xxvi

intellectual appetite, 56

intelligence not a matter of inheritance and environment, 12

introspection, 66

irresponsibility characterises our generation, 313

Isaiah, 106, 309, 318

Italian, teaching of, 213

James, Professor William, 113, 114

Japan, 133; revolution in, 306

Jewish nation, history of, 162

_Joan and Peter_, by H. G. Wells, 95, 252, 266

Johnson, Dr., 143, 160; on questions, 257

Jordan, xxvi

judgment, power of, 259; present in children, 9, 18

justice, 60-62

Kant, 306

Keble, 167

Kidd, Benjamin, 69

_King Lear_, 45, 242

Kipling, Rudyard, 89, 135, 181

Kirschensteiner, Dr. and Munich Schools, 280

knowledge, call of, xxv; appetite for, xxx, 10, 11, 14, 18, 20, 29, 44, 53, 57, 77, 89, 90, 92, 117, 124, 253, 255, 290, 302; must be vital, xxx, 39, 44, 105, 154; quantity and variety of, xxx, 11, 14, 19, 116, 123, 154, 157, 253, 256, 257, 263, 288, 289, 290; must be literary in form, xxx, 13, 15, 18, 29, 30, 51, 91, 109, 111, 154, 160, 172, 218, 248, 256, 260, 290; assimilation of, xxx, 12, 14, 16, 18, 155, 240, 292; the sole concern of education, 2, 12, 93; the necessary food of mind, 2, 18, 75, 88, 239, 256, 258; consecutive, 7, 158, 172, 244, 261, 267; accurate, 8; what is? 12, 239, 254, 303; a basis of common, for all classes, 20, 78, 264, 293, 298, 299; not sensation, 26; of good and evil, 46; love of, sufficient stimulus for work, 58, 79, 98; of God, 64, 65, 158-169, 239, 246, 254, 272, 287, 289, 310, 315, 338; formative influence of, 65; brings freedom, 71, 73; depreciation of, 76, 301, 316; is delectable, 89; creates bracing atmosphere, 97; _v._ teaching, 118; is virtue, 127, 235; of man, 169-218, 239, 254, 289, 315; of the Universe, 218-234, 239, 254, 289, 316; relativity of, and mind, 237, 240, 324; stops friction, 238; substitutes for, 302; ‘The source of pleasure,’ 302; Matthew Arnold on, 239; received with attention, and fixed by narration, 259; not same as academic success, 266; unifying effect of, 267; ‘Meet for the people,’ 292; a distinction between, and scholarship, 305; ‘Letters,’ the content of, 308; not a store but a state, 309; of the Life, the Truth, the Way, 317; the basis of a nation’s strength, 321; _v._ information, 303, 321; mediæval conception of, 321; all, is sacred, 324; a great unity, 324; and ‘learning,’ 325; exalteth a nation, 342

_Kultur_, 286

Lamb, Charles, 16, 258, 260

languages, the teaching of, 209-213, 254, 276

Latin, the teaching of, 94, 124, 155, 213

League of Nations, 169

learning, by rote, 257; and knowledge, 325; labour of, not decreased by narrowing curriculum, 158

Lecky, Mr., on utilitarian theory, 280

_Lehrbuch zur Psychologie_, 113

Leibnitz, 110, 113

Leonardo da Vinci, 54

lessons, dull routine, 44

‘Letters,’ knowledge and virtue, 307; the vehicle of knowledge, 308; a knowledge of, necessary, 313; make a universal appeal, 333; the staple of education, 334

_Liberal Education, A: Practice_, by A. C. Drury, 157

life, not enough for our living, 335

listening, habit of, 244

Lister, 19, 318

literary form, children must have, xxx, 15, 18, 29, 30, 51, 91, 109, 111, 154, 160, 172, 218, 248, 256, 260, 290; children educated out of, 13

Literature, the teaching of, 42, 43, 52, 62, 151, 157, 180-185, 254; natural aptitude for, 91; illustrates history, 176, 177, 180, 184, 269, 274; a living power, 185; and history, sole key to unintelligible world, 338; reveals deepest things, 338

