Chapter 6
_SYNTAX_.
INTRODUCTORY.
[Sidenote: _By way of introduction._]
388. Syntax is from a Greek word meaning _order_ or _arrangement_.
Syntax deals with the relation of words to each other as component parts of a sentence, and with their proper arrangement to express clearly the intended meaning.
[Sidenote: _Ground covered by syntax._]
380. Following the Latin method, writers on English grammar usually divide syntax into the two general heads,--agreement and government.
Agreement is concerned with the following relations of words: words in apposition, verb and subject, pronoun and antecedent, adjective and noun.
Government has to do with verbs and prepositions, both of which are said to govern words by having them in the objective case.
390. Considering the scarcity of inflections in English, it is clear that if we merely follow the Latin treatment, the department of syntax will be a small affair. But there is a good deal else to watch in addition to the few forms; for there is an important and marked difference between Latin and English syntax. It is this:--
Latin syntax depends upon fixed rules governing the use of inflected forms: hence the _position_ of words in a sentence is of little grammatical importance.
[Sidenote: _Essential point in English syntax._]
English syntax follows the Latin to a limited extent; but its leading characteristic is, that English syntax is founded upon _the meaning_ and _the logical connection_ of words rather than upon their form: consequently it is quite as necessary to place words properly, and to think clearly of the meaning of words, as to study inflected forms.
For example, the sentence, "The savage here the settler slew," is ambiguous. _Savage_ may be the subject, following the regular order of subject; or _settler_ may be the subject, the order being inverted. In Latin, distinct forms would be used, and it would not matter which one stood first.
[Sidenote: _Why study syntax?_]
391. There is, then, a double reason for not omitting syntax as a department of grammar,--
_First_, To study the rules regarding the use of inflected forms, some of which conform to classical grammar, while some are idiomatic (peculiar to our own language).
_Second_, To find out the _logical methods_ which control us in the arrangement of words; and particularly when the grammatical and the logical conception of a sentence do not agree, or when they exist side by side in good usage.
As an illustration of the last remark, take the sentence, "Besides these famous books of Scott's and Johnson's, there is a copious 'Life' by Sheridan." In this there is a possessive form, and added to it the preposition _of_, also expressing a possessive relation. This is not logical; it is not consistent with the general rules of grammar: but none the less it is good English.
Also in the sentence, "None remained but he," grammatical rules would require _him_ instead of _he_ after the preposition; yet the expression is sustained by good authority.
[Sidenote: _Some rules not rigid._]
392. In some cases, authorities--that is, standard writers--differ as to which of two constructions should be used, or the same writer will use both indifferently. Instances will be found in treating of the pronoun or noun with a gerund, pronoun and antecedent, sometimes verb and subject, etc.
When usage varies as to a given construction, both forms will be given in the following pages.
[Sidenote: _The basis of syntax._]
393. Our treatment of syntax will be an endeavor to record the best usage of the present time on important points; and nothing but important points will be considered, for it is easy to confuse a student with too many obtrusive _don'ts_.
The constructions presented as general will be justified by quotations from _modern writers of English_ who are regarded as "standard;" that is, writers whose style is generally acknowledged as superior, and whose judgment, therefore, will be accepted by those in quest of authoritative opinion.
Reference will also be made to spoken English when its constructions differ from those of the literary language, and to vulgar English when it preserves forms which were once, but are not now, good English.
It may be suggested to the student that the only way to acquire correctness is to watch good usage _everywhere_, and imitate it.
NOUNS.
394. Nouns have no distinct forms for the nominative and objective cases: hence no mistake can be made in using them. But some remarks are required concerning the use of the possessive case.
[Sidenote: _Use of the possessive. Joint possession._]
395. When two or more possessives modify the same noun, or indicate joint ownership or possession, the possessive sign is added to the last noun only; for example,--
Live your _king and country's_ best support.--ROWE.
Woman, _sense and nature's_ easy fool.--BYRON.
_Oliver and Boyd's_ printing office.--MCCULLOCH.
_Adam and Eve's_ morning hymn.--MILTON.
In _Beaumont and Fletcher's_ "Sea Voyage," Juletta tells, etc.--EMERSON.
[Sidenote: _Separate possession._]
396. When two or more possessives stand before the same noun, but imply separate possession or ownership, the possessive sign is used with each noun; as,--
He lands us on a grassy stage, Safe from the _storm's_ and _prelate's_ rage.--MARVELL
Where were the sons of Peers and Members of Parliament in _Anne's_ and _George's_ time?--THACKERAY.
_Levi's_ station in life was the receipt of custom; and _Peter's_, the shore of Galilee; and _Paul's_, the antechamber of the High Priest.--RUSKIN.
Swift did not keep _Stella's_ letters. He kept _Bolingbroke's,_ and _Pope's_, and _Harley's_, and _Peterborough's_.--THACKERAY.
An actor in one of _Morton's_ or _Kotzebue's_ plays.--MACAULAY.
Putting _Mr. Mill's_ and _Mr. Bentham's_ principles together. --_Id._
397. The possessive preceding the gerund will be considered under the possessive of pronouns (Sec. 408).
PRONOUNS.
PERSONAL PRONOUNS.
I. NOMINATIVE AND OBJECTIVE FORMS.
398. Since most of the personal pronouns, together with the relative _who_, have separate forms for nominative and objective use, there are two general rules that require attention.
[Sidenote: _General rules._]
(1) The _nominative use_ is usually marked by the nominative form of the pronoun.
(2) The _objective use_ is usually marked by the objective form of the pronoun.
These simple rules are sometimes violated in spoken and in literary English. Some of the violations are universally condemned; others are generally, if not universally, sanctioned.
[Sidenote: _Objective for the nominative._]
399. The objective is sometimes found instead of the nominative in the following instances:--
(1) By a common vulgarism of ignorance or carelessness, no notice is taken of the proper form to be used as subject; as,--
He and _me_ once went in the dead of winter in a one-hoss shay out to Boonville.--WHITCHER, _Bedott Papers._
It seems strange to me that _them_ that preach up the doctrine don't admire one who carrys it out.--_Josiah Allens Wife._
(2) By faulty analysis of the sentence, the true relation of the words is misunderstood; for example, "_Whom_ think ye that I am?" (In this, _whom_ is the complement after the verb _am_, and should be the nominative form, _who_.) "The young Harper, _whom_ they agree was rather nice-looking" (_whom_ is the subject of the verb _was_).
Especially is this fault to be noticed after an ellipsis with _than_ or _as_, the real thought being forgotten; thus,--
But the consolation coming from devotion did not go far with such a one as _her_.--TROLLOPE.
This should be "as _she_," because the full expression would be "such a one as _she is_."
400. Still, the last expression has the support of many good writers, as shown in the following examples:--
She was neither better bred nor wiser than you or _me_.--THACKERAY.
No mightier than thyself or _me_.--SHAKESPEARE.
Lin'd with Giants deadlier than _'em_ all.--POPE.
But he must be a stronger than _thee_.--SOUTHEY.
Not to render up my soul to such as _thee_.--BYRON.
I shall not learn my duty from such as _thee_.--FIELDING.
[Sidenote: _A safe rule._]
It will be safer for the student to follow the general rule, as illustrated in the following sentences:--
If so, they are yet holier than _we_.--RUSKIN.
Who would suppose it is the game of such as _he_?--DICKENS.
Do we see The robber and the murd'rer weak as _we_? --MILTON.
I have no other saint than _thou_ to pray to.--LONGFELLOW.
[Sidenote: "_Than_ whom."]
401. One exception is to be noted. The expression than whom seems to be used universally instead of "than _who_." There is no special reason for this, but such is the fact; for example,--
One I remember especially,--one _than whom_ I never met a bandit more gallant.--THACKERAY.
The camp of Richard of England, _than whom_ none knows better how to do honor to a noble foe.--SCOTT.
She had a companion who had been ever agreeable, and her estate a steward _than whom_ no one living was supposed to be more competent.--PARTON.
[Sidenote: "_It was_ he" _or_ "_It was_ him"?]
402. And there is one question about which grammarians are not agreed, namely, whether the nominative or the objective form should be used in the predicate after _was_, _is_, _are_, and the other forms of the verb _be_.
It may be stated with assurance that the literary language _prefers the nominative_ in this instance, as,--
For there was little doubt that it was _he_.--KINGSLEY.
But still it is not _she_.--MACAULAY.
And it was _he_ That made the ship to go. --COLERIDGE.
In spoken English, on the other hand, both in England and America, the objective form is regularly found, unless a special, careful effort is made to adopt the standard usage. The following are examples of spoken English from conversations:--
"Rose Satterne, the mayor's daughter?"--"That's _her_."--KINGSLEY.
"Who's there?"--"_Me_, Patrick the Porter."--WINTHROP.
"If there is any one embarrassed, it will not be _me_."--WM. BLACK.
The usage is too common to need further examples.
Exercise.
Correct the italicized pronouns in the following sentences, giving reasons from the analysis of the sentence:--
1. _Whom_ they were I really cannot specify.
2. Truth is mightier than _us_ all.
3. If there ever was a rogue in the world, it is _me_.
4. They were the very two individuals _whom_ we thought were far away.
5. "Seems to me as if _them_ as writes must hev a kinder gift fur it, now."
6. The sign of the Good Samaritan is written on the face of _whomsoever_ opens to the stranger.
7. It is not _me_ you are in love with.
8. You know _whom_ it is that you thus charge.
9. The same affinity will exert its influence on _whomsoever_ is as noble as these men and women.
10. It was _him_ that Horace Walpole called a man who never made a bad figure but as an author.
11. We shall soon see which is the fittest object of scorn, you or _me_.
[Sidenote: Me _in exclamations_.]
403. It is to be remembered that the objective form is used in exclamations which turn the attention upon a person; as,--
Unhappy _me!_ That I cannot risk my own worthless life.--KINGSLEY
Alas! miserable _me_! Alas! unhappy Señors!--_Id._
Ay _me_! I fondly dream--had ye been there.--MILTON.
[Sidenote: Nominative for the objective.]
404. The rule for the objective form is wrongly departed from--
(1) When the object is far removed from the verb, verbal, or preposition which governs it; as, "_He_ that can doubt whether he be anything or no, I speak not to" (_he_ should be _him_, the object of _to_); "I saw men very like him at each of the places mentioned, but not _he_" (_he_ should be _him_, object of _saw_).
(2) In the case of certain pairs of pronouns, used after verbs, verbals, and prepositions, as this from Shakespeare, "All debts are cleared between you and I" (for _you_ and _me_); or this, "Let _thou_ and _I_ the battle try" (for _thee_ and _me_, or _us_).
(3) By forgetting the construction, in the case of words used in apposition with the object; as, "Ask the murderer, _he_ who has steeped his hands in the blood of another" (instead of "_him_ who," the word being in apposition with _murderer_).
[Sidenote: _Exception 1_, who _interrogative_.]
405. The interrogative pronoun who may be said to have no objective form in spoken English. We regularly say, "_Who_ did you see?" or, "_Who_ were they talking to?" etc. The more formal "To _whom_ were they talking?" sounds stilted in conversation, and is usually avoided.
In literary English the objective form _whom_ is _preferred_ for objective use; as,--
Knows he now to _whom_ he lies under obligation?--SCOTT.
What doth she look on? _Whom_ doth she behold?--WORDSWORTH.
Yet the nominative form is found quite frequently to divide the work of the objective use; for example,--
My son is going to be married to I don't know _who_.--GOLDSMITH.
_Who_ have we here?--_Id._
_Who_ should I meet the other day but my old friend.--STEELE.
He hath given away half his fortune to the Lord knows _who_.--KINGSLEY.
_Who_ have we got here?--SMOLLETT.
_Who_ should we find there but Eustache?--MARRVAT.
_Who_ the devil is he talking to?--SHERIDAN.
[Sidenote: _Exception 2, but_ he, _etc._]
406. It is a well-established usage to put the nominative form, as well as the objective, after the preposition _but_ (sometimes _save_); as,--
All were knocked down but _us_ two.--KINGSLEY.
Thy shores are empires, changed in all save _thee._--BYRON.
Rich are the sea gods:--who gives gifts but _they?_--EMERSON.
The Chieftains then Returned rejoicing, all but _he_. --SOUTHEY
No man strikes him but _I_.--KINGSLEY.
None, save _thou_ and thine, I've sworn, Shall be left upon the morn.
BYRON.
Exercise.
Correct the italicized pronouns in the following, giving reasons from the analysis of the quotation:--
1. _Thou_, Nature, partial Nature, I arraign.
2. Let you and _I_ look at these, for they say there are none such in the world.
3. "Nonsense!" said Amyas, "we could kill every soul of them in half an hour, and they know that as well as _me_."
4. Markland, _who_, with Jortin and Thirlby, Johnson calls three contemporaries of great eminence.
5. They are coming for a visit to _she_ and _I_.
6. They crowned him long ago; But _who_ they got to put it on Nobody seems to know.
7. I experienced little difficulty in distinguishing among the pedestrians _they_ who had business with St. Bartholomew.
8. The great difference lies between the laborer who moves to Yorkshire and _he_ who moves to Canada.
9. Besides my father and Uncle Haddock--_he_ of the silver plates.
10. _Ye_ against whose familiar names not yet The fatal asterisk of death is set, _Ye_ I salute.
11. It can't be worth much to _they_ that hasn't larning.
12. To send me away for a whole year--_I_ who had never crept from under the parental wing--was a startling idea.
II. POSSESSIVE FORMS.
[Sidenote: _As antecedent of a relative._]
407. The possessive forms of personal pronouns and also of nouns are sometimes found as antecedents of relatives. This usage is not frequent. The antecedent is usually nominative or objective, as the use of the possessive is less likely to be clear.
We should augur ill of any _gentleman's_ property to whom this happened every other day in his drawing room.--RUSKIN.
For _their_ sakes whose distance disabled them from knowing me.--C.B. BROWN.
Now by _His_ name that I most reverence in Heaven, and by _hers_ whom I most worship on earth.--SCOTT.
He saw her smile and slip money into the _man's_ hand who was ordered to ride behind the coach.--THACKERAY.
He doubted whether _his_ signature whose expectations were so much more bounded would avail.--DE QUINCEY.
For boys with hearts as bold As _his_ who kept the bridge so well. --MACAULAY.
[Sidenote: _Preceding a gerund,--possessive, or objective?_]
408. Another point on which there is some variance in usage is such a construction as this: "We heard of _Brown_ studying law," or "We heard of _Brown's_ studying law."
That is, should the possessive case of a noun or pronoun always be used with the gerund to indicate the active agent? Closely scrutinizing these two sentences quoted, we might find a difference between them: saying that in the first one _studying_ is a participle, and the meaning is, _We heard of Brown_, [who was] _studying law_; and that in the second, _studying_ is a gerund, object of _heard of_, and modified by the possessive case as any other substantive would be.
