Part 3

2. Like the intrepid captain Riou, and the gallant and humane captain Woodyear, he should resolve, in case of distress, to preserve discipline through the whole scene, and to discharge his duty by being the last man to quit the shattered vessel. By thus manfully preserving his authority, good order will be kept up till, possibly, some timely aid may be obtained, or the ship got into harbour. But if in the time of danger he quit his post, from that moment discipline is at an end, anarchy prevails, and ruin ensues.

3. His shipmates, and whole company under his command, in their several departments, must cheerfully obey his orders, and with alacrity give every possible assistance in the management of the vessel, and in affording one another mutual aid.

4. In the critical hour of distress, to prevent the additional danger of strife, or mutiny, let the captain resolve to prevent intoxication. Should this prove impracticable, let him order every cask of spirits to be staved.

5. Dr. Franklin’s experiment of smoothing the rough undulations of a fresh water-lake to the extent of half an acre, by pouring on its surface a small portion of oil, is extremely curious, though its efficacy in calming the waves of a troubled sea, as recorded by Pliny, certainly wants confirmation. By suffering the wind to glide over it, as over a surface of ice, it seems rather calculated to prevent new waves forming, than to controul those already formed.

Nevertheless, Count Bentinck, in the sixty-fourth volume of the Philosophical Transactions, gives a remarkable case, attested by the officers on board, respecting a Dutch East India ship, which was happily preserved in a storm by gradually pouring into the sea a considerable quantity of Olive Oil. Merchant ships, with large cargoes of oil, might easily put this matter to the test. At all events, empty casks, in case of shipwreck, being well secured between decks, the air they contain may, in proportion to the space they occupy, tend to keep the vessel afloat; or, casks bound to rafts may afford seasonable means of saving those persons who cannot swim.

6. In tropical climates, and particularly in the Leeward Islands, the signs already mentioned, which precede the most dreadful hurricanes, several days before their arrival, if duly attended to in time, may enable the master not only to foretell the storm, but to ward off the impending danger. Convinced of this by long observation, that experienced seaman Captain Langford recommends the following precautions: “To keep the ship sailable with store of ballast—ports well barred and caulked—top-masts down—yards a-part laced—doors and windows well secured. Let all ships at anchor quit the road, or they will be driven a-shore. As the storm always begins at North and North-West, till it comes to South-East, when its fury subsides; let them run to the South for ample sea-room, and for drift of _the_ South West, and there wait the event.” Observing these cautions, he providentially weathered out five dreadful hurricanes without the loss of sail, yard, or mast. Other commanders, he adds, who listened to his predictions and followed his advice, likewise escaped damage, and returned safe[9].

Footnote 9:

Phil. Trans. Abr. Vol. II. p. 105.

7. Where the violence of the tempest baffles all human forecast, and the shattered vessel ready to sink becomes totally unmanageable, when signals of distress have been repeated in vain; and when terror and dismay hang on every countenance, it requires no common share of fortitude in the Commander to act with that coolness, prudence, and promptitude, which the exigency of the case so evidently demands.

Shipwreck being inevitable, it behoves him to exert himself to save as many lives as he possibly can, by a spirited and impartial conduct, and by a proper distribution of the cork waistcoats, ropes, implements, and whatever may seem useful; to guard against the boats being suddenly over-crowded, and also to be watchful on such critical occasions, that men apparently dead from drowning, or other accidents, be not hastily thrown overboard, until suitable means of recovery have failed, or life be totally extinguished[10].

Footnote 10:

The mode of treatment has been already fully discussed. See New Inquiry on Vital Suspension, Edit. 3. and Preservative Plan annexed, page 40. on premature burial.

The Captain having thus discharged his duty, and exerted every effort to extricate his comrades from their calamity, though without the smallest prospect of success, nothing now remains but that he, as becomes a helpless mortal, commit himself and crew to the protection of Him “who rides in the whirlwind, and directs the storm”—who can say to the raging sea, “Hitherto shalt thou go, and no farther; and here shall thy proud waves be stayed.” Impressed with sentiments of this nature, so congenial to the mind of a dependent being, particularly in the hour of distress, Captain Falconer, in the true spirit of devotion, bursts forth into the following beautiful apostrophe:

“O! SOURCE OF LIFE, our Refuge and our Stay! Whose voice the warring elements obey; On THY SUPREME assistance we rely, Thy mercy supplicate,—if doom’d to die: Perhaps this storm is sent, with healing breath, From neighb’ring shores—to scourge disease and death.” _Shipwreck._