Locke, 4, 156

_Logos_, 330

Louis XI, 132

Louis XIV, 92

Louisa, Queen of Prussia, 306

Lugard, Lady, 314

Lysander, 109

_Macbeth_, 140

magnanimity, 89, 248, 268

magnetism, personal, 13, 48, 49

Magnus, Sir Philip, 280

maps, 224

Marconi, 236

Maria Theresa, 311

marks, 7, 11, 28, 52, 247, 302; unnecessary, 45

Marx, Karl, 144

Masefield, John, on vitality of mind, 277

mathematics, the teaching of, 7, 59, 148, 151, 152, 153, 155, 230-233, 254, 256, 264, 296; appeal to mind, 51; beauty and truth of, 230, 334; undue importance of, 231; not a royal road to learning, 231; to be studied for their own sake, 232; success should not depend on, 232; depend upon the teacher, 233; badly taught, 233

matter, not the foundation of all being, 4; and mind, 5

Memmi, Simone, 284, 322, 323

Memory, 14, 16; mind _v._ word, 173, 263; knowledge, mental not verbal, 258, 303

mental food and work not synonymous terms, 281

_Method_, Coleridge’s, 106, 107

method, special points of P.N.E.U.; children do the work, 6, 19, 192, 216, 241; teachers help, 6, 19, 241; single reading, 6, 15, 171, 241, 258, 261, 263, 267, 291, 293, 304; narration, 6, 15, 18, 30, 45, 65, 155, 163, 165, 172, 180, 182, 190, 191, 211, 241, 261, 272, 276, 291; no revision, 6, 9, 15, 171, 241, 245, 262; no special selections, 7, 244; many books, 7, 12, 15, 30, 59, 76, 241, 267, 268, 271, 303; children’s delight in books, 7, 19, 30, 45; attention secured by books, 7, 13, 30, 45, 276; consecutive knowledge, 7, 158, 172, 244, 261, 267; takes less time, 9, 245; no preparation, 9, 158, 245; children occupied with things as well as books, 31; short hours, 158; examinations, 158, 167, 168, 171, 178, 195-209, 241-243, 262, 263, 270, 272; children form a good style, 194; power of dealing with names, 181, 262, 264, 294-296; suitable for large numbers, 247; success depends on principles, 270

‘Micawber, Mr.,’ 231

‘Midas,’ 267

Milton, 110, 124, 132, 159, 188, 274; on ideal of education, 249, 268; _Areopagitica_, 188

Mind, habits of, xxix, 53, 100; feeds on ideas, xxix, 2, 10, 15, 18, 20, 25, 39, 40, 105, 111, 117, 256, 257; not a receptacle, xxx, 112; a spiritual organism, xxx, 24, 38, 117; has appetite, xxx, 10, 20, 39, 57, 89, 281; must be fed, xxx, 5, 10, 18, 20, 24, 25, 41, 71, 105, 111, 117, 154, 236, 239, 246, 259, 263, 281, 288; can deal with knowledge, xxx, 10, 18, 41, 72, 117; not made up of faculties, 2, 17; in education, 2, 6, 253; thought alone appeals to, 2, 12, 15; is one, 5, 41; is spiritual, 5, 38; action of, stimulated by desires, 11, 13, 88; nature of, 20; house of, 24; must have labour of digestion, 26, 237; the instrument of education, 36; spiritual, _v._ physical brain, 38, 100, 260, 330; amazing potentialities of, 38; ‘the unconscious,’ 38, 66, 130; tendency to ignore, 38; the means of living, 42; good and evil tendencies of, 46, 49, 52; not a chartered libertine, 49; use of term, 66; always conscious, 66; heaven of, 71; not sustained by physical or emotional activity, 72, 289; must not be intruded upon, 130; deals with intellectual matter without aids, 172; potency not property characteristic of, 237; laws of, 245, 246, 290; behaviour of, 253; duly fed, its activities take care of themselves, 289; vast educability of, 289; receives knowledge to grow, 237; must know, 237; wonder of, 239; and knowledge, 240, 324; functions for its own nourishment, 246; of children not immature, 246; stability of, 248; benefits by occasional gymnastics, 255; a crucible, cannot distil from sawdust, 257; a deceiver ever, 257; outer court of, 257; how, works, 257; -stuff, 259; forces which act in education, 259; we must believe in, 260; moves altogether when it moves at all, 276; demands method, 334