[Sidenote: _Why both are found._]
But in common use there is no such distinction. Both types of sentences are found; both are gerunds; sometimes the gerund has the possessive form before it, sometimes it has the objective. The use of the objective is older, and in keeping with the old way of regarding the _person_ as the chief object before the mind: the possessive use is more modern, in keeping with the disposition to proceed from the material thing to the _abstract idea_, and to make the action substantive the chief idea before the mind.
In the examples quoted, it will be noticed that the possessive of the pronoun is more common than that of the noun.
[Sidenote: _Objective_.]
The last incident which I recollect, was my learned and worthy _patron_ falling from a chair.--SCOTT.
He spoke of _some one_ coming to drink tea with him, and asked why it was not made.--THACKERAY.
The old sexton even expressed a doubt as to _Shakespeare_ having been born in her house.--IRVING.
The fact of the _Romans_ not burying their dead within the city walls proper is a strong reason, etc.--BREWER.
I remember _Wordsworth_ once laughingly reporting to me a little personal anecdote.--DE QUINCEY.
Here I state them only in brief, to prevent the _reader_ casting about in alarm for my ultimate meaning.--RUSKIN.
We think with far less pleasure of _Cato_ tearing out his entrails than of _Russell_ saying, as he turned away from his wife, that the bitterness of death was past.--MACAULAY.
There is actually a kind of sacredness in the fact of such a _man_ being sent into this earth.--CARLYLE.
[Sidenote: _Possessive_.]
There is no use for any _man's_ taking up his abode in a house built of glass.--CARLYLE.
As to _his_ having good grounds on which to rest an action for life.--DICKENS.
The case was made known to me by a _man's_ holding out the little creature dead.--DE QUINCEY.
There may be reason for a _savage's_ preferring many kinds of food which the civilized man rejects.--THOREAU.
It informs me of the previous circumstances of _my_ laying aside my clothes.--C. BROCKDEN BROWN.
The two strangers gave me an account of _their_ once having been themselves in a somewhat similar condition.--AUDUBON.
There was a chance of _their_ being sent to a new school, where there were examinations.--RUSKIN
This can only be by _his_ preferring truth to his past apprehension of truth.--EMERSON
III. PERSONAL PRONOUNS AND THEIR ANTECEDENTS.
409. The pronouns of the third person usually refer back to some preceding noun or pronoun, and ought to agree with them in person, number, and gender.
[Sidenote: _Watch for the real antecedent._]
There are two constructions in which the student will need to watch the pronoun,--when the antecedent, in one person, is followed by a phrase containing a pronoun of a different person; and when the antecedent is of such a form that the pronoun following cannot indicate exactly the gender. Examples of these constructions are,--
_Those_ of us who can only maintain _themselves_ by continuing in some business or salaried office.--RUSKIN.
Suppose the life and fortune of _every one_ of us would depend on _his_ winning or losing a game of chess.--HUXLEY.
If _any one_ did not know it, it was _his_ own fault.--CABLE.
_Everybody_ had _his_ own life to think of.--DEFOE.
410. In such a case as the last three sentences,--when the antecedent includes both masculine and feminine, or is a distributive word, taking in each of many persons,--the preferred method is to put the pronoun following in the masculine singular; if the antecedent is neuter, preceded by a distributive, the pronoun will be neuter singular.
The following are additional examples:--
The next _correspondent_ wants you to mark out a whole course of life for _him_.--HOLMES.
Every _city_ threw open _its_ gates.--DE QUINCEY.
Every _person_ who turns this page has _his_ own little diary.--THACKERAY.
The pale realms of shade, where _each_ shall take _His_ chamber in the silent halls of death. --BRYANT.
[Sidenote: _Avoided: By using both pronouns._]
Sometimes this is avoided by using both the masculine and the feminine pronoun; for example,--
Not the feeblest _grandame_, not a mowing _idiot_, but uses what spark of perception and faculty is left, to chuckle and triumph in _his or her_ opinion.--EMERSON.
It is a game which has been played for untold ages, every _man_ and _woman_ of us being one of the two players in a game of _his or her_ own.--HUXLEY.
_By using the plural pronoun._
411. Another way of referring to an antecedent which is a distributive pronoun or a noun modified by a distributive adjective, is to use the plural of the pronoun following. This is not considered the best usage, the logical analysis requiring the singular pronoun in each case; but the construction is frequently found _when the antecedent includes or implies both genders_. The masculine does not really represent a feminine antecedent, and the expression _his or her_ is avoided as being cumbrous.
Notice the following examples of the plural:--
_Neither_ of the sisters _were_ very much deceived.--THACKERAY.
_Every one_ must judge of _their_ own feelings.--BYRON.
Had the doctor been contented to take my dining tables, as _anybody_ in _their_ senses would have done.--AUSTEN.
If the part deserve any comment, every considering _Christian_ will make it _themselves_ as they go.--DEFOE.
_Every person's_ happiness depends in part upon the respect _they_ meet in the world.--PALEY.
_Every nation_ have _their_ refinements--STERNE.
_Neither_ gave vent to _their_ feelings in words.--SCOTT.
_Each_ of the nations acted according to _their_ national custom.--PALGRAVE.
The sun, which pleases _everybody_ with it and with _themselves_.--RUSKIN.
Urging _every one_ within reach of your influence to be neat, and giving _them_ means of being so.--_Id._
_Everybody_ will become of use in _their_ own fittest way.--_Id._
_Everybody_ said _they_ thought it was the newest thing there.--WENDELL PHILLIPS.
Struggling for life, _each_ almost bursting _their_ sinews to force the other off.--PAULDING.
_Whosoever_ hath any gold, let _them_ break it off.--_Bible._
_Nobody_ knows what it is to lose a friend, till _they_ have lost him.--FIELDING.
Where she was gone, or what was become of her, _no one_ could take upon _them_ to say.--SHERIDAN.
I do not mean that I think _any one_ to blame for taking due care of _their_ health.--ADDISON.
Exercise.--In the above sentences, _unless both genders are implied_, change the pronoun to agree with its antecedent.
RELATIVE PRONOUNS.
I. RESTRICTIVE AND UNRESTRICTIVE RELATIVES.
[Sidenote: _What these terms mean._]
412. As to their conjunctive use, the definite relatives who, which, and that may be coördinating or restrictive.
A relative, when coördinating, or unrestrictive, is equivalent to a conjunction (_and_, _but_, _because_, etc.) and a personal pronoun. It adds a new statement to what precedes, that being considered already clear; as, "I gave it to the beggar, _who_ went away." This means, "I gave it to the beggar [we know which one], _and he_ went away."
A relative, when restrictive, introduces a clause to limit and make clear some preceding word. The clause is restricted to the antecedent, and does not add a new statement; it merely couples a thought necessary to define the antecedent: as, "I gave it to a beggar _who_ stood at the gate." It defines _beggar_.
413. It is sometimes contended that who and which should always be coördinating, and that always restrictive; but, according to the practice of every modern writer, the usage must be stated as follows:--
[Sidenote: _A loose rule the only one to be formulated._]
Who and which are either coördinating or restrictive, the taste of the writer and regard for euphony being the guide.
That is in most cases restrictive, the coördinating use not being often found among careful writers.
Exercise.
In the following examples, tell whether _who_, _which_, and _that_ are restrictive or not, in each instance:--
[Sidenote: Who.]
1. "Here he is now!" cried those who stood near Ernest.--HAWTHORNE.
2. He could overhear the remarks of various individuals, who were comparing the features with the face on the mountain side.--_Id._
3. The particular recording angel who heard it pretended not to understand, or it might have gone hard with the tutor.--HOLMES.
4. Yet how many are there who up, down, and over England are saying, etc.--H.W. BEECHER
5. A grizzly-looking man appeared, whom we took to be sixty or seventy years old.--THOREAU.
[Sidenote: Which.]
6. The volume which I am just about terminating is almost as much English history as Dutch.--MOTLEY.
7. On hearing their plan, which was to go over the Cordilleras, she agreed to join the party.--DE QUINCEY.
8. Even the wild story of the incident which had immediately occasioned the explosion of this madness fell in with the universal prostration of mind.--_Id._
9. Their colloquies are all gone to the fire except this first, which Mr. Hare has printed.--CARLYLE.
10. There is a particular science which takes these matters in hand, and it is called logic.--NEWMAN.
[Sidenote: That.]
11. So different from the wild, hard-mouthed horses at Westport, that were often vicious.--DE QUINCEY.
12. He was often tempted to pluck the flowers that rose everywhere about him in the greatest variety.--ADDISON.
13. He felt a gale of perfumes breathing upon him, that grew stronger and sweeter in proportion as he advanced.--_Id._
14. With narrow shoulders, long arms and legs, hands that dangled a mile out of his sleeves.--IRVING.
II. RELATIVE AND ANTECEDENT.
[Sidenote: _The rule._]
414. The general rule is, that the relative pronoun agrees with its antecedent in person and number.
[Sidenote: _In what sense true._]
This cannot be true as to the form of the pronoun, as that does not vary for person or number. We say _I_, _you_, _he_, _they_, etc., _who_; _these_ or _that_ _which_, etc. However, the relative _carries over_ the agreement from the antecedent before to the verb following, so far as the verb has forms to show its agreement with a substantive. For example, in the sentence, "He that writes to himself writes to an eternal public," _that_ is invariable as to person and number, but, because of its antecedent, it makes the verb third person singular.
Notice the agreement in the following sentences:--
There is not _one_ of the company, but _myself_, who rarely _speak_ at all, but _speaks_ of him as that sort, etc.--ADDISON.
O _Time!_ who _know'st_ a lenient hand to lay Softest on sorrow's wound.--BOWLES.
Let us be of good cheer, remembering that the misfortunes hardest to bear are _those_ which never _come._--LOWELL.
[Sidenote: _A disputed point._]
415. This prepares the way for the consideration of one of the vexed questions,--whether we should say, "one of the finest books that _has_ been published," or, "one of the finest books that _have_ been published."
[Sidenote: One of ... [_plural_] that who, _or_ which ... [_singular or plural_.]]
The pale realms of shade, where _each_ shall take _His_ chamber in the silent halls of death. --BRYANT.
Both constructions are frequently found, the reason being a difference of opinion as to the antecedent. Some consider it to be _one_ [book] _of the finest books_, with _one_ as the principal word, the true antecedent; others regard _books_ as the antecedent, and write the verb in the plural. The latter is rather more frequent, but the former has good authority.
The following quotations show both sides:--
[Sidenote: _Plural._]
He was one of the very few commanders who _appear_ to have shown equal skill in directing a campaign, in winning a battle, and in improving a victory.--LECKY.
He was one of the most distinguished scientists who _have_ ever lived.--J.T.MORSE, Jr., _Franklin._
It is one of those periods which _shine_ with an unnatural and delusive splendor.--MACAULAY.
A very little encouragement brought back one of those overflows which _make_ one more ashamed, etc.--HOLMES.
I am one of those who _believe_ that the real will never find an irremovable basis till it rests on the ideal.--LOWELL.
French literature of the eighteenth century, one of the most powerful agencies that _have_ ever existed.--M. ARNOLD.
What man's life is not overtaken by one or more of those tornadoes that _send_ us out of our course?--THACKERAY.
He is one of those that _deserve_ very well.--ADDISON.
[Sidenote: _Singular._]
The fiery youth ... struck down one of those who _was_ pressing hardest.--SCOTT.
He appeared to me one of the noblest creatures that ever _was_, when he derided the shams of society.--HOWELLS.
A rare Roundabout performance,--one of the very best that _has_ ever appeared in this series.--THACKERAY.
Valancourt was the hero of one of the most famous romances which ever _was_ published in this country.--_Id._
It is one of the errors which _has_ been diligently propagated by designing writers.--IRVING.
"I am going to breakfast with one of these fellows who _is_ at the Piazza Hotel."--DICKENS.
The "Economy of the Animal Kingdom" is one of those books which _is_ an honor to the human race.--EMERSON.
Tom Puzzle is one of the most eminent immethodical disputants of any that _has_ fallen under my observation.--ADDISON.
The richly canopied monument of one of the most earnest souls that ever gave _itself_ to the arts.--RUSKIN.
III. OMISSION OF THE RELATIVE.
416. Although the omission of the relative is common when it would be the object of the verb or preposition _expressed_, there is an omission which is not frequently found in careful writers; that is, when the relative word is a pronoun, object of a preposition _understood_, or is equivalent to the conjunction _when_, _where_, _whence_, and such like: as, "He returned by the same route [by which] he came;" "India is the place [in which, or where] he died." Notice these sentences:--
In the posture I lay, I could see nothing except the sky.--SWIFT.
This is he that should marshal us the way we were going.--EMERSON.
But I by backward steps would move; And, when this dust falls to the urn, In that same state I came, return.--VAUGHAN.
Welcome the hour my aged limbs Are laid with thee to rest.--BURNS.
The night was concluded in the manner we began the morning.--GOLDSMITH.
The same day I went aboard we set sail.--DEFOE.
The vulgar historian of a Cromwell fancies that he had determined on being Protector of England, at the time he was plowing the marsh lands of Cambridgeshire.--CARLYLE.
To pass under the canvas in the manner he had entered required time and attention.--SCOTT.
Exercise.--In the above sentences, insert the omitted conjunction or phrase, and see if the sentence is made clearer.
IV. THE RELATIVE _AS_ AFTER _SAME_.
417. It is very rarely that we find such sentences as,--
He considered...me as his apprentice, and accordingly expected the same service from me _as_ he would from another.--FRANKLIN.
This has the same effect in natural faults _as_ maiming and mutilation produce from accidents.--BURKE.
[Sidenote: _The regular construction_.]
[Sidenote: _Caution_.]
The usual way is to use the relative _as_ after _same_ if no verb follows _as;_ but, if _same_ is followed by a complete clause, _as_ is not used, but we find the relative _who, which,_ or _that_. Remember this applies only to _as_ when used as a relative.
Examples of the use of _as_ in a contracted clause:--
Looking to the same end _as_ Turner, and working in the same spirit, he, with Turner, was a discoverer, etc.--R.W. CHURCH.
They believe the same of all the works of art, _as_ of knives, boats, looking-glasses.--ADDISON.
Examples of relatives following _same_ in full clauses:--
[Sidenote: Who.]
This is the very same rogue _who_ sold us the spectacles. --GOLDSMITH.
The same person _who_ had clapped his thrilling hands at the first representation of the Tempest.--MACAULAY.
[Sidenote: That.]
I rubbed on some of the same ointment _that_ was given me at my first arrival.--SWIFT.
[Sidenote: Which.]
For the same sound is in my ears _Which_ in those days I heard.--WORDSWORTH.
With the same minuteness _which_ her predecessor had exhibited, she passed the lamp over her face and person.--SCOTT.
V. MISUSE OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS.
[Sidenote: _Anacoluthic use of_ which.]
