CHAPTER VIII

ELLIPTICAL SENTENCES

+527.+ Good usage does not demand that all sentences shall be absolutely complete. It often allows (and sometimes requires) the omission of words that, though necessary to the construction, are so easily supplied by the mind that it would be mere waste of time to utter them.

+528.+ +The omission of a word or words necessary to the grammatical completeness of a clause or sentence is called ellipsis.+

+A clause or sentence that shows ellipsis is said to be elliptical.+

+Ellipsis+ is a Greek word meaning “omission.”

In the following examples the omitted words are supplied in brackets.

[I] thank you.

[I] pray do not [you] move.

[You] pass me that book.

Her hair is light, her eyes [are] dark blue.

Some of the strangers spoke French, others [spoke] Spanish.

Some of the patriots were armed with old flintlocks, others [were armed] with swords, still others [were armed] with pitchforks.

When [he was] a youth, he travelled in the East.

Though [he is] timid, he is no coward.

They were amused, though [they were] somewhat vexed.

While [we were] drifting downstream, we grounded on a sand bar.

If [it is] possible, send me word to-night.

You shall have the money this week, if [it is] necessary.

They marched slowly as if [they were] worn out.

Why [are] these tears?

Why [are you] so dejected?

He was ten years of age, his brother [was] eight [years of age].

I have more confidence in James than [I have] in Edmund.

Mary is younger than George [is young].

Tom likes you better than [he likes] me.

You like him better than I do [like him].

I like him better than Charles does [like him].

This racket is not so heavy as that [is heavy].

You are not so old as I [am old].

Peace [be] to his memory!

This is the only pencil [that] I have.

Is that the boy [whom] you hired yesterday?

They say [that] you are going to Europe soon.

+529.+ The examples in § 528 show that most cases of ellipsis fall under two heads:

1. To avoid repetition, words are often omitted in one part of the sentence when they occur in another part.

2. Pronouns, the conjunction _that_, and some forms of the verb _is_, are often omitted when they are readily supplied.

Under the second head come (1) the ellipsis of the subject (_thou_ or _you_) in imperative sentences (§ 268), (2) that of relative pronouns in the objective case (§ 151), (3) that of _is_, _are_, etc. (with the subject pronoun) in subordinate clauses introduced by _when_, _though_, _if_, and the like (§§ 397, 399, 417).

NOTE. The so-called “telegraphic style” omits _I_ with any verb or with all verbs. It should be confined to telegrams, where space is money.

+530.+ Adverbs indicating direction (like _forward_, _back_) are often used without a verb in imperative sentences.

_Forward_, brave companions!

_Down_ on your knees!

_Up_, guards, and at them!

NOTE. In older English, the omission of the verb of motion was common, even in sentences not imperative, as in the following examples from _Julius Cæsar_:--“We’ll along ourselves, and meet them”; “Shall we on, and not depend on you?”

+531.+ The ellipsis of the subordinate conjunction _that_ is very common, especially in indirect discourse (§§ 388, 433).

I know [_that_] you are my friend.

Jack said [_that_] the boat had sunk.

He told me [_that_] he was sorry.

+532.+ Many constructions, originally elliptical, have become established idioms in which no ellipsis is felt. In such cases it is usually better to take the sentence as it stands, and not to supply the omitted words.

Thus, in “He eats _as if he were famished_” the italicized words are properly treated as a subordinate clause modifying _eats_ and introduced by the compound conjunction _as if_. Yet in strictness this construction is an ellipsis for “He eats as [_he would eat_] if he were famished.”

+533.+ Various ellipses are illustrated in the following sentences:--

1. Although in a friendly country, they marched always as if in a land of enemies.

2. The aspect of the country was as wild and dreary as the climate.

3. Do not serious and earnest men discuss Hamlet as they would Cromwell or Lincoln?--LOWELL.

4. Not so with the others.

5. Though rather shy and distrustful of this new acquaintance, Rip complied with his usual alacrity.

6. Arras was famed for its rich tapestries, Brussels for its carpets, Cambrai for its fine cambric, Lisle for its thread and the fabrics woven from it.