miracles, 148

Montagu, Lady Mary Wortley, 36

Montaigne, on history, 169

Moral, impulse, 17; offences bred in the mind, 188; training, 58, 59

morality, school, 188

morals, everyday and economics: citizenship, 185-189

_Mornings in Florence_, by John Ruskin, 323

Muirhead, Professor, 3

Munich, 285, 306; Schools, 125, 280, 286

‘Murdstone, Mr.,’ 81

Music, 329

Musical Appreciation, by Mrs. Howard Glover, 217, 218

Napoleon, 5; a great reader, 305, 306

Napoleonic wars, 125, 279, 283

Narration, 99, 115, 165, 166, 180, 182, 190, 258-261, 291, 292; method of, xxx, 6, 15-17, 29, 30, 51, 64-65, 155, 163, 172-173, 191, 241, 244, 304; _v._ reproduction, 18, 30, 272; of slum children, 45, 63; depends on single reading, 6, 15, 171, 241, 258, 261, 263, 267, 291, 293, 304; a preparation for public speaking, 86, 124; literary expression in, 90; Dr. Johnson on, 160; must not be interrupted, 172, 191; in the teaching of languages, 211-213, 276; a natural power, 191

National Gallery, The, 215

natural history, the teaching of, 220

natural selection, 4

Nature Note Books, 217, 219, 223

Nature Study, xxx, 73, 154, 219, 328

needlework, 234

New Testament, 165, 187; teaching of, must be grounded on Old, 161

Newton, Sir Isaac, 231

Nietzsche, 3

Nightingale, Florence, 141

_Nineteenth Century and After_, 270

note-taking, 245, 257

Obedience, natural, necessary and fundamental, xxix, 68-79, 97, 134; dignified, 70; willing, 70; the test of personality, 134

obligation, 17

obscene passages, 341

Old Testament, 160-165, 341; as a guide to life, 273

opinions, _v._ ideas, 110; of teacher, 288

opportunity, doctrine of equal, 92, 179; universal, a fallacy, 343

oral lessons, xxvi, 15, 271

order, how to keep, 45

_Ourselves, Our Souls and Bodies_, 188, 189

_Pagan, The_, 250

‘Page, Ann,’ 331

Paget, Dr. Stephen, on suggestion, 82

Paley, 9

‘Paracelsus,’ 331

_Parents and Children_, 108

Parents’ Associations, xxviii

Parents’ National Educational Union, xxix, 6, 9, 23, 62, 79, 159, 171, 217, 253, 268, 270; mission of, to all classes, xxvii

P.N.E.U. Philosophy, xxix; fits all ages, satisfies brilliant children, helps the dull, secures attention, interest, concentration, 28

Parents’ Union School, xxviii, 13, 45, 78, 212, 217, 223, 233, 235, 254, 269, 275-277, 293; books in, 271; education free to Elementary Schools, 296

Parthenon Room, 175

Pascal, 256

Pasteur, 318

Paterson, Mr. A., 118, 119, 121

patriotism, a sane, 174

Paul, St., xxvii, 188, 309

Pelmanism, the indictment of, 250, 252

‘Pendennis, Arthur,’ 159

People’s High Schools in Denmark, 283-286

Person, a child is a, xxix, 13, 18, 29, 36, 44, 238; chief responsibility of a, to accept ideas, xxxi; marks of an educated, 1, 100; the more of a, the better citizen, 3, 76, 147; the measure of a, 10, 80; a, built up from within, 23; a, is a mystery, 238; a, measured by the wide and familiar use of substantives, 261; a, brought up first for his own uses, then for society, 329; a, who ‘lives his life,’ 329; nobility of a, 334

personality, respect due to, xxix, 24, 81-84, 97, 100, 125, 129; development of, 5, 147; of teacher, 7, 172; undue play of, 78, 82, 129; in narration, 18, 260

Perthes, Friedrich, 341

‘Peter Pan,’ 59

Pett Ridge, Mr., 119

‘Petulengro, Jasper,’ 224

_Peveril of the Peak_, 282

philosophy, 43; a, necessary to life, 334; a consummate, 337

physical training, xxx, 48, 72, 154, 233, 255

pictures _v._ descriptions, 340

picture study, 214-217, 275

Pied Piper, The, 48

Piozzi, Mrs., 160

platitudes, 326

Plato, 25, 27, 59, 148, 187, 337, 340; on ideas, 10, 105, 108; on knowledge, 127, 235