418. There is now and then found in the pages of literature a construction which imitates the Latin, but which is usually carefully avoided. It is a use of the relative _which_ so as to make an anacoluthon, or lack of proper connection between the clauses; for example,--
_Which_, if I had resolved to go on with, I might as well have staid at home.--DEFOE
_Which_ if he attempted to do, Mr. Billings vowed that he would follow him to Jerusalem.--THACKERAY.
We know not the incantation of the heart that would wake them;--_which_ if they once heard, they would start up to meet us in the power of long ago.--RUSKIN.
He delivered the letter, _which_ when Mr. Thornhill had read, he said that all submission was now too late.--GOLDSMITH.
But still the house affairs would draw her thence; _Which_ ever as she could with haste dispatch, She'd come again.--SHAKESPEARE.
As the sentences stand, _which_ really has no office in the sentence: it should be changed to a demonstrative or a personal pronoun, and this be placed in the proper clause.
Exercise.--Rewrite the above five sentences so as to make the proper grammatical connection in each.
[Sidenote: And who, and which, _etc._]
419. There is another kind of expression which slips into the lines of even standard authors, but which is always regarded as an oversight and a blemish.
The following sentence affords an example: "The rich are now engaged in distributing what remains among the poorer sort, _and who_ are now thrown upon their compassion." The trouble is that such conjunctions as _and_, _but_, _or_, etc., should connect expressions of the same kind: _and who_ makes us look for a preceding _who_, but none is expressed. There are three ways to remedy the sentence quoted: thus, (1) "Among those _who_ are poor, _and who_ are now," etc.; (2) "Among the poorer sort, _who_ are now thrown," etc.; (3) "Among the poorer sort, now thrown upon their," etc. That is,--
[Sidenote: _Direction for rewriting._]
Express both relatives, or omit the conjunction, or leave out both connective and relative.
Exercise.
Rewrite the following examples according to the direction just given:--
[Sidenote: And who.]
1. Hester bestowed all her means on wretches less miserable than herself, and who not unfrequently insulted the hand that fed them.--HAWTHORNE.
2. With an albatross perched on his shoulder, and who might be introduced to the congregation as the immediate organ of his conversion.--DE QUINCEY.
3. After this came Elizabeth herself, then in the full glow of what in a sovereign was called beauty, and who would in the lowest walk of life have been truly judged to possess a noble figure.--SCOTT.
4. This was a gentleman, once a great favorite of M. le Conte, and in whom I myself was not a little interested.--THACKERAY.
[Sidenote: But who.]
5. Yonder woman was the wife of a certain learned man, English by name, but who had long dwelt in Amsterdam.--HAWTHORNE.
6. Dr. Ferguson considered him as a man of a powerful capacity, but whose mind was thrown off its just bias.--SCOTT.
[Sidenote: Or who.]
7. "What knight so craven, then," exclaims the chivalrous Venetian, "that he would not have been more than a match for the stoutest adversary; or who would not have lost his life a thousand times sooner than return dishonored by the lady of his love?"--PRESCOTT.
[Sidenote: And which.]
8. There are peculiar quavers still to be heard in that church, and which may even be heard a mile off.--IRVING.
9. The old British tongue was replaced by a debased Latin, like that spoken in the towns, and in which inscriptions are found in the western counties.--PEARSON.
10. I shall have complete copies, one of signal interest, and which has never been described.--MOTLEY.
[Sidenote: But which.]
11. "A mockery, indeed, but in which the soul trifled with itself!"--HAWTHORNE.
12. I saw upon the left a scene far different, but which yet the power of dreams had reconciled into harmony.--DE QUINCEY.
[Sidenote: Or which.]
13. He accounted the fair-spoken courtesy, which the Scotch had learned, either from imitation of their frequent allies, the French, or which might have arisen from their own proud and reserved character, as a false and astucious mark, etc.--SCOTT.
[Sidenote: That ... and which, _etc._]
420. Akin to the above is another fault, which is likewise a variation from the best usage. Two different relatives are sometimes found referring back to the same antecedent in one sentence; whereas the better practice is to choose one relative, and repeat this for any further reference.
Exercise.
Rewrite the following quotations by repeating one relative instead of using two for the same antecedent:--
[Sidenote: That ... who.]
1. Still in the confidence of children that tread without fear every chamber in their father's house, and to whom no door is closed.--DE QUINCEY.
2. Those renowned men that were our ancestors as much as yours, and whose examples and principles we inherit.--BEECHER.
3. The Tree Igdrasil, that has its roots down in the kingdoms of Hela and Death, and whose boughs overspread the highest heaven!--CARLYLE.
[Sidenote: That ... which.]
4. Christianity is a religion that reveals men as the object of God's infinite love, and which commends him to the unbounded love of his brethren.--W.E. CHANNING.
5. He flung into literature, in his Mephistopheles, the first organic figure that has been added for some ages, and which will remain as long as the Prometheus.--EMERSON.
6. Gutenburg might also have struck out an idea that surely did not require any extraordinary ingenuity, and which left the most important difficulties to be surmounted.--HALLAM.
7. Do me the justice to tell me what I have a title to be acquainted with, and which I am certain to know more truly from you than from others.--SCOTT.
8. He will do this amiable little service out of what one may say old civilization has established in place of goodness of heart, but which is perhaps not so different from it.--HOWELLS.
9. In my native town of Salem, at the head of what, half a century ago, was a bustling wharf,--but which is now burdened with decayed wooden warehouses.--HAWTHORNE.
10. His recollection of what he considered as extreme presumption in the Knight of the Leopard, even when he stood high in the roles of chivalry, but which, in his present condition, appeared an insult sufficient to drive the fiery monarch into a frenzy of passion.--SCOTT
[Sidenote: That which ... what.]
11. He, now without any effort but that which he derived from the sill, and what little his feet could secure the irregular crevices, was hung in air.--W.G. SIMMS.
[Sidenote: Such as ... which.]
12. It rose into a thrilling passion, such as my heart had always dimly craved and hungered after, but which now first interpreted itself to my ear.--DE QUINCEY.
13. I recommend some honest manual calling, such as they have very probably been bred to, and which will at least give them a chance of becoming President.--HOLMES.
[Sidenote: Such as ... whom.]
14. I grudge the dollar, the dime, the cent, I give to such men as do not belong to me, and to whom I do not belong.--EMERSON.
[Sidenote: Which ... that ... that.]
15. That evil influence which carried me first away from my father's house, that hurried me into the wild and undigested notion of making my fortune, and that impressed these conceits so forcibly upon me.--DEFOE.
ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS.
[Sidenote: Each other, one another.]
421. The student is sometimes troubled whether to use each other or one another in expressing reciprocal relation or action. Whether either one refers to a certain number of persons or objects, whether or not the two are equivalent, may be gathered from a study of the following sentences:--
They [Ernest and the poet] led _one another_, as it were, into the high pavilion of their thoughts.--HAWTHORNE.
Men take _each other's_ measure when they meet for the first time.--EMERSON.
You ruffian! do you fancy I forget that we were fond of _each other_?--THACKERAY.
England was then divided between kings and Druids, always at war with _one another_, carrying off _each other's_ cattle and wives.--BREWER
The topics follow _each other_ in the happiest order.--MACAULAY.
The Peers at a conference begin to pommel _each other_.--_Id._
We call ourselves a rich nation, and we are filthy and foolish enough to thumb _each other's_ books out of circulating libraries.--RUSKIN.
The real hardships of life are now coming fast upon us; let us not increase them by dissension among _each other_.--GOLDSMITH.
In a moment we were all shaking hands with _one another_.--DICKENS.
The unjust purchaser forces the two to bid against _each other._--RUSKIN.
[Sidenote: _Distributives_ either _and_ neither.]
422. By their original meaning, either and neither refer to only two persons or objects; as, for example,--
Some one must be poor, and in want of his gold--or his corn. Assume that no one is in want of _either_.--RUSKIN
Their [Ernest's and the poet's] minds accorded into one strain, and made delightful music which _neither_ could have claimed as all his own.--HAWTHORNE.
[Sidenote: _Use of_ any.]
Sometimes these are made to refer to several objects, in which case any should be used instead; as,--
Was it the winter's storm? was it hard labor and spare meals? was it disease? was it the tomahawk? Is it possible that _neither_ of these causes, that not all combined, were able to blast this bud of hope?--EVERETT.
Once I took such delight in Montaigne ...; before that, in Shakespeare; then in Plutarch; then in Plotinus; at one time in Bacon; afterwards in Goethe; even in Bettine; but now I turn the pages of _either_ of them languidly, whilst I still cherish their genius.--EMERSON.
[Sidenote: Any _usually plural_.]
423. The adjective pronoun any is nearly always regarded as plural, as shown in the following sentences:--
If _any_ of you _have_ been accustomed to look upon these hours as mere visionary hours, I beseech you, etc.--BEECHER
Whenever, during his stay at Yuste, _any_ of his friends had died, he had been punctual in doing honor to _their_ memory.--STIRLING.
But I enjoy the company and conversation of its inhabitants, when _any_ of them _are_ so good as to visit me.--FRANKLIN.
Do you think, when I spoke anon of the ghosts of Pryor's children, I mean that _any_ of them _are_ dead?--THACKERAY.
In earlier Modern English, _any_ was often singular; as,--
If _any_, speak; for _him_ have I offended.--SHAKESPEARE.
If _any_ of you lack wisdom, let _him_ ask of God.--_Bible_.
Very rarely the singular is met with in later times; as,--
Here is a poet doubtless as much affected by his own descriptions as _any_ that _reads_ them can be.--BURKE.
[Sidenote: _Caution_.]
The above instances are to be distinguished from the adjective _any_, which is plural as often as singular.
[Sidenote: None _usually plural_.]
424. The adjective pronoun none is, in the prose of the present day, usually plural, although it is historically a contraction of _ne ān_ (not one). Examples of its use are,--
In earnest, if ever man was; as _none_ of the French philosophers _were_.--CARLYLE.
_None_ of Nature's powers _do_ better service.--PROF. DANA
One man answers some question which _none_ of his contemporaries _put_, and is isolated.--EMERSON.
_None obey_ the command of duty so well as those who are free from the observance of slavish bondage.--SCOTT.
Do you think, when I spoke anon of the ghosts of Pryor's children, I mean that any of them are dead? _None are_, that I know of.--THACKERAY.
Early apples begin to be ripe about the first of August; but I think _none_ of them _are_ so good to eat as some to smell.--THOREAU.
The singular use of _none_ is often found in the Bible; as,--
_None_ of them _was_ cleansed, saving Naaman the Syrian.--LUKE iv 27
Also the singular is sometimes found in present-day English in prose, and less rarely in poetry; for example,--
Perhaps _none_ of our Presidents since Washington _has_ stood so firm in the confidence of the people.--LOWELL
In signal _none his_ steed should spare.--SCOTT
Like the use of _any_, the pronoun _none_ should be distinguished from the adjective _none_, which is used absolutely, and hence is more likely to confuse the student.
Compare with the above the following sentences having the adjective _none_:--
Reflecting a summer evening sky in its bosom, though _none_ [no sky] was visible overhead.--THOREAU
The holy fires were suffered to go out in the temples, and _none_ [no fires] were lighted in their own dwellings.--PRESCOTT
[Sidenote: All _singular and plural_.]
425. The pronoun all has the singular construction when it means _everything_; the plural, when it means _all persons_: for example,--
[Sidenote: _Singular_.]
The light troops thought ... that _all was_ lost.--PALGRAVE
_All was_ won on the one side, and _all was_ lost on the other.--BAYNE
Having done _all_ that _was_ just toward others.--NAPIER
[Sidenote: _Plural_.]
But the King's treatment of the great lords will be judged leniently by _all_ who _remember_, etc.--PEARSON.
When _all were_ gone, fixing his eyes on the mace, etc.--LINGARD
_All_ who did not understand French _were_ compelled, etc.--McMASTER.
[Sidenote: Somebody's else, _or_ somebody else's?]
426. The compounds somebody else, any one else, nobody else, etc., are treated as units, and the apostrophe is regularly added to the final word _else_ instead of the first. Thackeray has the expression _somebody's else_, and Ford has _nobody's else_, but the regular usage is shown in the following selections:--
A boy who is fond of _somebody else's_ pencil case.--G. ELIOT.
A suit of clothes like _somebody else's_.--THACKERAY.
Drawing off his gloves and warming his hands before the fire as benevolently as if they were _somebody else's_.--DICKENS.
Certainly not! nor _any one else's_ ropes.--RUSKIN.
Again, my pronunciation--like _everyone else's_--is in some cases more archaic.--SWEET.
Then everybody wanted some of _somebody else's_.--RUSKIN.
His hair...curled once all over it in long tendrils, unlike _anybody else's_ in the world.--N.P. WILLIS.
"Ye see, there ain't nothin' wakes folks up like _somebody else's_ wantin' what you've got."--MRS. STOWE.
ADJECTIVES.
AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVES WITH NOUNS.
[Sidenote: These sort, all manner of, _etc._]
427. The statement that adjectives agree with their nouns in number is restricted to the words this and that (with these and those), as these are the only adjectives that have separate forms for singular and plural; and it is only in one set of expressions that the concord seems to be violated,--in such as "_these sort_ of books," "_those kind_ of trees," "_all manner_ of men;" the nouns being singular, the adjectives plural. These expressions are all but universal in spoken English, and may be found not infrequently in literary English; for example,--
_These kind_ of knaves I know, which in this plainness Harbor more craft, etc.--SHAKESPEARE
All _these sort_ of things.--SHERIDAN.
I hoped we had done with _those sort_ of things.--MULOCH.
You have been so used to _those sort_ of impertinences.--SYDNEY SMITH.
Whitefield or Wesley, or some other such great man as a bishop, or _those sort_ of people.--FIELDING.
I always delight in overthrowing _those kind_ of schemes.--AUSTEN.
There are women as well as men who can thoroughly enjoy _those sort_ of romantic spots.--_Saturday Review_, London.
The library was open, with _all manner_ of amusing books.--RUSKIN.
According to the approved usage of Modern English, each one of the above adjectives would have to be changed to the singular, or the nouns to the plural.
[Sidenote: _History of this construction._]
The reason for the prevalence of these expressions must be sought in the history of the language: it cannot be found in the statement that the adjective is made plural by the attraction of a noun following.
[Sidenote: _At the source._]
In Old and Middle English, in keeping with the custom of looking at things concretely rather than in the abstract, they said, not "all _kinds_ of wild animals," but "alles cunnes wilde deor" (wild animals of-every-kind). This the modern expression reverses.
[Sidenote: _Later form._]
But in early Middle English the modern way of regarding such expressions also appeared, gradually displacing the old.
[Sidenote: _The result._]
Consequently we have a confused expression. We keep the form of logical agreement in standard English, such as, "_This sort_ of trees should be planted;" but at the same time the noun following _kind of_ is felt to be the real subject, and the adjective is, in spoken English, made to agree with it, which accounts for the construction, "_These kind of_ trees are best."