7. Every day brings its task, which, if neglected, is doubled on the morrow.

8. It is not easy to recover an art when once lost.

9. I wish you would go down with me to Newstead.

10. The men are all soldiers, and war and the chase their sole occupation.

11. While in this state of irresolution, she was startled by a low knock.

12. The house was tall, the skylight small and dirty, the day blind with fog.

13. I little thought you would have deserted me.

14. He is the best Oriental scholar I know.

15. Cromwell was evidently laying, though in an irregular manner, the foundations of an admirable system.

16. He was a foot taller than I.

17. This concerns you rather than me.

18. My father loved Sir Rowland as his soul.

EXERCISES

EXERCISE 1

(§§ 1–5, pp. 1–3)

1. Tell whether each of the following sentences is declarative, interrogative, imperative, or exclamatory. If a sentence is both declarative and exclamatory, mention the fact. Mention the subject and the predicate of each sentence. Note all instances of the inverted order (§ 5).

1. You need not answer this letter. 2. Many surmises of evil alarm the hearts of the people.--LONGFELLOW. 3. Here I am again in the land of old Bunyan. 4. Me this uncharter’d freedom tires.--WORDSWORTH. 5. Twilight’s soft dews steal o’er the village green.--ROGERS. 6. Were there many robbers in the band? 7. How will posterity the deed proclaim!--BYRON. 8. At dawn the towers of Stirling rang.--SCOTT. 9. You cannot recall the spoken word.--EMERSON. 10. The boughs over my head seemed shadowy with solemn thoughts as well as with rustling leaves.--HAWTHORNE. 11. So you don’t like Raphael! 12. All around lay a frightful wilderness. 13. Why does the sea moan evermore?--ROSSETTI. 14. What lonely straggler looks along the wave?--BYRON. 15. Off went his wig! 16. For some minutes he continued to scrutinize the drawing minutely. 17. Our strength grows out of our weakness.--EMERSON. 18. Rudely carved was the porch. 19. What hopes the prince to gain by Lacy’s death? 20. Trust thyself.

21. The rest of the men were morose and silent. 22. Here are the ruins of the emperor’s palace. 23. Now rumbles along the carriage of some magnate of the city. 24. Wild was the life we led. 25. How poor, and dull, and sleepy, and squalid it seemed! 26. Built are the house and the barn. 27. With what tenderness he sings! 28. Marked ye the younger stranger’s eye? 29. One or two idlers, of forbidding aspect, hung about in the murky gaslight. 30. Several mountains crowned with snow shone brilliantly in the distance. 31. Follow me through this passage. 32. Stop me not at your peril. 33. Carry thou this scroll to the castle.

2. Write ten interrogative sentences concerning each topic. Reply in declarative sentences.

(1) The American Revolution; (2) the Pilgrim Fathers; (3) the history of your own state; (4) the government of the United States; (5) hygiene; (6) the manufactures (or other industries) of your town or city.

3. Write ten imperative sentences, each giving an order concerning--

(1) the playing of a game; (2) the building or sailing of a boat; (3) the care of the health; (4) the manufacture of some article of common use; (5) the writing of a business letter.

4. Write ten exclamatory sentences. Tell whether each is declarative, interrogative, or imperative.

EXERCISE 2

(§§ 6–25, pp. 3–11)

1. Tell the parts of speech (including verb-phrases).

1. The rain pattered upon the roof and the sky gloomed through the dusty garret windows.--HAWTHORNE. 2. Make yourself necessary to somebody.--EMERSON. 3. I have a regard for every man on board that ship, from the captain down to the crew. 4. “An artist,” said Michael Angelo, “must have his measuring tools not in the hand, but in the eye.”--EMERSON. 5. Time had wintered o’er his locks. 6. Must we in all things look for the how, and the why, and the wherefore? 7. Power dwells with cheerfulness.--EMERSON. 8. What hurrahs rang out! 9. He sneaked about with a gallows air. 10. So! you see things go on as when you were with us.