‘play way,’ a, 251, 255; not avenue to mind, 38

pleasure, grand elementary principle of, 248

Plutarch, 109, 185-187; on history, 274

poetry, 59, 72, 157

Poland, 184

Prayer Book, The, 169

prejudices, 326

‘Prettymans, the Miss,’ 251

progress, fetish of, 297

Promethean fable, 322

Protagoras, 25

Prussia, 5, 279, 306

pseudo-knowledge, 340

psychology, English, 4; mythology of ‘faculty,’ 4; said to rest on feeling, 5; _v._ sociology, allied to pathology, 27; modern, 66; little known of, 253

Public Schools, 1, 74, 78, 85, 91, 105, 120, 188, 251, 252, 265, 266, 297, 301, 308-313, 326, 344; our educational achievement, 308; ignorance of boys, 309, 310

public opinion, 314, 320

_Punch_, 34, 95

_questionnaire_, dangers of, 54, 257

‘Quickly, Mrs.,’ 331

R’s, the three, 63

_raconteur_, a good, 173

reading, a _single_, 6, 15, 171, 241, 258, 261, 263, 267, 291, 293, 304; desultory, not education, 13, 189; in order to know, 14; and writing, 30, 244; must be consecutive, 261, 267

Reason, 259; the way of the, xxxi; present in the infant, 37; must not be deified, 55; justifies any notion, 55, 143; confounded with right, 56; does not begin it, 140; brings infallible proofs of any idea, 139, 315; works involuntarily, 142; is subject to habit, 147; is fallible, 150, 314; and rebellion, 314; cannot take the place of knowledge, 314

reflection, 25

religion, 14, 40, 43, 46, 64, 73, 79, 239, 289; teaching of, 159-169; two aspects of, 160-161; difficulties in, 162, 164

Rembrandt, 63, 215

Renaissance, The, xxv, 9, 54; Italian and French, 311; Schools, 343

Repington, Colonel, 232, 252

reproduction, 259

‘Responsions,’ 311

retention, 259

revision of lessons, 6, 9, 15, 171, 241, 245, 262

rewards, 7

_Richard III_, 143

Richelieu, 90

Roberts, Lord, 141

Rosetta Stone, 63

Rossetti, 340

Rousseau, J. J., 325, 338, 339

Ruskin, John, 110, 152, 230, 322, 323, 326

Russia, 320; Soviet, 145

St. Cross, 332

Salisbury, Lord, 281

_Saviour of the World, The_, 167

Scandinavia, education in, 123, 125

scholarship, an exquisite distinction, 310; _v._ knowledge, 305

schools, not merely a nursery for the formation of character, 264; find substitutes for knowledge, 266

_Schwärmerei_, 49

Science, xxx, 14, 31, 40, 42, 51, 59, 154, 157, 239, 256; teaching of, 218-230, 275; approached by field-work, with literary comments, 223, 256; fatal divorce between, and the ‘humanities,’ 223, 318; must rouse wonder, 224, 317; the mode of revelation granted to our generation, 318; waiting for its literature, 318; of relations, 327; of the proportion of things, 327

Science, Social, 14

Scott, Sir Walter, 110, 182, 190, 261

Scottish philosophers, 11

scrupulosity of to-day, 101

Secondary Schools, 127; a liberal education in, 250-278

self-authority, 17, 71, 74, 75, 76

self-culture, not an ideal, 133

self-direction necessary, 131

self-education comes from within, 23; education must be, 26, 28-32, 38, 77, 99, 240, 241, 289

self-expression, 66, 108, 276, 326, 327

_Self-Help_, by Dr. Smiles, 248

self-knowledge, 131, 137

sensory activities, 2, 48

Shakespeare, 55, 124, 143, 167, 170, 182, 183, 245, 270, 274, 314, 341

Shaw, Mr. Bernard, 27

Sisyphus, 240

‘Skimpole, Harold,’ 231

Socialism, 320

Socrates, 49, 302, 332; use of questioning, 17

Sophocles, 124

soul, well-being of the, 63; the Holy of Holies, 63; satisfaction for, 64

specialisation, dangers of, 53, 254

spelling, 271

Spirit, Divine, xxxi; is the man, 5; education is of the, 12, 26, 30; born of spirit, 39; use of term, 65; acts upon matter, 100; is might, reveals itself in spirit, works only in freedom, 125, 284

spontaneity, condition of development, xxxi

‘Squeers, Mr.,’ 101

stability, mark of educated classes, 179

_Statue and the Bust, The_, 133

Stein, 279

Steinthal, Mrs. Francis, xxv

stops, use of, 191

Stuart educational ideals, 326

“Studies serve for delight,” xxvi, 7, 19, 266; make for personality, 5

Suggestion, xxxi, 82, 83; a grave offence, 129; weakens moral fibre, 129; causes involuntary action, 129; weakens power of choice, 130