[Sidenote: _A question._]
The inconvenience of the logical construction is seen when we wish to use a predicate with number forms. Should we say, "This kind of rules _are_ the best," or "This kind of rules _is_ the best?" _Kind_ or _sort_ may be treated as a collective noun, and in this way may take a plural verb; for example, Burke's sentence, "A _sort_ of uncertain sounds _are_, when the necessary dispositions concur, more alarming than a total silence."
COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE FORMS.
[Sidenote: _Use of the comparative degree._]
428. The comparative degree of the adjective (or adverb) is used when we wish to compare two objects or sets of objects, or one object with a class of objects, to express a higher degree of quality; as,--
Which is _the better_ able to defend himself,--a strong man with nothing but his fists, or a paralytic cripple encumbered with a sword which he cannot lift?--MACAULAY.
Of two such lessons, why forget The _nobler_ and the _manlier_ one? --BYRON.
We may well doubt which has the _stronger_ claim to civilization, the victor or the vanquished.--PRESCOTT.
A _braver_ ne'er to battle rode.--SCOTT.
He is _taller,_ by almost the breadth of my nail, than any of his court.--SWIFT.
[Sidenote: Other _after the comparative form._]
429. When an object is compared with the class to which it belongs, it is regularly excluded from that class by the word _other_; if not, the object would really be compared with itself: thus,--
The character of Lady Castlewood has required more delicacy in its manipulation than perhaps any _other_ which Thackeray has drawn.--TROLLOPE.
I used to watch this patriarchal personage with livelier curiosity than any _other_ form of humanity.--HAWTHORNE.
Exercise.
See if the word _other_ should be inserted in the following sentences:--
1. There was no man who could make a more graceful bow than Mr. Henry.--WIRT.
2. I am concerned to see that Mr. Gary, to whom Dante owes more than ever poet owed to translator, has sanctioned, etc.--MACAULAY.
3. There is no country in which wealth is so sensible of its obligations as our own.--LOWELL.
4. This is more sincerely done in the Scandinavian than in any mythology I know.--CARLYLE.
5. In "Thaddeus of Warsaw" there is more crying than in any novel I remember to have read.--THACKERAY.
6. The heroes of another writer [Cooper] are quite the equals of Scott's men; perhaps Leather-stocking is better than any one in "Scott's lot."--_Id._
[Sidenote: _Use of the superlative degree._]
430. The superlative degree of the adjective (or adverb) is used regularly in comparing more than two things, but is also frequently used in comparing only two things.
Examples of superlative with several objects:--
It is a case of which the _simplest_ statement is the _strongest_.--MACAULAY.
Even Dodd himself, who was one of the _greatest_ humbugs who ever lived, would not have had the face.--THACKERAY.
To the man who plays well, the _highest_ stakes are paid.--HUXLEY.
[Sidenote: _Superlative with two objects._]
Compare the first three sentences in Sec. 428 with the following:--
Which do you love _best_ to behold, the lamb or the lion? --THACKERAY.
Which of these methods has the _best_ effect? Both of them are the same to the sense, and differ only in form.--DR BLAIR.
Rip was one of those ... who eat white bread or brown, whichever can be got _easiest_.--IRVING.
It is hard to say whether the man of wisdom or the man of folly contributed _most_ to the amusement of the party.--SCOTT.
There was an interval of three years between Mary and Anne. The _eldest_, Mary, was like the Stuarts--the _younger_ was a fair English child.--MRS. OLIPHANT.
Of the two great parties which at this hour almost share the nation between them, I should say that one has the _best_ cause, and the other contains the _best_ men.--EMERSON.
In all disputes between States, though the _strongest_ is nearly always mainly in the wrong, the _weaker_ is often so in a minor degree.--RUSKIN.
She thought him and Olivia extremely of a size, and would bid both to stand up to see which was the _tallest_.--GOLDSMITH.
These two properties seem essential to wit, more particularly the _last_ of them.--ADDISON.
"Ha, ha, ha!" roared Goodman Brown when the wind laughed at him. "Let us see which will laugh _loudest_."--HAWTHORNE.
[Sidenote: _Double comparative and superlative._]
431. In Shakespeare's time it was quite common to use a double comparative and superlative by using _more_ or _most_ before the word already having _-er_ or _-est_. Examples from Shakespeare are,--
How much _more elder_ art thou than thy looks!--_Merchant of Venice._
Nor that I am _more better_ than Prospero.--_Tempest._
Come you _more nearer_.--_Hamlet._
With the _most boldest_ and best hearts of Rome.--_J. Cæsar._
Also from the same period,--
Imitating the manner of the _most ancientest_ and _finest_ Grecians.--BEN JONSON.
After the _most straitest_ sect of our religion.--_Bible_, 1611.
Such expressions are now heard only in vulgar English. The following examples are used purposely, to represent the characters as ignorant persons:--
The artful saddler persuaded the young traveler to look at "the _most convenientest_ and _handsomest_ saddle that ever was seen."--BULWER.
"There's nothing comes out but the _most lowest_ stuff in nature; not a bit of high life among them."--GOLDSMITH.
_THREE FIRST_ OR _FIRST THREE_?
432. As to these two expressions, over which a little war has so long been buzzing, we think it not necessary to say more than that both are in good use; not only so in popular speech, but in literary English. Instances of both are given below.
The meaning intended is the same, and the reader gets the same idea from both: hence there is properly a perfect liberty in the use of either or both.
[Sidenote: First three, _etc._]
For Carlyle, and Secretary Walsingham also, have been helping them heart and soul for the _last two_ years.--KINGSLEY.
The delay in the _first three_ lines, and conceit in the last, jar upon us constantly.--RUSKIN.
The _last dozen_ miles before you reach the suburbs.--DE QUINCEY.
Mankind for the _first seventy thousand_ ages ate their meat raw.--LAMB.
The _first twenty_ numbers were expressed by a corresponding number of dots. The _first five_ had specific names.--PRESCOTT.
[Sidenote: Three first, _etc._]
These are the _three first_ needs of civilized life.--RUSKIN.
He has already finished the _three first_ sticks of it.--ADDISON.
In my _two last_ you had so much of Lismahago that I suppose you are glad he is gone.--SMOLLETT.
I have not numbered the lines except of the _four first_ books. --COWPER.
The _seven first_ centuries were filled with a succession of triumphs.--GIBBON.
ARTICLES.
[Sidenote: _Definite article_.]
433. The definite article is repeated before each of two modifiers of the same noun, when the purpose is to call attention to the noun expressed and the one understood. In such a case two or more separate objects are usually indicated by the separation of the modifiers. Examples of this construction are,--
[Sidenote: _With a singular noun_.]
The merit of _the Barb_, _the Spanish_, and _the English_ breed is derived from a mixture of Arabian blood.--GIBBON.
_The righteous_ man is distinguished from _the unrighteous_ by his desire and hope of justice.--RUSKIN.
He seemed deficient in sympathy for concrete human things either on _the sunny_ or _the stormy_ side.--CARLYLE.
It is difficult to imagine a greater contrast than that between _the first_ and _the second_ part of the volume.--_The Nation_, No. 1508.
[Sidenote: _With a plural noun_.]
There was also a fundamental difference of opinion as to whether the earliest cleavage was between _the Northern_ and _the Southern_ languages.--TAYLOR, _Origin of the Aryans_.
434. The same repetition of the article is sometimes found before nouns alone, to distinguish clearly, or to emphasize the meaning; as,--
In every line of _the Philip_ and _the Saul_, the greatest poems, I think, of the eighteenth century.--MACAULAY.
He is master of the two-fold Logos, _the thought_ and _the word_, distinct, but inseparable from each other.--NEWMAN.
_The flowers_, and _the presents_, and _the trunks and bonnet boxes_ ... having been arranged, the hour of parting came.--THACKERAY.
[Sidenote: The _not repeated. One object and several modifiers, with a singular noun_.]
435. Frequently, however, the article is not repeated before each of two or more adjectives, as in Sec. 433, but is used with one only; as,--
Or fanciest thou _the red and yellow_ Clothes-screen yonder is but of To-day, without a Yesterday or a To-morrow?--CARLYLE.
_The lofty_, _melodious_, _and flexible_ language.--SCOTT.
_The fairest and most loving_ wife in Greece.--TENNYSON.
[Sidenote: _Meaning same as in Sec. 433, with a plural noun_.]
Neither can there be a much greater resemblance between _the ancient and modern_ general views of the town.--HALLIWELL-PHILLIPPS.
At Talavera _the English and French_ troops for a moment suspended their conflict.--MACAULAY.
The Crusades brought to the rising commonwealths of _the Adriatic and Tyrrhene_ seas a large increase of wealth.--_Id._
Here the youth of both sexes, of _the higher and middling_ orders, were placed at a very tender age.--PRESCOTT.
[Sidenote: _Indefinite article_.]
436. The indefinite article is used, like the definite article, to limit two or more modified nouns, only one of which is expressed. The article is repeated for the purpose of separating or emphasizing the modified nouns. Examples of this use are,--
We shall live _a better_ and _a higher_ and _a nobler_ life.--BEECHER.
The difference between the products of _a well-disciplined_ and those of _an uncultivated_ understanding is often and admirably exhibited by our great dramatist.--S.T. COLERIDGE.
Let us suppose that the pillars succeed each other, _a round_ and _a square_ one alternately.--BURKE.
As if the difference between _an accurate_ and _an inaccurate_ statement was not worth the trouble of looking into the most common book of reference.--MACAULAY.
To every room there was _an open_ and _a secret_ passage.--JOHNSON.
Notice that in the above sentences (except the first) the noun expressed is in contrast with the modified noun omitted.
[Sidenote: _One article with several adjectives._]
437. Usually the article is not repeated when the several adjectives unite in describing one and the same noun. In the sentences of Secs. 433 and 436, one noun is expressed; yet the same word understood with the other adjectives has a different meaning (except in the first sentence of Sec. 436). But in the following sentences, as in the first three of Sec. 435, the adjectives assist each other in describing the same noun. It is easy to see the difference between the expressions "_a red-and-white_ geranium," and "_a red and a white_ geranium."
Examples of several adjectives describing the same object:--
To inspire us with _a free and quiet_ mind.--B. JONSON.
Here and there _a desolate and uninhabited_ house.--DICKENS.
James was declared _a mortal and bloody_ enemy.--MACAULAY.
So wert thou born into a tuneful strain, _An early, rich, and inexhausted_ vein. --DRYDEN.
[Sidenote: _For rhetorical effect._]
438. The indefinite article (compare Sec. 434) is used to lend special emphasis, interest, or clearness to each of several nouns; as,--
James was declared _a_ mortal and bloody _enemy, a tyrant, a murderer_, and _a usurper_.--MACAULAY.
Thou hast spoken as _a patriot_ and _a Christian_.--BULWER.
He saw him in his mind's eye, _a collegian, a parliament man--a Baronet_ perhaps.--THACKERAY.
VERBS.
CONCORD OF VERB AND SUBJECT IN NUMBER.
[Sidenote: _A broad and loose rule._]
439. In English, the number of the verb follows the meaning rather than the form of its subject.
It will not do to state as a general rule that the verb agrees with its subject in person and number. This was spoken of in Part I., Sec. 276, and the following illustrations prove it.
The statements and illustrations of course refer to such verbs as have separate forms for singular and plural number.
[Sidenote: _Singular verb._]
440. The singular form of the verb is used--
[Sidenote: _Subject of singular form._]
(1) When the subject has a singular form and a singular meaning.
Such, then, _was_ the earliest American _land_.--AGASSIZ.
_He was_ certainly a happy fellow at this time.--G. ELIOT.
_He sees_ that it is better to live in peace.--COOPER.
[Sidenote: _Collective noun of singular meaning._]
(2) When the subject is a _collective noun_ which represents a number of persons or things _taken as one unit_; as,--
The larger _breed_ [of camels] _is_ capable of transporting a weight of a thousand pounds.--GIBBON.
Another _school professes_ entirely opposite principles.--_The Nation._
In this work there _was_ grouped around him _a score_ of men.--W. PHILLIPS
A _number_ of jeweled paternosters _was_ attached to her girdle.--FROUDE.
_Something like a horse load_ of books _has_ been written to prove that it was the beauty who blew up the booby.--CARLYLE
This usage, like some others in this series, depends mostly on the writer's own judgment. Another writer might, for example, prefer a plural verb after _number_ in Froude's sentence above.
[Sidenote: _Singulars connected by_ or _or_ nor.]
(3) When the subject consists of two or more singular nouns connected by _or_ or _nor_; as,--
It is by no means sure that either our _literature_, or the great intellectual _life_ of our nation, _has_ got already, without academies, all that academies can give.--M. ARNOLD.
_Jesus is_ not dead, nor _John_, nor _Paul_, nor _Mahomet_. --EMERSON.
[Sidenote: _Plural form and singular meaning._]
(4) When the subject is _plural in form_, but represents a number of things to be taken together as _forming one unit_; for example,--
Thirty-four years _affects_ one's remembrance of some circumstances.--DE QUINCEY.
Between ourselves, three pounds five shillings and two pence _is_ no bad day's work.--GOLDSMITH.
Every twenty paces _gives_ you the prospect of some villa; and every four hours, that of a large town.--MONTAGUE
Two thirds of this _is_ mine by right.--SHERIDAN
The singular form is also used with book titles, other names, and other singulars of plural form; as,--
Politics _is_ the only field now open for me.--WHITTIER.
"Sesame and Lilies" _is_ Ruskin's creed for young girls.--_Critic_, No. 674
The Three Pigeons _expects_ me down every moment.--GOLDSMITH.
[Sidenote: _Several singular subjects to one singular verb._]
(5) With _several singular subjects not_ disjoined by _or_ or _nor_, in the following cases:--
(_a_) Joined by _and_, but considered as meaning about the same thing, or as making up one general idea; as,--
In a word, all his conversation and knowledge _has been_ in the female world--ADDISON.
The strength and glare of each [color] _is_ considerably abated.--BURKE
To imagine that debating and logic _is_ the triumph.--CARLYLE
In a world where even to fold and seal a letter adroitly _is_ not the least of accomplishments.--DE QUINCEY
The genius and merit of a rising poet _was_ celebrated.--GIBBON.
When the cause of ages and the fate of nations _hangs_ upon the thread of a debate.--J.Q. ADAMS.
(_b_) Not joined by a conjunction, but each one emphatic, or considered as appositional; for example,--
The unbought grace of life, the cheap defense of nations, the nurse of manly sentiment and heroic enterprise, _is_ gone.--BURKE.
A fever, a mutilation, a cruel disappointment, a loss of wealth, a loss of friends, _seems_ at the moment unpaid loss.--EMERSON
The author, the wit, the partisan, the fine gentleman, _does_ not take the place of the man.--_Id._
To receive presents or a bribe, to be guilty of collusion in any way with a suitor, _was_ punished, in a judge, with death.--PRESCOTT.