11. Rigby and his brother hirelings frightened them with hideous fables and ugly words.--DISRAELI. 12. These are prize peaches. 13. Ha ha! how vilely doth this cynic rhyme! 14. O Antony, beg not your death of us. 45. Wordsworth was praised to me in Westmoreland because he afforded to his country neighbors an example of a modest household where comfort and culture were secured without display.

16. Shake hands with this knot of good fellows. 17. He had been deserted by the Moderates. 18. The moderate Liberals held a meeting very early in the struggle. 19. After a dreadful night of anxiety, perplexity, and peril, the darkness, which I thought had lasted an eternity, slowly disappeared.--TRELAWNY.

2. Use the following words in sentences of your own:--

Sleep (_noun_, _verb_); dry (_adjective_, _verb_, _noun_); very (_adverb_, _adjective_); express (_noun_, _verb_, _adjective_); bellow (_verb_, _noun_); American (_adjective_, _noun_); future (_adjective_, _noun_); to-morrow (_noun_, _adverb_); flower (_noun_, _verb_); sovereign (_noun_, _adjective_); summer (_noun_, _verb_, _adjective_); double (_adjective_, _adverb_, _verb_); well (_adjective_, _adverb_); fast (_adjective_, _adverb_, _noun_, _verb_); content (_noun_, _adjective_, _verb_); last (_adjective_, _adverb_, _verb_, _noun_); down (_adverb_, _preposition_); for (_preposition_, _conjunction_); downright (_adjective_, _adverb_); home (_noun_, _adjective_, _adverb_); lower (_adjective_, _adverb_, _verb_); iron (_noun_, _adjective_, _verb_); off (_adverb_, _preposition_, _adjective_); up (_adverb_, _preposition_); high (_adjective_, _adverb_, _noun_); except (_verb_, _preposition_); inside (_adjective_, _adverb_, _preposition_, _noun_); past (_noun_, _adjective_, _preposition_); what (_adjective_, _pronoun_, _interjection_); round (_noun_, _adjective_, _verb_, _preposition_, _adverb_); sound (_noun_, _verb_, _adjective_, _adverb_); black (_noun_, _verb_, _adjective_); all (_noun_, _adjective_, _adverb_); open (_noun_, _adjective_, _verb_); while (_noun_, _verb_).

EXERCISE 3

(§§ 26–33, pp. 11–13)

Point out the infinitives and the participles. Tell when they occur in verb-phrases. Use them in sentences.

1. I did wrong to smile. 2. Luttrell adjured me with mock pathos to spare his blushes. 3. I begged my friend Sir Roger to go with me into her hovel. 4. I was wonderfully pleased to see the workings of instinct in a hen followed by a brood of ducks. 5. A man’s first care should be to avoid the reproaches of his own heart.--ADDISON. 6. I was highly entertained to see the gentlemen of the county gathering about my old friend, and striving who should compliment him most. 7. He was let loose among the woods as soon as he was able to ride on horseback. 8. Plutarch says very finely that a man should not allow himself to hate even his enemies. 9. It gives me a serious concern to see such a spirit of dissension in the country.

10. It was his intention to remain there for two or three days. 11. Every part of every carriage had been cleaned, every horse had been groomed. 12. Liberated from the embarrassments of the city, and issuing into the broad uncrowded avenues of the northern suburbs, we soon begin to enter upon our natural pace of ten miles an hour. 13. The beggar, rearing himself against the wall, forgets his lameness. 14. Three miles beyond Barnet, we see approaching another private carriage. 15. We saw many lights moving about as we drew near.