superman, 3, 4

Sweden, 285

Switzerland, education in, 125

syllabus, points to be considered in a, xxx, 154, 268; a wide, 256; the best, 268; a, must meet demands of mind, 256; sterile, of schoolboy, 268

sympathy of numbers, 247

‘tales,’ 30, 132, 190

teacher, part of, in education, 6, 19, 118, 130, 237, 240, 241, 246, 260, 261, 304; personality of, 7, 48, 78, 82, 129, 172; intellectual apparatus of, 11; not a mere instrument, 32; must understand human nature of child, 47; underrates tastes and abilities of children, 52, 238; must read aloud with intention, 244; comes between children and knowledge, 247; finds education a passion, 251

teaching how to learn, a farce, 348

Tennyson, 138, 333

things, “are in the saddle,” 7, 260; children occupied with, 31

thinking, not doing, a source of character, 278

thought, not simply a function of brain, 2, 4, 260; great, necessary for children, 5, 12, 130; alone appeals to mind, 12; begets thought, 12, 303; action follows on due, 24; our, not our own, 60, 137; right, not self-expression, follows upon an idea, 130; socialistic, fallacies in, 144-147; sins committed in, 188; common basis of, 264, 298

Thucydides, 124

_Timon of Athens_, 44

‘Titanic,’ 335

Trades’ Unions, 315; Guilds, 319

Traherne, 34, 36, 37, 40

Training, intellectual, 2, 24, 147, 255; physical, 2, 6, 20, 48, 255; vocational, 2, 3, 5, 6, 287, 302; not education, 255

Treitschke, 3

Trench, 167

Trollope, A., 251

truth, justice in word, 61

Tudor women, 311

Tugendbund, 6, 279

Ulysses, 41

_Undine_, xxv

Universities, People’s, 123

unrest comes from wrong thinking, 60; Labour, 92, 179, 286, 297, 300, 319; Indian, 184

Van Eyck’s, ‘Adoration of the Lamb,’ 322

Vasari, 54

Vaughan, 35

verbal understanding _v._ dealing with books, 172

Vienna, Congress of, 170

village community life, 286

Vittorino, 310

Voltaire, 156

_Waverley Novels, The_, 63, 325

Wellington, The Duke of, 102, 308

Whichcote, xxix, 33

Whitby, 223

White, Gilbert, 223

wilfulness, signs of, 37

Will, the way of the, xxxi, 128, 131; function of, to choose, 128, 129, 133; action of, is character, 129; the safeguard of a man, 130; and danger of suggestion, 130; education must fortify, 131; the governing power of man, 131; fallacies concerning, 132; nourished upon ideas, 132; must have objects outside self, 133; the function of man, 133; implies understanding, 133; a free agent, 133; is supreme, 135; needs diversion, 136; free, not free thought, 136, 137; ordering of, 137; is the man, 314

Witte, Count, 130

words, beauty of, 151; vehicle of truth, 151; use of, 316

Wordsworth, William, 35, 93, 166, 180, 238, 276, 320, 322

work, the better man does the better, 282

working men and their leisure, 42

worship, a sublime ideal, 317

Wren, Sir Christopher, 54

writing, 30

Yorkshire, Drighlington School, xxv, 236

FOOTNOTES:

[1] Now ten.

[2] Now ten.

[3] Now over 300 in 1924.

[4] I quote from the article on Psychology in the _Encyclopædia Britannica_ as being the most likely to exhibit the authoritative position.

[5] _The Home Education Series._

[6] In connection with the _Parents’ Union School_.

[7] The small Practising School attached to the House of Education (ages of scholars from six to eighteen) affords opportunities for testing the programmes of work sent out term by term, and the examinations set at the end of each term. The work in each Form is easily done in the hours of morning-school.

[8] I again quote from the article on Psychology in the _Encyclopædia Britannica_.

[9] See _Some Discussions of the Method_. (P.N.E.U. Office, 1/-).

[10] _The Home Education Series._

[11] _Home Education_, by the Writer.

[12] See _Some Studies in the Formation of Character_, by the Writer.

[13] See _Some Impressions of the Ambleside Method_. (P.N.E.U. Office, price 9d.)