[Sidenote: _Subjects after the verb._]
This use of several subjects with a singular verb is especially frequent when the subjects are after the verb; as,--
There _is_ a right and a wrong in them.--M ARNOLD.
There _is_ a moving tone of voice, an impassioned countenance, an agitated gesture.--BURKE
There _was_ a steel headpiece, a cuirass, a gorget, and greaves, with a pair of gauntlets and a sword hanging beneath.--HAWTHORNE.
Then _comes_ the "Why, sir!" and the "What then, sir?" and the "No, sir!"--MACAULAY.
For wide _is_ heard the thundering fray, The rout, the ruin, the dismay. --SCOTT.
(_c_) Joined by _as well as_ (in this case the verb agrees with the first of the two, no matter if the second is plural); thus,--
Asia, as well as Europe, _was_ dazzled.--MACAULAY.
The oldest, as well as the newest, wine _Begins_ to stir itself. --LONGFELLOW.
Her back, as well as sides, _was_ like to crack.--BUTLER.
The Epic, as well as the Drama, _is_ divided into tragedy and Comedy.--FIELDING
(_d_) When each of two or more singular subjects is preceded by _every_, _each_, _no_, _many a_, and such like adjectives.
Every fop, every boor, every valet, _is_ a man of wit.--MACAULAY.
Every sound, every echo, _was_ listened to for five hours.--DE QUINCEY
Every dome and hollow _has_ the figure of Christ.--RUSKIN.
Each particular hue and tint _stands_ by itself.--NEWMAN.
Every law and usage _was_ a man's expedient.--EMERSON.
Here _is_ no ruin, no discontinuity, no spent ball.--_Id._
Every week, nay, almost every day, _was_ set down in their calendar for some appropriate celebration.--PRESCOTT.
[Sidenote: _Plural verb._]
441. The plural form of the verb is used--
(1) When the subject is plural _in form and in meaning_; as,--
These _bits_ of wood _were_ covered on every square.--SWIFT.
Far, far away thy children _leave_ the land.--GOLDSMITH.
The Arabian poets _were_ the historians and moralists.--GIBBON.
(2) When the subject is a _collective noun_ in which _the individuals_ of the collection are thought of; as,--
A multitude _go_ mad about it.--EMERSON.
A great number of people _were_ collected at a vendue.--FRANKLIN.
All our household _are_ at rest.--COLERIDGE.
A party of workmen _were_ removing the horses.--LEW WALLACE
The fraternity _were_ inclined to claim for him the honors of canonization.--SCOTT.
The travelers, of whom there _were_ a number.--B. TAYLOR.
(3) When the subject consists of _several singulars connected by and_, making up a plural subject, for example,--
Only Vice and Misery _are_ abroad.--CARLYLE
But its authorship, its date, and its history _are_ alike a mystery to us.--FROUDE.
His clothes, shirt, and skin _were_ all of the same color--SWIFT.
Aristotle and Longinus _are_ better understood by him than Littleton or Coke.--ADDISON.
[Sidenote: _Conjunction omitted._]
The conjunction may be omitted, as in Sec. 440 (5, _b_), but the verb is plural, as with a subject of plural form.
A shady grove, a green pasture, a stream of fresh water, _are_ sufficient to attract a colony.--GIBBON.
The Dauphin, the Duke of Berri, Philip of Anjou, _were_ men of insignificant characters.--MACAULAY
(4) When a singular is joined with a plural by a disjunctive word, the verb agrees with the one nearest it; as,--
One or two of these perhaps _survive_.--THOREAU.
One or two persons in the crowd _were_ insolent.--FROUDE.
One or two of the ladies _were_ going to leave.--ADDISON
One or two of these old Cromwellian soldiers _were_ still alive in the village.--THACKERAY
One or two of whom _were_ more entertaining.--DE QUINCEY.
But notice the construction of this,--
A ray or two _wanders_ into the darkness.--RUSKIN.
AGREEMENT OF VERB AND SUBJECT IN PERSON.
[Sidenote: _General usage_.]
442. If there is only one person in the subject, the ending of the verb indicates the person of its subject; that is, in those few cases where there are forms for different persons: as,--
Never once _didst_ thou revel in the vision.--DE QUINCEY.
Romanism wisely _provides_ for the childish in men.--LOWELL.
It _hath_ been said my Lord would never take the oath.--THACKERAY.
[Sidenote: _Second or third and first person in the subject_.]
443. If the subject is made up of the first person joined with the second or third by _and_, the verb takes the construction of the first person, the subject being really equivalent to _we_; as,--
I flatter myself you and I _shall_ meet again.--SMOLLETT.
You and I _are_ farmers; we never talk politics.--D WEBSTER.
Ah, brother! only I and thou _Are_ left of all that circle now. --WHITTIER.
You and I _are_ tolerably modest people.--THACKERAY.
Cocke and I _have_ felt it in our bones--_Gammer Gurton's Needle_
[Sidenote: _With adversative or disjunctive connectives_.]
444. When the subjects, of different persons, are connected by adversative or disjunctive conjunctions, the verb usually agrees with the pronoun nearest to it; for example,--
Neither you nor I _should_ be a bit the better or wiser.--RUSKIN.
If she or you _are_ resolved to be miserable.--GOLDSMITH.
Nothing which Mr. Pattison or I _have_ said.--M. ARNOLD.
Not Altamont, but thou, _hadst_ been my lord.--ROWE.
Not I, but thou, his blood _dost_ shed.--BYRON.
This construction is at the best a little awkward. It is avoided either by using a verb which has no forms for person (as, "He or I _can_ go," "She or you _may_ be sure," etc.), or by rearranging the sentence so as to throw each subject before its proper person form (as, "You _would_ not be wiser, nor _should_ I;" or, "I _have_ never said so, nor _has_ she").
[Sidenote: _Exceptional examples_.]
445. The following illustrate exceptional usage, which it is proper to mention; but the student is cautioned to follow the regular usage rather than the unusual and irregular.
Exercise.
Change each of the following sentences to accord with standard usage, as illustrated above (Secs. 440-444):--
1. And sharp Adversity will teach at last Man,--and, as we would hope,--perhaps the devil, That neither of their intellects are vast. --BYRON.
2. Neither of them, in my opinion, give so accurate an idea of the man as a statuette in bronze.--TROLLOPE.
3. How each of these professions are crowded.--ADDISON.
4. Neither of their counselors were to be present.--_Id._
5. Either of them are equally good to the person to whom they are significant.--EMERSON.
6. Neither the red nor the white are strong and glaring.--BURKE.
7. A lampoon or a satire do not carry in them robbery or murder.--ADDISON.
8. Neither of the sisters were very much deceived.--THACKERAY.
9. Nor wood, nor tree, nor bush are there, Her course to intercept.--SCOTT.
10. Both death and I am found eternal.--MILTON.
11. In ascending the Mississippi the party was often obliged to wade through morasses; at last they came upon the district of Little Prairie.--G. BANCROFT.
12. In a word, the whole nation seems to be running out of their wits.--SMOLLETT.
SEQUENCE OF TENSES (VERBS AND VERBALS).
[Sidenote: _Lack of logical sequence in verbs_.]
446. If one or more verbs depend on some leading verb, each should be in the tense that will convey the meaning intended by the writer.
In this sentence from Defoe, "I expected every wave would have swallowed us up," the verb _expected_ looks forward to something in the future, while _would have swallowed_ represents something completed in past time: hence the meaning intended was, "I expected every wave _would swallow_" etc.
[Sidenote: _Also in verbals_.]
In the following sentence, the infinitive also fails to express the exact thought:--
I had hoped never to have seen the statues again.--MACAULAY.
The trouble is the same as in the previous sentence; _to have seen_ should be changed to _to see_, for exact connection. Of course, if the purpose were to represent a prior fact or completed action, the perfect infinitive would be the very thing.
It should be remarked, however, that such sentences as those just quoted are in keeping with the older idea of the unity of the sentence. The present rule is recent.
Exercise.
Explain whether the verbs and infinitives in the following sentences convey the right meaning; if not, change them to a better form:--
1. I gave one quarter to Ann, meaning, on my return, to have divided with her whatever might remain.--DE QUINCEY
2. I can't sketch "The Five Drapers," ... but can look and be thankful to have seen such a masterpiece.--THACKERAY.
3. He would have done more wisely to have left them to find their own apology than to have given reasons which seemed paradoxes.--R.W. CHURCH.
4. The propositions of William are stated to have contained a proposition for a compromise.--PALGRAVE
5. But I found I wanted a stock of words, which I thought I should have acquired before that time.--FRANKLIN
6. I could even have suffered them to have broken Everet Ducking's head.--IRVING.
INDIRECT DISCOURSE.
[Sidenote: _Definitions_.]
_447_. Direct discourse--that is, a direct quotation or a direct question--means the identical words the writer or speaker used; as,--
"I hope you have not killed him?" said Amyas.--KINGSLEY.
Indirect discourse means reported speech,--the thoughts of a writer or speaker put in the words of the one reporting them.
[Sidenote: _Two samples of indirect discourse_.]
448. Indirect discourse may be of two kinds:--
(1) Following the thoughts and also the exact words as far as consistent with the rules of logical sequence of verbs.
(2) Merely a concise representation of the original words, not attempting to follow the entire quotation.
The following examples of both are from De Quincey:--
[Sidenote: _Indirect_.]
1. Reyes remarked that it was not in his power to oblige the clerk as to that, but that he could oblige him by cutting his throat.
[Sidenote: _Direct_.]
His exact words were, "I _cannot_ oblige _you_ ..., but I _can_ oblige _you_ by cutting _your_ throat."
[Sidenote: _Indirect_.]
Her prudence whispered eternally, that safety there was none for her until she had laid the Atlantic between herself and St. Sebastian's.
[Sidenote: _Direct_.]
She thought to herself, "Safety there _is_ none for _me_ until _I_ have laid," etc.
[Sidenote: _Summary of the expressions_.]
2. Then he laid bare the unparalleled ingratitude of such a step. Oh, the unseen treasure that had been spent upon that girl! Oh, the untold sums of money that he had sunk in that unhappy speculation!
[Sidenote: _Direct synopsis_.]
The substance of his lamentation was, "Oh, unseen treasure _has_ been spent upon that girl! Untold sums of money _have I_ sunk," etc.
449. From these illustrations will be readily seen the grammatical changes made in transferring from direct to indirect discourse. Remember the following facts:--
(1) Usually the main, introductory verb is in the past tense.
(2) The indirect quotation is usually introduced by _that_, and the indirect question by _whether_ or _if_, or regular interrogatives.
(3) Verbs in the present-tense form are changed to the past-tense form. This includes the auxiliaries _be_, _have_, _will_, etc. The past tense is sometimes changed to the past perfect.
(4) The pronouns of the first and second persons are all changed to the third person. Sometimes it is clearer to introduce the antecedent of the pronoun instead.
Other examples of indirect discourse have been given in Part I., under interrogative pronouns, interrogative adverbs, and the subjunctive mood of verbs.
Exercise.
Rewrite the following extract from Irving's "Sketch Book," and change it to a direct quotation:--
He assured the company that it was a fact, handed down from his ancestor the historian, that the Catskill Mountains had always been haunted by strange beings; that it was affirmed that the great Hendrick Hudson, the first discoverer of the river and country, kept a kind of vigil there every twenty years, with his crew of the Half-moon, being permitted in this way to revisit the scenes of his enterprise, and keep a guardian eye upon the river and the great city called by his name; that his father had once seen them in their old Dutch dresses playing at ninepins in a hollow of the mountain; and that he himself had heard, one summer afternoon, the sound of their balls, like distant peals of thunder.
VERBALS.
PARTICIPLES.
[Sidenote: _Careless use of the participial phrase._]
450. The following sentences illustrate a misuse of the participial phrase:--
Pleased with the "Pilgrim's Progress," my first collection was of John Bunyan's works.--B. FRANKLIN.
My farm consisted of about twenty acres of excellent land, having given a hundred pounds for my predecessor's goodwill.--GOLDSMITH.
Upon asking how he had been taught the art of a cognoscente so suddenly, he assured me that nothing was more easy.--_Id._
Having thus run through the causes of the sublime, my first observation will be found nearly true.--BURKE
He therefore remained silent till he had repeated a paternoster, being the course which his confessor had enjoined.--SCOTT
Compare with these the following:--
[Sidenote: _A correct example._]
Going yesterday to dine with an old acquaintance, I had the misfortune to find his whole family very much dejected.--ADDISON.
[Sidenote: _Notice this._]
The trouble is, in the sentences first quoted, that the main subject of the sentence is not the same word that would be the subject of the participle, if this were expanded into a verb.
[Sidenote: _Correction._]
Consequently one of two courses must be taken,--either change the participle to a verb with its appropriate subject, leaving the principal statement as it is; or change the principal proposition so it shall make logical connection with the participial phrase.
For example, the first sentence would be, either "_As I was_ pleased, ... my first collection was," etc., or "Pleased with the 'Pilgrim's Progress,' I made my first collection John Bunyan's works."
Exercise.--Rewrite the other four sentences so as to correct the careless use of the participial phrase.
INFINITIVES.
[Sidenote: _Adverb between_ to _and the infinitive._]
451. There is a construction which is becoming more and more common among good writers,--the placing an adverb between _to_ of the infinitive and the infinitive itself. The practice is condemned by many grammarians, while defended or excused by others. Standard writers often use it, and often, purposely or not, avoid it.
The following two examples show the adverb before the infinitive:--
[Sidenote: _The more common usage._]
He handled it with such nicety of address as sufficiently _to show_ that he fully understood the business.--SCOTT.
It is a solemn, universal assertion, deeply _to be kept_ in mind by all sects.--RUSKIN.
This is the more common arrangement; yet frequently the desire seems to be to get the adverb snugly against the infinitive, to modify it as closely and clearly as possible.
Exercise.
In the following citations, see if the adverbs can be placed before or after the infinitive and still modify it as clearly as they now do:--
1. There are, then, many things _to be_ carefully _considered_, if a strike is to succeed.--LAUGHLIN.
2. That the mind may not have to go backwards and forwards in order _to_ rightly _connect_ them.--HERBERT SPENCER.
3. It may be easier to bear along all the qualifications of an idea ... than _to_ first imperfectly _conceive_ such idea.--_id._
4. In works of art, this kind of grandeur, which consists in multitude, is _to be_ very cautiously _admitted_.--BURKE.
5. That virtue which requires _to be_ ever _guarded_ is scarcely worth the sentinel.--GOLDSMITH.
6. Burke said that such "little arts and devices" were not _to be_ wholly _condemned_.--_The Nation_, No. 1533.
7. I wish the reader _to_ clearly _understand_.--RUSKIN.
8. Transactions which seem _to be_ most widely _separated_ from one another.--DR. BLAIR.
9. Would earnestly advise them for their good to order this paper _to be_ punctually _served up_.--ADDISON.
10. A little sketch of his, in which a cannon ball is supposed _to have_ just _carried off_ the head of an aide-de-camp.--TROLLOPE.