EXERCISE 4

(§§ 34–39, pp. 13–15)

1. Mention the simple subject and the simple predicate of each sentence in Exercise 1 (p. 227). Tell whether the simple subject is a noun or a pronoun, and whether the simple predicate is a verb or a verb-phrase.

2. Study in the same way your own sentences in Exercise 1.

3. Divide each sentence into the complete subject and the complete predicate. If the sentence has a compound subject, mention the substantives that compose it; if the sentence has a compound predicate, mention the verbs (or verb-phrases).

1. The Queen and Prince Albert came to London from Windsor on Saturday morning. 2. You and Lockhart must not abandon the good cause. 3. I saw that he was weak, and took advantage of a pause to remind him not to forget his drive. 4. Two or three of my English biographies have something of the same historical character. 5. Lord Grey, Clanricarde, Labouchere, Vernon Smith, and Seymour will fill up the places. 6. Every change of season, every change of weather, indeed, every hour of the day, produces some change in the magical hues and shapes of these mountains.--IRVING. 7. He looked round, and could see nothing but a crow winging its solitary flight across the mountain. 8. They suddenly desisted from their play and stared at him. 9. The sea flashes along the pebbly margin of its silver beach, forming a thousand little bays and inlets, or comes tumbling in among the cliffs of a rock-bound coast, and beats against its massive barriers with a distant, hollow, continual roar.--LONGFELLOW.

10. A wide gateway ushered the traveller into the interior of the building, and conducted him to a low-roofed apartment, paved with round stones. 11. The strange visitant gruffly saluted me, and, after making several ineffectual efforts to urge his horse in at the door, dismounted and followed me into the room.--WHITTIER. 12. The foolish and the dead alone never change their opinion.--LOWELL. 13. They will slink into their kennels in disgrace, or perchance run wild and strike a league with the wolf and the fox.--THOREAU. 14. Strong will and keen perception overpower old manners and create new.--EMERSON. 15. Neither Aristotle, nor Leibnitz, nor Junius, nor Champollion has set down the grammar-rules of this dialect. 16. His mantle and hood were of the best Flanders cloth, and fell in ample and not ungraceful folds. 17. A deep fosse or ditch was drawn round the whole building.

EXERCISE 5

(§§ 40–42, p. 16)

1. Point out the noun-phrases, verb-phrases, adjective phrases, and adverbial phrases. Which of these phrases are prepositional?

1. Sometimes he spent hours together in the great libraries of Paris. 2. He assumed the garb of a common sailor, and in this disguise reached the Dutch coast in safety. 3. Some of the frigate’s men were still endeavoring to escape. 4. Was Milton rich or at his ease when he composed “Paradise Lost”? 5. It was a cold-blooded exhibition of marksmanship. 6. He then continued on to the place of rendezvous at Speedwell’s Iron Works on Troublesome Creek.--IRVING. 7. The gates of Amsterdam had been barred against him. 8. They heard his confession with suspicion and disdain. 9. The stagecoach always drew up before the door of the cottage. 10. The wind moaned through the silent streets. 11. The clouds are scudding across the moon. 12. Steele had known Addison from childhood. 13. A broad ray of light fell into the garret.--DICKENS. 14. The fate of his insulted and broken-hearted brother still rankled in his mind. 15. All day with fruitless strife they toiled.--SCOTT.

2. Fill each blank with a single word. Substitute for the word a phrase with the same meaning. Mention in each instance (1) the part of speech, (2) the kind of phrase.

1. He spoke to me ----.

2. The grounds were shut in by a high ---- wall.

3. The fire engine ---- past.

4. The three girls were laughing ----.

5. The poor child looked ---- at the toys.

6. Harold ---- the bunch of grapes.

7. The proprietor is a ---- man.

8. The archbishop placed upon the king’s head a ---- crown.

9. The book which I hold in my hand is ----.

10. The ---- ordered the _Conqueror_ to open fire.

11. The enemy retreated ----.

12. The rain ---- heavily all day.

13. The rain came down ---- all day.

14. The ---- is in his office.

15. A ---- boy came to the door.

16. My brother is president of ----.

EXERCISE 6

(§§ 43–51, pp. 16–21)

1. Tell whether each sentence is simple, compound, or complex. If the sentence is compound, divide it into its independent clauses, and mention the simple subject (noun or pronoun) and the simple predicate (verb or verb-phrase) of each clause.