8. When a vessel is cast away, within a small distance of shore (as in the late melancholy accidents, which gave rise to these reflections), the country people hasten in crowds to view the affecting spectacle; some with an eager desire to assist the wretched sufferers; others, (horrible to relate!) for the sole purpose of plunder! In order to prevent the cruel depredations of those inhuman barbarians, a peace-officer ought always to be present, attended by the principal inhabitants; and assisted, if required, by a military force[11]. He should be empowered to offer premiums for the preservation of life and property, and to encourage watermen to face the boisterous sea in life-boats kept ready for the purpose. But on these mournful occasions, the minds of the more humane and civilized spectators are generally too much agitated to supply the aid that is so much wanted, or to suggest any means of succour, but such as are totally inadequate. Nor is this to be wondered at: the moment of danger is not the moment of reflection, nor can new resources be struck out without the rare and happy talent of invention, and the cool reasoning of a mind at ease. From want of a life-boat, and other necessary expedients, how often are ships and their cargoes irretrievably lost, which otherwise might have been saved!

Footnote 11:

According to the ancient law, goods cast on shore by the waves belonged to the King: but the rigour of this law has since been wisely mitigated in favour of the distressed proprietors: and it is now held, that, not only if any living animal escape, but if proof can be made of the property of any of the goods cast on shore, within a year and a day, they shall not be forfeited as a legal wreck, but kept in the custody of the Sheriff, during that period, unless previously claimed by the proprietor. If the goods be of a perishable nature, the Sheriff may sell them, and the purchase-money shall be liable in their stead.

2. Whoever shall secret any goods from a wreck shall forfeit treble their value. To steal even a plank from a ship in distress, says Judge Blackstone, renders the party liable to answer for the whole vessel and cargo.

3. Whoever perpetrates any wilful act, by which the ship is lost, or plunders the vessel in distress, or prevents the escape of any of the sufferers, or hangs out false lights, to decoy a vessel into danger, is declared by the law to be guilty of a capital felony, without benefit of clergy.

4. It is also enacted, that all head officers on the coast shall, on application being made to them, instantly summon as many persons as are necessary to the relief of any ship in distress, on forfeiture of one hundred pounds. And, in case of due assistance given, salvage shall be paid by the owners, to be assessed by the neighbouring justices.

5. The income of wrecks being generally granted by the King to the Lord of the Manor, as a royal franchise, is seldom, it is hoped, rigorously claimed, but rather given up to the distressed sufferers. Such claims, however, might be easily compromised, as the right owner, if discovered any time within a full twelvemonth, can supersede the Lord of the Manor, or any other claimant, and by virtue of this law recover his property.

_Hints for conveying Assistance to a Ship in distress, by forming a line of communication with the shore._

With what ease a large log of timber, or other heavy body, may be floated along the surface of water, by only a moderate-sized cord attached to it, is well known.

Could means once be contrived of conveying such a cord to or from a ship in distress, to form a line of communication between the mast and a fixed point on shore, one grand difficulty would be surmounted. For to this line of communication might be fixed collateral cords, which being conveyed to the sufferers, grasping the broken planks, or struggling in the waves, many lives might probably be saved.

Now, were the line sufficiently strong, and made to pass through a metallic cylinder, in form of a sliding hoop, the ship’s crew might, one by one, if placed thereon, slide along the rope from the mast to the shore, as on an inclined plane. The ship’s stores, buckled to the sliding hoop, might be conveyed in the same manner; nay, even the ship itself, drifted on a neighbouring sand bank, or ledge of rocks, might, by men properly stationed on the beach, be thus towed safely to shore.

That this might be safely accomplished during a calm, can scarcely be doubted: but how to convey a line to or from the ship when all communication is cut off by a boisterous sea, and “when not even a boat dare venture out,” must give us pause, and at first view appear impracticable.—Dangerous as such an enterprize may seem, yet we now know, that a life-boat built on scientific principles, and manned with a few resolute tars, is fully adequate to the task; such a boat, however, being yet little known, and no where to be met with, except at Shields, recourse must be had to other measures. Those who have duly considered the theory of projectiles, will be best qualified to judge how far the following conjectures, when matured by experience, may bring to light new modes of deliverance.

1st, Suppose the distance not to exceed two hundred yards, might not a small cord of that length be transmitted from the ship to the shore by a powerful sky-rocket properly directed?

2d, By an arrow shot from a large bow of superior force?

3d, By a cord fixed to a perforated bullet, and discharged from a musket or small piece of ordnance, taking care to first wet the cord to prevent its being fired by the explosion? To the end of the small cord thus conveyed to the shore, might be fixed a larger one, or even a rope, which, by means of the small cord, might be drawn on board the ship.