11. The ladies seem _to have been_ expressly _created_ to form helps meet for such gentlemen.--MACAULAY.
12. Sufficient to disgust a people whose manners were beginning _to be_ strongly _tinctured_ with austerity.--_Id._
13. The spirits, therefore, of those opposed to them seemed _to be_ considerably _damped_ by their continued success.--SCOTT.
ADVERBS.
[Sidenote: _Position of_ only, even, _etc._]
A very careful writer will so place the modifiers of a verb that the reader will not mistake the meaning.
The rigid rule in such a case would be, to put the modifier in such a position that the reader not only can understand the meaning intended, but _cannot misunderstand_ the thought. Now, when such adverbs as _only_, _even_, etc., are used, they are usually placed in a strictly correct position, if they modify single words; but they are often removed from the exact position, if they modify phrases or clauses: for example, from Irving, "The site is _only_ to be traced by fragments of bricks, china, and earthenware." Here _only_ modifies the phrase _by fragments of bricks_, etc., but it is placed before the infinitive. This misplacement of the adverb can be detected only by analysis of the sentence.
Exercise.
Tell what the adverb modifies in each quotation, and see if it is placed in the proper position:--
1. Only the name of one obscure epigrammatist has been embalmed for us in the verses of his rival.--PALGRAVE.
2. Do you remember pea shooters? I think we only had them on going home for holidays.--THACKERAY.
3. Irving could only live very modestly. He could only afford to keep one old horse.--_Id._
4. The arrangement of this machinery could only be accounted for by supposing the motive power to have been steam.--WENDELL PHILLIPS.
5. Such disputes can only be settled by arms.--_Id._
6. I have only noted one or two topics which I thought most likely to interest an American reader.--N.P. WILLIS.
7. The silence of the first night at the farmhouse,--stillness broken only by two whippoorwills.--HIGGINSON.
8. My master, to avoid a crowd, would suffer only thirty people at a time to see me.--SWIFT.
9. In relating these and the following laws, I would only be understood to mean the original institutions.--_Id._
10. The perfect loveliness of a woman's countenance can only consist in that majestic peace which is founded in the memory of happy and useful years.--RUSKIN.
11. In one of those celestial days it seems a poverty that we can only spend it once.--EMERSON.
12. My lord was only anxious as long as his wife's anxious face or behavior seemed to upbraid him.--THACKERAY.
13. He shouted in those clear, piercing tones that could be even heard among the roaring of the cannon.--COOPER.
14. His suspicions were not even excited by the ominous face of Gérard.--MOTLEY.
15. During the whole course of his administration, he scarcely befriended a single man of genius.--MACAULAY.
16. I never remember to have felt an event more deeply than his death.--SYDNEY SMITH.
17. His last journey to Cannes, whence he was never destined to return.--MRS. GROTE.
USE OF DOUBLE NEGATIVES.
[Sidenote: _The old usage._]
453. In Old and Middle English, two negatives strengthened a negative idea; for example,--
He _nevere_ yet _no_ vileineye _ne_ sayde, In al his lyf unto _no_ maner wight.--CHAUCER.
_No_ sonne, were he never so old of yeares, might _not_ marry. --ASCHAM.
The first of these is equivalent to "He didn't never say no villainy in all his life to no manner of man,"--four negatives.
This idiom was common in the older stages of the language, and is still kept in vulgar English; as,--
I tell you she _ain'_ been _nowhar_ ef she don' know we all. --PAGE, in _Ole Virginia_.
There _weren't no_ pies to equal hers.--MRS. STOWE.
[Sidenote: _Exceptional use._]
There are sometimes found two negatives in modern English with a negative effect, when one of the negatives is a connective. This, however, is not common.
I never did see him again, _nor never_ shall.--DE QUINCEY.
However, I did _not_ act so hastily, _neither_.--DEFOE.
The prosperity of no empire, _nor_ the grandeur of _no_ king, can so agreeably affect, etc.--BURKE.
[Sidenote: _Regular law of negative in modern English._]
But, under the influence of Latin syntax, the usual way of regarding the question now is, that _two negatives are equivalent to an affirmative_, denying each other.
Therefore, if two negatives are found together, it is a sign of ignorance or carelessness, or else a purpose to make an affirmative effect. In the latter case, one of the negatives is often a prefix; as _in_frequent, _un_common.
Exercise.
Tell whether the two or more negatives are properly used in each of the following sentences, and why:--
1. The red men were not so infrequent visitors of the English settlements.--HAWTHORNE.
2. "Huldy was so up to everything about the house, that the doctor didn't miss nothin' in a temporal way."--MRS. STOWE.
3. Her younger sister was a wide-awake girl, who hadn't been to school for nothing.--HOLMES.
4. You will find no battle which does not exhibit the most cautious circumspection.--BAYNE.
5. Not only could man not acquire such information, but ought not to labor after it.--GROTE.
6. There is no thoughtful man in America who would not consider a war with England the greatest of calamities.--LOWELL.
7. In the execution of this task, there is no man who would not find it an arduous effort.--HAMILTON.
8. "A weapon," said the King, "well worthy to confer honor, nor has it been laid on an undeserving shoulder."--SCOTT.
CONJUNCTIONS.
[Sidenote: And who, and which.]
454. The sentences given in Secs. 419 and 420 on the connecting of pronouns with different expressions may again be referred to here, as the use of the conjunction, as well as of the pronoun, should be scrutinized.
[Sidenote: _Choice and proper position of correlatives._]
455. The most frequent mistakes in using conjunctions are in handling correlatives, especially _both_ ... _and, neither_ ... _nor, either_ ... _or, not_ _only_ ... _but, not merely_ ... _but_ (_also_).
The following examples illustrate the correct use of correlatives as to both choice of words and position:--
_Whether_ at war _or_ at peace, there we were, a standing menace to all earthly paradises of that kind.--LOWELL.
These idols of wood can _neither_ hear _nor_ feel.--PRESCOTT.
_Both_ the common soldiery _and_ their leaders and commanders lowered on each other as if their union had not been more essential than ever, _not only_ to the success of their common cause, _but_ to their own safety.--SCOTT.
[Sidenote: _Things to be watched._]
In these examples it will be noticed that _nor_, not _or_ is the proper correlative of _neither_; and that all correlatives in a sentence ought to have corresponding positions: that is, if the last precedes a verb, the first ought to be placed before a verb; if the second precedes a phrase, the first should also. This is necessary to make the sentence clear and symmetrical.
[Sidenote: _Correction._]
In the sentence, "I am _neither_ in spirits to enjoy it, _or_ to reply to it," both of the above requirements are violated. The word _neither_ in such a case had better be changed to _not_ ... _either_,--"I am not in spirits _either_ to enjoy it, _or_ to reply to it."
Besides _neither ... or_, even _neither ... nor_ is often changed to _not_--_either ... or_ with advantage, as the negation is sometimes too far from the verb to which it belongs.
A noun may be preceded by one of the correlatives, and an equivalent pronoun by the other. The sentence, "This loose and inaccurate manner of speaking has misled us _both_ in the theory of taste _and_ of morals," may be changed to "This loose ... misled us _both_ in the theory of taste _and_ in _that_ of morals."
Exercise.
Correct the following sentences:--
1. An ordinary man would neither have incurred the danger of succoring Essex, nor the disgrace of assailing him.--MACAULAY.
2. Those ogres will stab about and kill not only strangers, but they will outrage, murder, and chop up their own kin.--THACKERAY.
3. In the course of his reading (which was neither pursued with that seriousness or that devout mind which such a study requires) the youth found himself, etc.--_Id._
4. I could neither bear walking nor riding in a carriage over its pebbled streets.--FRANKLIN.
5. Some exceptions, that can neither be dissembled nor eluded, render this mode of reasoning as indiscreet as it is superfluous.--GIBBON.
6. They will, too, not merely interest children, but grown-up persons.--_Westminster Review._
7. I had even the satisfaction to see her lavish some kind looks upon my unfortunate son, which the other could neither extort by his fortune nor assiduity.--GOLDSMITH.
8. This was done probably to show that he was neither ashamed of his name or family.--ADDISON.
[Sidenote: Try and _for_ try to.]
456. Occasionally there is found the expression _try and_ instead of the better authorized _try to_; as,--
We will try _and_ avoid personalities altogether.--THACKERAY.
Did any of you ever try _and_ read "Blackmore's Poems"?--_Id._
Try _and_ avoid the pronoun.--BAIN.
We will try _and_ get a clearer notion of them.--RUSKIN.
[Sidenote: But what.]
457. Instead of the subordinate conjunction _that_, _but_, or _but that_, or the negative relative _but_, we sometimes find the bulky and needless _but what_. Now, it is possible to use _but what_ when _what_ is a relative pronoun, as, "He never had any money _but what_ he absolutely needed;" but in the following sentences _what_ usurps the place of a conjunction.
Exercise.
In the following sentences, substitute _that_, _but_, or _but that_ for the words _but what_:--
1. The doctor used to say 'twas her young heart, and I don't know _but what_ he was right.--S.O. JEWETT.
2. At the first stroke of the pickax it is ten to one _but what_ you are taken up for a trespass.--BULWER.
3. There are few persons of distinction _but what_ can hold conversation in both languages.--SWIFT.
4. Who knows _but what_ there might be English among those sun-browned half-naked masses of panting wretches?--KINGSLEY.
5. No little wound of the kind ever came to him _but what_ he disclosed it at once.--TROLLOPE.
6. They are not so distant from the camp of Saladin _but what_ they might be in a moment surprised.--SCOTT.
PREPOSITIONS.
458. As to the placing of a preposition after its object in certain cases, see Sec. 305.
[Sidenote: Between _and_ among.]
459. In the primary meaning of between and among there is a sharp distinction, as already seen in Sec. 313; but in Modern English the difference is not so marked.
Between is used most often with two things only, but still it is frequently used in speaking of several objects, some relation or connection between two at a time being implied.
Among is used in the same way as _amid_ (though not with exactly the same meaning), several objects being spoken of in the aggregate, no separation or division by twos being implied.
Examples of the distinctive use of the two words:--
[Sidenote: _Two things._]
The contentions that arise _between_ the parson and the squire.--ADDISON.
We reckoned the improvements of the art of war _among_ the triumphs of science.--EMERSON.
Examples of the looser use of _between_:--
[Sidenote: _A number of things._]
Natural objects affect us by the laws of that connection which Providence has established _between_ certain motions of bodies.--BURKE.
Hence the differences _between_ men in natural endowment are insignificant in comparison with their common wealth.--EMERSON.
They maintain a good correspondence _between_ those wealthy societies of men that are divided from one another by seas and oceans.--ADDISON.
Looking up at its deep-pointed porches and the dark places _between_ their pillars where there were statues once.--RUSKIN
What have I, a soldier of the Cross, to do with recollections of war _betwixt_ Christian nations?--SCOTT.
[Sidenote: _Two groups or one and a group._]
Also _between_ may express relation or connection in speaking of two groups of objects, or one object and a group; as,--
A council of war is going on beside the watch fire, _between_ the three adventurers and the faithful Yeo.--KINGSLEY.
The great distinction _between_ teachers sacred or literary,--_between_ poets like Herbert and poets like Pope,--_between_ philosophers like Spinoza, Kant, and Coleridge, and philosophers like Locke, Paley, Mackintosh, and Stewart, etc. --EMERSON.
460. Certain words are followed by particular prepositions.
Some of these words show by their composition what preposition should follow. Such are _absolve_, _involve_, _different_.
Some of them have, by custom, come to take prepositions not in keeping with the original meaning of the words. Such are _derogatory_, _averse_.
Many words take one preposition to express one meaning, and another to convey a different meaning; as, _correspond_, _confer_.
And yet others may take several prepositions indifferently to express the same meaning.
[Sidenote: _List I_.: _Words with particular prepositions_.]
461. LIST I.
Absolve _from_. Conversant _with_. Abhorrent _to_. Dependent _on_ (_upon_). Accord _with_. Different _from_. Acquit _of_. Dissent _from_. Affinity _between_. Derogatory _to_. Averse _to_. Deprive _of_. Bestow _on_ (_upon_). Independent _of_. Conform _to_. Involve _in_. Comply _with_.
"Different _to_" is frequently heard in spoken English in England, and sometimes creeps into standard books, but it is not good usage.
[Sidenote: _List II_.: _Words taking different prepositions for different meanings._]
462. LIST II.
Agree _with_ (a person). Differ _from_ (note below). Agree _to_ (a proposal). Differ _with_ (note below). Change_ for_ (a thing). Disappointed _in_ (a thing Change _with_ (a person). obtained). Change _to_ (become). Disappointed _of_ (a thing not Confer _with_ (talk with). obtained). Confer _on_ (_upon_) (give to). Reconcile _to_ (note below). Confide _in_ (trust in). Reconcile _with_ (note below). Confide _to_ (intrust to). A taste _of_ (food). Correspond _with_ (write to). A taste _for_ (art, etc.). Correspond _to_ (a thing).
"Correspond _with_" is sometimes used of things, as meaning _to be in keeping with_.
"Differ _from_" is used in speaking of unlikeness between things or persons; "differ _from_" and "differ _with_" are both used in speaking of persons disagreeing as to opinions.
"Reconcile _to_" is used with the meaning of _resigned to_, as, "The exile became reconciled _to_ his fate;" also of persons, in the sense of making friends with, as, "The king is reconciled _to_ his minister." "Reconcile _with_" is used with the meaning of _make to agree with_, as, "The statement must be reconciled _with_ his previous conduct."
[Sidenote: _List III_.: _Words taking anyone of several prepositions for the same meaning_.]
463. LIST III.
Die _by_, die _for_, die _from_, die _of_, die _with_. Expect _of_, expect _from_. Part _from_, part _with_.
Illustrations of "die _of_," "die _from_," etc.:--
[Sidenote: "_Die_ of."]
The author died _of_ a fit of apoplexy.--BOSWELL.
People do not die _of_ trifling little colds.--AUSTEN
Fifteen officers died _of_ fever in a day.--MACAULAY.
It would take me long to die _of_ hunger.--G. ELIOT.
She died _of_ hard work, privation, and ill treatment.--BURNETT.
[Sidenote: "_Die_ from."]
She saw her husband at last literally die _from_ hunger.--BULWER.
He died at last without disease, simply _from_ old age. --_Athenæum._
No one _died from_ want at Longfeld.--_Chambers' Journal._
[Sidenote: "_Die_ with."]
She would have been ready to die _with_ shame.--G. ELIOT.
I am positively dying _with_ hunger.--SCOTT.
I thought the two Miss Flamboroughs would have died _with_ laughing.--GOLDSMITH.
I wish that the happiest here may not die _with_ envy.--POPE.