If the sentence is complex, divide it into the main (independent) and the subordinate clause, and tell whether the latter is used as an adjective or as an adverb.

1. The great gate slowly opened, and a steward and several serving-men appeared. 2. The victors set fire to the wigwams and the fort; the whole was soon in a blaze; many of the old men, the women, and the children perished in the flames. 3. Night closed in, but still no guest arrived. 4. The black waves rolled by them, and the light at the horizon began to fade, and the stars were coming out one by one.--WILLIAM BLACK. 5. Mr. Nickleby closed an account book which lay on his desk. 6. By ceaseless action all that is subsists.--COWPER. 7. When the morning broke, the Moorish army had vanished. 8. At midnight, when the town was hushed in sleep, they all went quietly on board. 9. Fortune had cast him into a cavern, and he was groping darkly round. 10. I paced the deserted chambers where he had composed his poem. 11. I strove to speak; my voice utterly failed me. 12. The only avenue by which the town could be easily approached, was protected by a stone wall more than twenty feet high and of great thickness.

13. The night fell tempestuous and wild, and no vestige of the hapless sloop was ever after seen. 14. The simple majesty of this anecdote can gain nothing from any comment which we might make on it. 15. Raleigh speaks the language of the heart of his country when he urges the English statesmen to colonize Guiana.--FROUDE. 16. Men, in their youth, go to push their fortune in the colony; they succeed; they acquire property there; they return to their native land; they continue to draw the income from their colonial estates.--BROUGHAM. 17. The moonlight glistened upon traces of the gilding which had once covered both rider and steed. 18. While this brief conversation passed, Donatello had once or twice glanced aside with a watchful air. 19. Pray for us, Hilda; we need it.

2. Divide the compound complex sentences into their coördinate clauses. Tell whether each of these clauses, when standing alone, is a simple or a complex sentence.

1. It would be dark before he could reach the village, and he heaved a heavy sigh when he thought of encountering the terrors of Dame Van Winkle. 2. Language gradually varies, and with it fade away the writings of authors who have lived their allotted time. 3. The tallest and handsomest men whom England could produce guarded the passage from the palace gate to the river-side, and all seemed in readiness for the queen’s coming forth, although the hour was yet so early. 4. Edward the Confessor died on the fifth of January, 1066, and on the following day an assembly of the thanes and prelates present in London, and of the citizens of the metropolis, declared that Harold should be their king.

EXERCISE 7

(§§ 54–64, pp. 27–30)

1. Point out all the common nouns and all the proper nouns. Mention all the examples of personification.

1. There Guilt his anxious revel kept.--SCOTT. 2. The first vessel we fell in with was a schooner, which, after a long chase, we made out to be an American. 3. You will be sauntering in St. Peter’s perhaps, or standing on the Capitol while the sun sets. 4. I am very deep in my Aristophanes. 5. I saw a most lovely Sir Joshua at Christie’s a week ago.--FITZ GERALD. 6. I hear there is scarce a village in England that has not a Moll White in it.--ADDISON. 7. Such a spirit is Liberty. At times she takes the form of a hateful reptile. She grovels, she hisses, she stings. But woe to those who in disgust shall venture to crush her!--MACAULAY. 8. Rough Wulfstane trimmed his shafts and bow.--SCOTT. 9. To-day we have been a delightful drive through Ettrick Forest, and to the ruins of Newark--the hall of Newark, where the ladies bent their necks of snow to hear “The Lay of the Last Minstrel.”--MARIA EDGEWORTH.