4. Might not the conveyance of one or more cords be accomplished, with still more certainty, from the people on shore to the distressed ship, by means of a stout water-spaniel, or rather by a well-trained Newfoundland-dog? These sagacious animals are known to delight in enterprize, and in rescuing persons in the act of drowning. Were they once brought to encounter a rough sea, and, with cords fastened to their collars, taught to plunge-in at the word of command, making regular excursions to and from the wreck, many valuable lives might probably thus be preserved.

5. In such disasters, not only the sufferers, but spectators, are apt to lose all presence of mind; otherwise expedients might often be contrived for rescuing helpless mariners in their distress.

6. Might not Dr. Franklin’s experiment, with a large paper-kite, deserve a trial, especially in the direction of a fair wind and lee-shore?

7. Might not a courageous rider, mounted on a steady well-trained horse, sometimes be very useful on these trying occasions? The horse, it ought to be remembered, swims with his nose and eyes just above water; but, if imprudently checked by the bridle, it proves fatal both to him and the rider. The heroic conduct of Cornelius Voltimed, a Dutchman, at the Cape of Good Hope, can never be sufficiently admired, nor his unhappy fate too sincerely deplored. In order to assist fourteen persons belonging to a vessel stranded near the coast, his intrepid philanthropy impelled him to ride his horse repeatedly into the sea; having at length happily succeeded in saving all but one, his strength failed, and in his last generous attempt to rescue that one unfortunately lost his own life!

The Dutch, in order to prevent plunder, ordain that no person shall approach the ship on pain of death; but this excessive zeal for the protection of property, so truly characteristic of the nation, generally damps every zealous effort for rescuing the forlorn sufferers. Had, therefore, the virtuous, the humane Voltimed even escaped the perils of the sea, he would, nevertheless, have been tried for his life by his unfeeling countrymen!

8. Vessels being most frequently cast away on a lee-shore, the difficulty of sending out assistance is greatly increased by that circumstance; but, were the sailors to fix a line to an empty cask, or buoy, the direction of the wind and tide, being favourable, would forcibly impel it from the wreck towards the beach, where assistance would be ready to fasten the line to some neighbouring tree or post.

9. But what seems to bid fairest for establishing a line of communication with the shore, is a late contrivance invented by Mr. Bell, of the Royal Artillery, which, on reading the account, I am glad to find, coincides with my own proposal, respecting the transmission of a cord with a bullet by gun-shot. Concerning the result of the Experiment, the Society of Arts have published the following favourable report:

“To ascertain the merit of Mr. Bell’s invention, his Grace the Duke of Richmond having given directions, proper trials were accordingly made, by throwing a loaded shell[12] on shore from a small mortar fixed in a boat, moored in the river Thames, above two hundred yards from the shore. To the shell was attached a rope, one end of which remained on board the boat. The shell, falling about a hundred yards within land, buried itself full eighteen inches in the gravel; when Mr. Bell and another person, on a raft floated by casks properly ballasted, hauled themselves on shore in a few minutes, by means of the rope above mentioned.

Footnote 12:

By which is meant a shell filled with lead, to which, a staple or ring being fixed, the rope is to be made fast. The shell thus loaded weighed about seventy pounds, being eight inches in diameter.

“These trials, having been repeated three times successively with the desired success, and it appearing that the method, proposed by Mr. Bell, of throwing a line on shore from a ship in distress, either stranded, or in danger of being so, promises to be of very important advantage to the maritime world; as by means thereof such vessel may obtain relief, any person, when landed, being enabled to secure ropes from the ship; or additional hands may thereby be conveyed from the shore to assist those on board. In cases of imminent danger, moreover, where all hopes of saving the vessel may be lost, Mr. Bell’s method offers the most probable means of saving the crew.

“The Society therefore voted to Mr. Bell a bounty of fifty guineas, on his leaving with the Society a complete model of his contrivance; which model is reserved in their Repository, for the inspection and use of the Public[13].”

Footnote 13:

Transactions of the Society of Arts, &c. Vol. X. p. 203. See also Raccolta di salvar, l’equipaggio d’un Bastimento, &c. by Count Berchtold, with an elegant engraving, descriptive of the entire apparatus.

That this, or other similar inventions may prove useful in time of need, the apparatus must be provided beforehand; and ought to constitute a part of the ship’s equipment previous to the voyage.

_New Plan for the Prevention of a Ship’s sinking._

A Philosophical Correspondent has favoured me with the following communication, which displays much ingenuity, and seems worthy of further inquiry.