[14] See _Ourselves, our Souls and Bodies_. By the Writer. (P.N.E.U. Office.)

[15] _Ourselves, our Souls and Bodies._ By the Writer.

[16] _Parents and Children._ By the Writer.

[17] See _Some Impressions of the Ambleside Method_. (P.N.E.U. Office, price 9d.)

[18] Isaiah xxviii.

[19] _Parents and Children_, by the Writer.

[20] _Education from a National Standpoint._

[21] _The Herbartian Psychology applied to Education_, by John Adams.

[22] _Across the Bridges_, by A. Paterson.

[23] _Across the Bridges_, by A. Paterson.

[24] _Memoirs of Count Witte._

[25] _Education of the Young._

[26] _What Religion Is_, by Bernard Bosanquet, D.C.L.

[27] All particulars may be had from The Director, Parents’ Union School, Ambleside. The illustrations in the way of children’s answers for the various sections of this chapter have been omitted for want of space, except in the case of a few answers under Composition.

[28] Examples of the work of scholars of various ages illustrating what has been said may be seen at the P.N.E.U. Office.

[29] This book is now in print again.

[30] Of the Parents’ Union School.

[31] Examination papers giving some idea of the scope of the history studies in the P.U.S. may be seen at the P.N.E.U. Office.

[32] Examination Papers can be seen at the P.N.E.U. Office.

[33] Examination Papers can be seen at the P.N.E.U. Office.

[34] These answers are uncorrected and are taken from Examination papers not sent back. Most parents and teachers have their papers returned.

[35] Examination answers can be seen at the P.N.E.U. Office.

[36] For details see the Parents’ Union School programmes.

[37] Specimens of the children’s Examination work can be seen at the P.N.E.U. Office.

[38] _The Ambleside Geography_; Book IV, by the Writer.

[39] _Ambleside Geography_: Book IV.

[40] _The Ambleside Geography_: Book V, by the Writer.

[41] For details see the Parents’ Union School programmes.

[42] _Citizens to Be_, by Miss M. L. V. Hughes.

[43] cf. “Introduction.”

[44] pp. 13 to 15.

[45] The P.U.S. was started in 1890.

[46] These are omitted for want of space but other sets can be seen at the Office of the P.N.E.U.

[47] Chapter X.

[48] See Chapter X.

[49] cf. _Continuation Schools_, ed. by Sir Michael Sadler, and published by the Manchester University, 1908, to which the writer is greatly indebted.

[50] Page 106.

[51] 1890.

[52] 1913.

[53] In Elementary and Continuation Schools.

[54] The Author owes to the Editor of _The Times_ permission to reprint the chapters under this heading written in 1912; as also the happy titles of the several chapters and the general title.

TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE

Footnote [47] is referenced twice from page 275.

Obvious typographical errors and punctuation errors have been corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within the text and consultation of external sources.

Except for those changes noted below, all misspellings in the text, and inconsistent or archaic usage, have been retained.

Pg xxii: an entry for ‘INDEX 349’ has been added at the end of the Table of Contents. Pg 3: ‘about Nietszche’ replaced by ‘about Nietzsche’. Pg 17: ‘a congerie of’ replaced by ‘a coterie of’. Pg 72: ‘Not, again, can we’ replaced by ‘Nor, again, can we’. Pg 82: ‘the idiosyncracies’ replaced by ‘the idiosyncrasies’. Pg 89: ‘satiable curtiosity’ replaced by ‘satiable curiosity’. Pg 139: ‘irrefragible proofs’ replaced by ‘irrefragable proofs’. Pg 140: ‘no more then they’ replaced by ‘no more than they’. Pg 168: ‘clothes and ca e’ replaced by ‘clothes and care’. Pg 181: ‘by naming it D2’ replaced by ‘by naming it K2’. Pg 197: ‘statemen all’ replaced by ‘statesmen all’. Pg 200: ‘And ne tles close’ replaced by ‘And nestles close’. Pg 202: ‘eyes for thoes’ replaced by ‘eyes for those’. Pg 232: ‘perfer not to have’ replaced by ‘prefer not to have’. Pg 275: ‘by Velasqeuz which’ replaced by ‘by Velasquez which’. Pg 334: ‘irrefragibly logical’ replaced ‘irrefragably logical’. Pg 357: ‘Nietszche, 3’ replaced by ‘Nietzsche, 3’.