[Sidenote: "_Die_ for." (_in behalf of_).]
Take thought and die _for_ Cæsar.--SHAKESPEARE.
One of them said he would die _for_ her.--GOLDSMITH.
It is a man of quality who dies _for_ her.--ADDISON.
[Sidenote: "_Die_ for." (_because of_).]
Who, as Cervantes informs us, died _for_ love of the fair Marcella.--FIELDING.
Some officers had died _for_ want of a morsel of bread.--MACAULAY.
[Sidenote: "_Die_ by." (_material cause, instrument_).]
If I meet with any of 'em, they shall die _by_ this hand. --THACKERAY.
He must purge himself to the satisfaction of a vigilant tribunal or die _by_ fire.--MACAULAY.
He died _by_ suicide before he completed his eighteenth year.--SHAW.
464. Illustrations of "expect _of_," "expect _from:_"--
[Sidenote: "_Expect_ of."]
What do I expect _of_ Dublin?--_Punch._
That is more than I expected _of_ you.--SCOTT.
_Of_ Doctor P. nothing better was to be expected.--POE.
Not knowing what might be expected _of_ men in general.--G. ELIOT.
[Sidenote: "_Expect_ from."]
She will expect more attention _from_ you, as my friend.--WALPOLE.
There was a certain grace and decorum hardly to be expected _from_ a man.--MACAULAY.
I have long expected something remarkable _from_ you.--G. ELIOT.
465. "Part _with_" is used with both persons and things, but "part _from_" is less often found in speaking of things.
Illustrations of "part _with_," "part _from_:"--
[Sidenote: "_Part_ with."]
He was fond of everybody that he was used to, and hated to part _with_ them.--AUSTEN.
Cleveland was sorry to part _with_ him.--BULWER.
I can part _with_ my children for their good.--DICKENS.
I part _with_ all that grew so near my heart.--WALLER.
[Sidenote: "_Part_ from."]
To part _from_ you would be misery.--MARRYAT.
I have just seen her, just parted _from_ her.--BULWER.
Burke parted _from_ him with deep emotion.--MACAULAY.
His precious bag, which he would by no means part _from_.--G. ELIOT.
[Sidenote: _Kind_ in _you_, _kind_ of _you_.]
466. With words implying behavior or disposition, either _of_ or _in_ is used indifferently, as shown in the following quotations:--
[Sidenote: Of.]
It was a little bad _of_ you.--TROLLOPE.
How cruel _of_ me!--COLLINS.
He did not think it handsome _of_ you.--BULWER.
But this is idle _of_ you.--TENNYSON.
[Sidenote: In.]
Very natural _in_ Mr. Hampden.--CARLYLE.
It will be anything but shrewd _in_ you.--DICKENS.
That is very unreasonable _in_ a person so young.--BEACONSFIELD.
I am wasting your whole morning--too bad _in_ me.--BULWER.
Miscellaneous Examples for Correction.
1. Can you imagine Indians or a semi-civilized people engaged on a work like the canal connecting the Mediterranean and the Red seas?
2. In the friction between an employer and workman, it is commonly said that his profits are high.
3. None of them are in any wise willing to give his life for the life of his chief.
4. That which can be done with perfect convenience and without loss, is not always the thing that most needs to be done, or which we are most imperatively required to do.
5. Art is neither to be achieved by effort of thinking, nor explained by accuracy of speaking.
6. To such as thee the fathers owe their fame.
7. We tread upon the ancient granite that first divided the waters into a northern and southern ocean.
8. Thou tread'st, with seraphims, the vast abyss.
9. Eustace had slipped off his long cloak, thrown it over Amyas's head, and ran up the alley.
10. This narrative, tedious perhaps, but which the story renders necessary, may serve to explain the state of intelligence betwixt the lovers.
11. To the shame and eternal infamy of whomsoever shall turn back from the plow on which he hath laid his hand!
12. The noise of vast cataracts, raging storms, thunder, or artillery, awake a great and awful sensation in the mind.
13. The materials and ornaments ought neither to be white, nor green, nor yellow, nor blue, nor of a pale red.
14. This does not prove that an idea of use and beauty are the same thing, or that they are any way dependent on each other.
15. And were I anything but what I am, I would wish me only he.
16. But every man may know, and most of us do know, what is a just and unjust act.
17. You have seen Cassio and she together.
18. We shall shortly see which is the fittest object of scorn, you or me.
19. Richard glared round him with an eye that seemed to seek an enemy, and from which the angry nobles shrunk appalled.
20. It comes to whomsoever will put off what is foreign and proud.
21. The difference between the just and unjust procedure does not lie in the number of men hired, but in the price paid to them.
22. The effect of proportion and fitness, so far at least as they proceed from a mere consideration of the work itself, produce approbation, the acquiescence of the understanding.
23. When the glass or liquor are transparent, the light is sometimes softened in the passage.
24. For there nor yew nor cypress spread their gloom.
25. Every one of these letters are in my name.
26. Neither of them are remarkable for precision.
27. Squares, triangles, and other angular figures, are neither beautiful to the sight nor feeling.
28. There is not one in a thousand of these human souls that cares to think where this estate is, or how beautiful it is, or what kind of life they are to lead in it.
29. Dryden and Rowe's manner are quite out of fashion.
30. We were only permitted to stop for refreshment once.
31. The sight of the manner in which the meals were served were enough to turn our stomach.
32. The moody and savage state of mind of the sullen and ambitious man are admirably drawn.
33. Surely none of our readers are so unfortunate as not to know some man or woman who carry this atmosphere of peace and good-will about with them. (Sec. 411.)
34. Friday, whom he thinks would be better than a dog, and almost as good as a pony.
35. That night every man of the boat's crew, save Amyas, were down with raging fever.
36. These kind of books fill up the long tapestry of history with little bits of detail which give human interest to it.
37. I never remember the heather so rich and abundant.
38. These are scattered along the coast for several hundred miles, in conditions of life that seem forbidding enough, but which are accepted without complaint by the inhabitants themselves.
39. Between each was an interval where lay a musket.
40. He had four children, and it was confidently expected that they would receive a fortune of at least $200,000 between them.
FOOTNOTES:
[Footnote 1: More for convenience than for absolute accuracy, the stages of our language have been roughly divided into three:--
(1) Old English (with Anglo-Saxon) down to the twelfth century.
(2) Middle English, from about the twelfth century to the sixteenth century.
(3) Modern English, from about 1500 to the present time.]
INDEX.
THE NUMBERS REFER TO PAGES.
A, origin of, 119. syntax of, 310. uses of, 124.
Absolute, nominative, 47.
Abstract nouns, 20. with article, 25, 124.
Active voice, 133.
Address, nominative of, 47.
Adjective clauses, 260.
Adjective pronouns, demonstrative, 90. distinguished from adjectives, 89. distributive, 91. numeral, 92.
Adjectives, adverbs used as, 116. as complements, 239. comparison of, 107. definition of, 98. demonstrative, 102. from nouns, used as nouns, 27. function of, 97. how to parse, 115, 116. in predicate, 239. not compared, 109. of quality, 99. of quantity, 101. ordinal, 103. plural of, 106. pronominal, 104. syntax of, 303.
Adverbial clauses, 262.
Adverbial objective, 48, 242.
Adverbs, between _to_ and infinitive, 323. classes of, 185, 187. definition of, 184. distinguished from adjectives, 190. how to parse, 191. position of, in sentence, 325. same form as adjectives, 190. syntax of, 325. used as adjectives, 116. used as nouns, 27. what they modify, 183.
Adversative conjunction, 194.
_After_, uses of, 114, 195, 207.
_Against_, uses of, 207.
Agreement, kinds of, 275. of adjective with noun, 303. of personal pronoun with antecedent, 287. of relative pronoun with antecedent, 291. of verb with subject, 148, 316.
_All_, syntax of, 302.
_Alms_, 42.
Alternative conjunctions, 194, 328.
_Among, between_, 207, 331.
_An_. See _A_.
Anacoluthon with _which_, 295.
Analysis, definition of, 231. of complex sentences, 264. of compound sentences, 271. of simple sentences, 252.
_And who_, _and which_, 296.
Antecedent, agreement of pronoun and. See _Agreement_. definition of, 74. of _it_, 67. of personal pronouns, 74, 287. of _which_, 79.
_Any_, as adjective, 101. as pronoun, 90. syntax of, 300.
Apostrophe in possessive, 51.
Apposition, words in, 47, 49, 67, 240.
_Are_, derivation of, 150.
Arrangement in syntax, 275.
Articles, definite, 120. definition of, 120. how to parse, 127. indefinite, 124. syntax of, 309.
_As_, after _same_, 294. uses of, 84, 225.
_As if_, _as though_, 198.
_At_, uses of, 208.
Auxiliary verbs, 148.
_Bad_, comparison of, 110.
_Be_, conjugation of, 149. uses of, 150.
_Better_, _best_, 110, 111.
_Between._ See _Among_.
_Brethren_, 39.
_Bridegroom_, 37.
_But_, uses of, 84, 224. with nominative of pronoun, 283.
_But what_, 330.
_By_, uses of, 210.
_Can_, _could_, 161.
Case, definition of, 46.
Case, double possessive, of nouns, 54. of pronouns, 64. forms, number of, in Old and Modern English, 46. nominative, of nouns, 47. of pronouns, 62, 279. objective, of nouns, 48. of pronouns, 66, 279. possessive, of nouns, 49, 278. of pronouns, 63. syntax of, 278.
Cause, clauses of, 262. conjunctions of, 194, 195.
_Cherub_, plurals of, 45.
_Children_, 39.
Clause, adjective, 260. adverb, 262. definition of, 257. kinds of, 257. noun, 258.
_Cleave_, forms of, 158.
_Clomb_, 157.
_Cloths_, _clothes_, 43.
Collective nouns, 18. syntax of, and verb, 312, 315.
Colloquial English, 12.
Common nouns, 18. derived from material, 24. derived from proper, 23.
Comparative and superlative, double, 113, 307. syntax of, 307.
Comparison, defective, 111. definition of, 108. degrees of, 108. irregular, 110. of adjectives, 107. of adverbs, 189. syntax of, 305.
Complement of predicate, 239.
Complementary infinitive, 248.
Complex sentence, analysis of, 264. definition of, 257.
Compound nouns, plural of, 43. possessive of, 53.
Compound predicate and subject, 244.
Compound sentence, 268. analysis of, 271.
Concessive clause, in analysis, 263. with subjunctive, 143.
Concord. See _Agreement_.
Conditional clause, in analysis, 263. with subjunctive, 138.
Conditional conjunctions, 196.
Conditional sentences, 139.
Conjugation, definition of, 149. of _be_, 149. of other verbs, 151.
Conjunctions, and other parts of speech, same words, 195, 207. coördinate, 194. correlative, 194. definition of, 193. how to parse, 199. subordinate, 195. syntax of, 328.
Conjunctive adverbs, 188.
Conjunctive pronoun. See _Relative pronoun_.
Contracted sentences, analysis of, 255.
Coördinate clauses, 269.
Coördinate conjunctions. See _Conjunctions_.
Coördinating _vs._ restrictive use of relative pronouns, 289.
Copulative conjunction, 194.
_Could._ See _Can_.
Dative case, in Old English, replaced by objective, 66.
Declarative sentence, 231.
Declension of interrogative pronouns, 73.
Declension, of nouns, 51. of personal pronouns, 60. of relative pronouns, 80.
Defective verbs, 160.
Definite article. See _Articles_.
Definite tenses, 148, 152.
Degree, adverbs of, 185.
Degrees. See _Comparison_.
Demonstrative adjectives, 102. syntax of, 303.
Demonstrative pronouns, 90.
Dependent clause. See _Subordinate clause_.
Descriptive adjectives, 99.
Descriptive use of nouns, 26.
_Dice_, _dies_, 43.
_Die by_, _for_, _from_, _of_, _with_, 333.
Direct discourse, 320.
Direct object, _vs._ indirect, 48, 242. retained with passive verb, 242.
Distributive adjectives, 102. syntax of, 287, 315.
Distributive pronouns, 91. syntax of, 288, 300.
Double comparative. See _Comparative_.
Double possessive. See _Case_.
_Drake_, _duck_, 35.
_Drank_, _drunk_, 158.
_Each_, adjective, 102. pronoun, 90, 92. syntax of, 287.
_Each other_, _one another_, 92, 299.
_Eat_ (ĕt), 158.
_Eaves_, 42.
_Either_, as adjective, 102. syntax of, 287. as conjunction, 194. syntax of, 328. as pronoun, 90, 92. syntax of, 300.
_Elder_, _older_, 110, 112.
Elements of the sentence, 234, 257.
Ellipsis, a source of error in pronouns, 280. in complex sentence, 255.
_'Em_, origin of, 62.
_Empress_, 34.
_-En_, added to plural, 39. feminine suffix, 32. plural suffix, original, 38.
English, literary, spoken, vulgar, 12. periods of, 33.
Enlargement of predicate, 241. of subject, object, complement, 240.
_-Es_ original of possessive ending, 51. plural suffix, 40.
_-Ess_, feminine suffix, 33.
_Every_, adjective, 102. syntax of, 287.
_Expect of_, _expect from_, 334.
_Expected to have gone_, etc., 319.
Factitive object, 48, 235.
_Farther, further_, 110, 112, 189.
Feminine, 30.
_Few, a few_, 126.
_First_, 103, 112.
_First two_, _two first_, etc., 308.
_Fish_, _fishes_, 43.
_For_, redundant, with infinitive, used as a noun, 212, 238. uses of, 211.
Foreign plurals, 45.
_Former, the_, adjective, 102. pronoun, 91.
_From_, uses of, 212.
_Further._ See _Farther_.
Future tense, 147, 152.
Future perfect, 148, 152.
_Gander_, _goose_, 36.
_Gender_, "common gender," 31. definition of, 30. distinguished from sex, 30. in English, as compared with other languages, 29. modes of marking, in nouns, 32. of personal pronouns, 60. of relative pronouns, 80.
_Genii_, _geniuses_, 43.
Gerund, distinguished from participle and verbal noun, 177. forms of, 176. in syntax, possessive case with, 285.
_Girl_, 35.
_Got_, 159.
Government, definition of, kinds of, 275.
Grammar, basis of, 12. definition of, 12. divisions of, 13. opinions on, 9. province of, 10.
H, _an_ before, 120.
_Had better_, _had rather_, 175.
_Hanged_, _hung_, 159.
_He_, _she_, _it_, 61.
_His_ for _its_, 61.
_Husband_, 36.
_I_, personal pronoun, 60.
Imperative mood, 144. of first person, 145.
Imperative sentence, 231.
Imperfect participle, 173.
Indefinite adjective, 101.
Indefinite article. See _Articles_.
Indefinite pronoun, 93.
Indefinite use of _you_, _your_, 67.
Independent clause, 257.
Independent elements, 245.
_Indexes_, _indices_, 43.