“As you wish, my dear Sir, for further intelligence, respecting the means I should propose for preventing ships from sinking, I will endeavour to give you some idea of the power of the apparatus. Its constituent parts are these:

“A pair of cylindrical flexible vessels, rendered impervious both to air and water by means of elastic resin, and a four-barrelled pump for inflating them. As the contents of cylinders increase in proportion to the squares of their diameters, such may be enlarged or diminished to equal the power in request; consequently both the pumps and air-vessels may be readily apportioned to the duty they have to perform. From the diameter of the cylinders of the pump, to judge of their discharge, we must consider the length of the stroke within the reach of middle-sized men, and the number of discharges which may be made in a given time. With the aid of simple mechanism, I have accomplished a perpendicular stroke of two feet, capable of being repeated from sixty to seventy times with ease, and from eighty to an hundred, if requested, in a minute.

“Air is a fluid of so volatile a nature, that the slightest pressure impels it forward; four men, therefore, can pump in more air than four hundred men can pump out water.

“That vessels of canvas may be made, at the same time, both flexible and air-tight, hath been demonstratively proved already. Such vessels, in their flaccid state, occupy little more space than a folded sail, and consequently are stowable in a narrow compass, till wanted. When immersed and inflated, they remove a quantity of water adequate to the air which they contain, and, if fixed to a ponderous body, give it a degree of buoyancy proportionate to the water they displace. If this be equal to the difference in weight between that body and an equal bulk of the fluid which surrounds it, the whole will rest suspended even with or near the surface of the fluid. Enlarge their contents, and turn the balance in favour of the sinking body, it will rise and float. Fix sufficient buoyant powers, therefore, to the sides of a ship, in such manner that they cannot break loose; though a plank should start in her bottom, she still would float.

“One method, then, of preventing a ship from sinking may be by a brace of air-vessels occasionally lashed to her sides. Another is, that of inflating a brace within her. To bring the former to effect requires a more perfect knowledge of the strength of cordage than the most experienced rope-maker can boast. Our best calculators egregiously err in this particular; for, instead of its increasing in proportion to the square[14] of the diameter of the cordage, it comes far nearer to the proportion of the simple diameter only, as numerous experiments with the best new town-made ropes of various sizes have convinced me. In the first mode, therefore, several difficulties remain to be overcome. The other is easy, consisting only in the simple operation of inflating air-vessels within her. Let such be placed in confinement either in the hold, between the decks, or under lashings in small open sloops (to which your attention, Sir, seems chiefly paid), and they will operate with the most certain and powerful effect. For, though water, through its density, will expel air when at liberty, it can never incroach upon it when properly confined. Secure, then, but a due portion of the lighter fluid in eligible situations, and the ingress of the grosser will be prevented. Consequently, though the sea run mountains high, and break over the sloop with the most tremendous surge, if the crew can secure themselves by lashing to the mast or rigging, and can at times have opportunity to supply the loss of air (which, through the inaccuracy of valves, air-cocks, &c. will sometimes happen), by a few additional strokes at the pumps, she will continue buoyant, in spight of elements, and be safe from the danger of sinking. Small vessels, under such circumstances, are liable, however, to be driven on shore; but, as they draw little water, their crews would probably be preserved.

Footnote 14:

See Falconer’s Marine Dictionary, article CABLE.

“As yours, Sir, is the cause of humanity, I have troubled you with these particulars; and hope, that, as a possibility of relief appears, some Philanthropic Society or other will be induced to exert their endeavours for the preservation of the glorious tars of Britain.”

As the preceding scheme is supported, by its ingenious author, on true philosophical principles, and seems well calculated to keep a packet boat, or vessel of small size, buoyant, as some successful trials on the model seem to evince; yet, as the apparatus rests on the instable basis of air and water, might not some difficulty arise, during a sea storm, particularly in securing the air-cylinders, when destined to act externally on a large scale? It ought, therefore, to be subjected to the test of further experiment, both internally and externally, on vessels of different rates, as the invention certainly merits the attention of those who preside over maritime affairs. For, what keeps afloat a first-rate ship of war, with its immense freight of guns, stores, ammunition, and men, but the difference of specific gravity between air and water? What causes the ship to founder, but the accidental ingress of water, with a proportionate egress of air? Impervious air-vessels, therefore, properly placed, and inflated within the ship, would prevent the spaces thus occupied from being filled with water, and consequently bid fair to keep her buoyant, even though her upper deck became level with the surface of the sea. It was thus that the ship Guardian was prevented from foundering, whose packages and stores containing lighter fluids, such as spirits and air, which the water being unable to expel, alone kept the vessel afloat. Hence appears the utility even of empty casks if rendered impervious and immoveably fixed between the decks of a ship in distress.

_The importance of the Art of Swimming and Diving._

According to the observations of a late able writer, we are assured that, on board the King’s ships, not half, scarcely a third part, of the crew can swim; and that, for want of this, several, in the course of a voyage, have been drowned[15].

Footnote 15:

See Mr. Jeremy Bentham’s Inquiry on Pauper Management, in Young’s Annals, for 1798, N^o 174.