Indicative mood, uses of, 136.
Indirect discourse, 320.
Indirect object. See _Direct object_.
Indirect questions. See _Questions_.
Infinitive, active, with passive meaning, 176. not a mood, 153. syntax of, 319, 323. uses of, 248.
_-Ing_ words, summary of, 178.
Interjections, 227.
Interrogative adjectives, 105.
Interrogative adverbs, 188.
Interrogative pronouns, 72. declension of, 73. in indirect questions, 85. syntax of, 283.
Interrogative sentence, 231, 233.
Intransitive verbs, 131. made transitive, 131.
Irregularities in syntax, 276.
Irregularly compared adjectives, 110. adverbs, 189.
_It_, uses of, 67.
"It was _me_," etc., 63, 281.
_Its_, history of, 61.
_Kind_, _these kind_, etc., 303.
_Kine_, double plural, 39.
_King_, _queen_, 36.
_Lady_, _lord_, 36.
_Last_, _latest_, 110, 113.
_Latter, the_, adjective, 102, 113. pronoun, 91.
_Lay_, _lie_, 170.
_Less_, _lesser_, 110.
_Lie_. See _Lay_.
_Like_, syntax of, 227. uses of, 226.
Literary English, 12.
_Little_, _a little_, 126.
Logic _vs._ form, in syntax, 276.
Logical subject and predicate, 245.
_Lord._ See _Lady_.
_-Ly_, words in, 190.
_Madam_, 36.
Manner, adverbs of, 185, 188. conjunctions of, 195.
_Many_, comparison of, 110, 112.
_Many a_, 126.
Mapping out sentences, 256, 265.
_Mare_, 36.
_Master_, _mistress_, 34.
_May_, _might_, 160.
_Means_, construction of, 41.
_Mighty_ as adverb, 187.
_Mine_, of _mine_, 64.
Modifier, adverb, position of, 325.
Modifiers. See _Enlargement_.
_Mood_, definition of, 135. imperative, 144. indicative, 136, 137. subjunctive, 137-144.
_-Most_, in superlatives, 113, 114, 189.
_Much_, comparison of, 110, 112, 189.
_Must_, 161.
_Near_, _nearer_, _nigh_, etc., 110, 112.
Negative, double, 326.
_Neither_, adjective, 102. syntax of, 287. conjunction, 194. syntax of, 328. pronoun, 90, 92. syntax of, 300.
Neuter nouns, definition of, 30. or gender nouns, according to use, 30. two kinds of, 32.
_News_, 41.
_No_ in analysis, 246.
Nominative. See _Case_.
_None_, syntax of, 301.
_Nor_, 194, 328.
_Not a_, etc. 126.
Noun clause, 258.
Nouns, 17. abstract, 20. become half abstract, 25, 124. become proper, 25. formation of, 21. case of, 46. collective, 19. common, 18. definition of, 17. descriptive, 26. gender of, 29. how to parse, 56. kinds of, 17 material, 19. become class nouns, 24, 125. neuter, used as gender nouns, 30. number in, 38. once singular, now plural, 42. other words used as, 27. plural, how formed, 38-41. of abstract, 41 of compound, etc. 43. of foreign, 45. of letters and figures, 46. of material, 41. of proper, 41. same as singular, 39. two forms of, 42 with titles, 44. proper, 18. become common, 23. syntax of, 278. use of possessive form of, 278, 285. with definite article, 121. with different meaning in plural, 42. with indefinite article, 124.
Nouns, with no singular, 42. with one plural, two meanings, 43. with plural form, singular meaning, 41. with singular or plural construction, plural form, 41.
_Now_ as conjunction, 195, 196.
_Number_, definition of, etc., in nouns. See _Nouns_. in adjectives, 106. in pronouns, personal, 60. in verbs, 148.
Numeral adjectives, definite, 101. distributive, 102. indefinite, 101.
Numeral pronouns, 92.
Object, adverbial, 48. definition of, 48. direct and indirect, 48. in analysis, 235. of preposition. See _Preposition_. modifiers of, 240. retained with passive verb, 242.
Objective case, adverbial, dative, 48, 242. in spoken English, 281. instead of nominative, 279. nominative instead of, 282. of nouns, 48. of pronouns, 66. syntax of, 279.
_Of_, uses of, 213.
_Older._ See _Elder_.
Omission of relative pronoun, 87, 293.
_On_, _upon_, uses of, 216.
_One_, definite numeral adjective, 101. indefinite pronoun, 94. possessive of, 93
_One another._ See _Each other_.
_One_ (_the_), the other, as adjective, 103. as pronoun, 91.
_Only_, as conjunction, 194. position of, as adverb, 325
Order, a part of syntax, 275. inverted, in analysis, 233, 237.
Ordinal adjectives, treatment of, 103.
_Other_ with comparatives, 306.
_Ought_, 161.
_Our_, _ours_, 64.
_Ourself_, 69.
_Oxen_, 38.
_Pains_, 41.
Parsing, models for, 56, 117. of adjectives, 115, 116. of adverbs, 191. of articles, 127. of conjunctions, 199. of nouns, 56. of prepositions, 219. of pronouns, 95. of relatives, 80. of verb phrases, 180. of verbals, 181. of verbs, 179. some idioms not parsed, 56. what it is, 56.
_Part from_, _part with_, 335.
Participial adjective, 100.
Participial phrase, 247.
Participle, definition of, 172. distinguished from other _-ing_ words, 177. forms of, 174. kinds of, 173. syntax of, 322. uses of, 150, 172.
Parts of speech, article included in, 119. words used as various, 27, 28.
Passive voice, 134.
_Peas_, _pease_, 43.
_Pence_, _pennies_, 43.
Person, agreement of verb and subject in, 317. of nouns, 59. of pronouns, 59. of verbs, 148.
Personal pronoun, absolute use of, 63. agreement of, with antecedent, 287. as predicate nominative, 281. case of, 62. compound, or reflexive, 69. uses of, 70. definition of, 59. double possessive of, 64. _'em_ and _them_, 62. history of, 61. objective of, for nominative in spoken English, 63, 281. syntax of, 281. table of, 60. triple possessive of, 64. uses of _it_, 67.
Personification, of abstract nouns, 25. of other nouns, 37.
Phrase, definition of, 236. kinds of, 236. infinitive, 248. participial, 247. prepositional, 247.
Place, adverbs of, 185, 188. conjunctions of, 195. prepositions of, 206.
Plural, of adjectives, 106. syntax of, 303. of nouns. See _Nouns_. of pronouns, 60, 61.
_Politics_, singular or plural, 41.
Positive degree. See _Comparison_.
Possessive, appositional, of nouns, 49. as antecedent of relative, 285. double, of nouns, 54. double, of pronouns. See _Personal pronoun_. objective and subjective, 50. of compound nouns, 53. of indefinite pronoun, 303. omission of _s_ in singular, 52. origin of _'s_, 51. syntax of, 278. with modified noun omitted, 53. with two objects, 278.
Predicate, complement of, 235. complete, 245. definition of, 232. logical _vs._ simple, 245. modifiers of, 241.
Prefixes, gender shown by, 32.
Prepositions, certain, with certain words, 332. classification of, 206. definition of, 203. followed by possessive case, 54, 64. by nominative case, 283. how to parse, 219. objects of, 203. position of, 202. relations expressed by certain, 208. same words as other parts of speech, 187, 195, 207. syntax of, 331. uses of, 129, 132, 205. various, with same meaning, 333.
Present tense used as future, 147.
_Pretty_ as adverb, 186.
Pronominal adjectives, interrogative, 105. relative, 104. _what_, exclamatory, 105.
Pronouns, 58. adjective, 89. _all_, singular and plural, 302. _any_, usually plural, 300. _each other_, _one another_, 299. _either_, _neither_, with verbs, 300. _none_, usually plural, 301. _somebody else's_, 303. definition of, 58. how to parse, 95. indefinite, 93. interrogative, 72. _who_ as objective, 283. personal, 59. after _than_, _as_, 280. antecedents of, 287. nominative and objective, forms of, 279. nominative form of, after _but_, 284. objective form of, for predicate nominative, 281. objective form of, in exclamations, 282. possessive form of, as antecedent of relative, 285. possessive form of, with gerund, 286. relative, 74. agreement of, with antecedent, 291. anacoluthon with _which_, 295. _and who_, _and which_, 296. _as_, _that_, _who_, and _which_ after _same_, 295. how to parse, 80. omission of, 87, 293. restrictive and unrestrictive, 289. two relatives, same antecedent, 297. syntax of, 279. usefulness of, 58.
Proper nouns. See _Nouns_.
Purpose, clauses of, 263. conjunctions of, 195.
Quality, adjectives of, 99.
Quantity, adjectives of, 101.
Questions, direct and indirect, adverbs in, 188. pronominal adjectives in, 105. pronouns in, 85. indirect, subjunctive in, 142.
Quotations. See _Direct discourse_.
Rank, adjectives of same and different, 115.
_Rather_, 189.
Reflexive pronouns, history of, 69. how formed, 69.
Reflexive use of personal pronoun, 68.
Relative pronoun, 74. _but_ and _as_, 84. distinguished from interrogative, in indirect questions, 85. function of, 74. indefinite or compound, 83. omission of, 87, 293. restrictive use of, 289. syntax of, 289. use of, 74.
Result, clauses of, 263. conjunctions of, 196.
Retained object, 242.
_Riches_, 42.
_S_, plural suffix, 40.
_'S_, possessive ending, 51.
_Same as_, _that_, _who_, _which_, 294.
_Sat_, _sate_, 159.
_Seeing_, conjunction, 195, 196.
_Self_ in reflexive pronoun, 69.
Sentences, analysis of complex, 26 of compound, 271. of elliptical, 255. of simple, 252. complex in form, simple in effect, 259.
Sentences, definition of, 231. kinds of, 231.
Sequence of tenses, 319.
_Set_, _sit_, 170.
Sex and gender, 29.
_Shall_, _should_, _will_, _would_, 162.
_Shear_, forms of, 159.
_Shot_, _shots_, 43.
Simple sentence. See _Sentences_.
Singular number, 38.
_Sir_, 36.
_Somebody else's_, etc., 303.
_Sort_, _these sort_, 303.
Spelling becoming phonetic in verbs, 169.
_Spinster_, 33.
Split infinitive, 323.
Spoken English, 12.
-Ster, feminine suffix, use of, in Middle English, 32. in Modern English, 33.
Subject, complete, 245. definition of, 233. grammatical _vs._ logical, 67, 245, 258. modifiers of, 240. things used as, 237, 258.
Subjunctive mood, definition of, 137. gradual disuse of, 144. uses of, in literary English, 138. in spoken English, 144.
Subordinate clause, 257. adjective, 260. adverb, 262. definition of, 257. how to distinguish, 270. kinds of, 257. noun, 258. other names for, 257.
_Such_ as adverb, 186.
_Such a_, 126.
Suffix _-en_. See _-En_. _-s_, _-es_, 38.
Suffixes, foreign, 33.
Superlative degree, double, 307. in meaning, not in form, 107. not suggesting comparison, 109. of adjectives, 108. of adverbs, 189. syntax of, 306. with two objects, 306.
Syntax, basis of, 277. definition of, 275. in English not same as in classical languages, 275.
Tense, definition of, 147.
Tenses, definite, meaning of, 148. in Modern English, made up of auxiliaries, 147. number of, in Old English, 147. sequence of, 319. table of, 152.
_Than me_, _than whom_, 280.
_That_, omission of, when subject, 88. when object, 87. relative, restrictive, and coördinating, 289, 290. _that ... and which_, 297. uses of, 222.
_That_, _this_, as adjectives, 106. as adverbs, 186. history of plural of, 106.
_The_, as article, 120. as adverb, 123, 186. history of, 119. syntax of, 309.
_Their_, _they_, 61.
_Then_, "the _then_ king," etc., 116.
_There_ introductory, 191.
_These kind_, syntax of. See _Kind_.
_These_, _this_, _those_. See _That_, history of.
_Thou_, _thy_, _thee_, uses of, 61.
_Time_, adverbs of, 185, 188. conjunctions of, 195. prepositions of, 207.
_To_, before infinitive, 175. in exclamations, 175. omitted with certain verbs, 175. uses of, as preposition, 217.
_T'other_, _the tother_, 119.
_-Trix_, feminine suffix, 33.
_Try and_, _try to_, 330.
_Two first_, _first two_, etc., 308.
_Under_, adjective, 114.
_Upon_, uses of. See _On_.
_Upper_, 114.
_Utter_, _uttermost_, 111, 114.
Verb phrases, 128. parsing of, 180.
Verbal noun, 20. distinguished from other _-ing_ words, 21, 173.
Verbals, cleft infinitive, 323. gerund, 176. how to parse, 181. infinitive, 174, 248. kinds of, 172. participle, 172. carelessly used, 322. uses of, in analysis, 247. syntax of, 322.
Verbs, agreement of, with subject in number, 312-316. in person, 317. auxiliary, 148. conjugation of, 149. defective, 160. definition of, 129. how to parse, 179. in indirect discourse, 320. intransitive, made transitive, 131. mood of, 135. of incomplete predication, 150, 236. passive form, active meaning, 151. person and number of, 148. retained object with passive, 242. strong, definition of, 154. remarks on certain, 157. table of, 155. syntax of, 312. tense of, 147. sequence of, 319. transitive and intransitive, 130. voice of, 133. weak, definition of, 154. spelling of, 169. table of irregular, 167.
_Vixen_, 33.
Vocative nominative, 47. in analysis, 245.
Voice, active, 133. passive, 134.
Vowel change, past tense of verbs formed by, 154. plural formed by, 39.
Vulgar English, 12.
Weak verbs, regular, irregular, 167. spelling of, becoming phonetic, 169.
_Went_, 159.
_What_, uses of, 223. _but what_, 330. _what a_, 105. 126.
_Whereby_, _whereto_, etc., 85.
_Whether_, conjunction, 194. interrogative pronoun, 72.
_Which_, antecedent of, 79. as adjective, 104, 105. as relative pronoun, 75. in indirect questions, 85. indefinite relative, 83. interrogative pronoun in direct questions, 72. syntax of, 295-299. _whose_, possessive of, 78.
_Who_, as relative, 75. in direct questions, 72. in indirect questions, 85. indefinite relative, 83. objective, in spoken English, 73. referring to animals, 77. syntax of, 296, 299.
_Widower_, 37.
_Wife_, 36.
_Will_, _would_. See _Shall_.
_Witch_, _wizard_, 36.
_With_, uses of, 218.
_Woman_, 32.
Words in _-ing_, 178. in _-ly_, 190.
_Worse_, _worser_, 111.
_Y_, plural of nouns ending in. 40.
_Yes_ in analysis, 246.
_Yon_, _yonder_, 103.
_You_, singular and plural, 61.
_Yours_, _of yours_, 64.
_Yourself_, _yourselves_, 70.