10. The same waves wash the moles of the new-built Californian towns, and lave the faded but still gorgeous skirts of Asiatic lands, older than Abraham; while all between float milky-ways of coral isles, and low-lying, endless, unknown Archipelagoes and impenetrable Japans.--MELVILLE. 11. The duchess said haughtily that she had done her best for the Esmonds. 12. To see with one’s own eyes men and countries is better than reading all the books of travel in the world.--THACKERAY. 13. Defeat and mortification had only hardened the king’s heart. 14. Earth, Ocean, Air, beloved brotherhood!--SHELLEY. 15. The iron tongue of St. Paul’s has told twelve. 16. The Indians, brandishing their weapons, answered only with gestures of angry defiance.

2. Point out all the abstract, all the collective, and all the compound nouns.

1. The poet binds together by passion and knowledge the vast empire of human society.--WORDSWORTH. 2. The country is now showing symptoms of greenness and warmth. 3. When the public are gone, we at once put up the great iron shutters. 4. Washington returned to headquarters at Newbury. 5. The Bruce’s band moves swiftly on.--SCOTT. 6. He shall with speed to England.--SHAKSPERE. 7. Soon were dismissed the courtly throng.--SCOTT. 8. Sickness, desertion, and the loss sustained at Guilford Courthouse had reduced his little army. 9. A detachment was sent against them. 10. Never before this summer have the kingbirds, handsomest of flycatchers, built in my orchard. 11. The young suddenly disperse on your approach, as if a whirlwind had swept them away.--THOREAU. 12. This lighthouse, known to our mariners as Cape Cod or Highland Light, is one of our “primary seacoast lights.” 13. We have some salt of our youth in us.--SHAKSPERE. 14. Thou hast nor youth nor age.--SHAKSPERE.

15. The passion for hunting had revived with Washington on returning to his old hunting grounds. 16. A circle there of merry listeners stand.--BYRON. 17. The act of the Congress of Vienna remains the eternal monument of their diplomatic knowledge and political sagacity.--DISRAELI. 18. Lee undertook the task with alacrity. 19. A row of surfboats and canoes lay along the beach. 20. The situation he had held as aide-de-camp to the commander-in-chief had given him an opportunity of observing the course of affairs. 21. The ground was frozen to a great depth. 22. He was aware of his unpopularity. 23. The stern old war-gods shook their heads.--EMERSON.

24. Freckled nest eggs thou shalt see Hatching in the hawthorn tree.--KEATS.

25. Fair morn ascends, and sunny June has shed Ambrosial odors o’er the garden-bed, And wild bees seek the cherry’s sweet perfume Or cluster round the full-blown apple-bloom.--CAMPBELL.

26. For in their looks divine The image of their glorious Maker shone, Truth, wisdom, sanctitude severe and pure.--MILTON.

27. Steer, helmsman, till you steer our way By stars beyond the line.--CAMPBELL.

28. Say I sent thee thither: I, that have neither pity, love, nor fear.--SHAKSPERE.

EXERCISE 8

(§§ 66–84, pp. 31–39)

1. Make a list containing thirty nouns, ten in each of the three genders. Use each of these nouns in a sentence.

2. Write ten sentences, each containing a noun of common gender.

3. Write sentences containing the masculine forms corresponding to the feminine forms in this list, and the feminine forms corresponding to the masculine:--

earl, abbess, schoolmaster, porter, hind, mare, ram, sire, witch, sultan, czar, widow, marquis, executor, salesman, tailor, hero, bride, songster, great-uncle, nephew, buck, horseman, bachelor, belle.

4. Mention the gender and the number of each noun. Tell whether the gender is shown by the form, by the meaning, or by both. Whenever it is possible, give the plural of each noun that is singular, and the singular of each noun that is plural.

1. Oft Music changed, but never ceased her tone.--BYRON. 2. Grace Crawley was at this time living with the two Miss Prettymans.--TROLLOPE. 3. The Catos and the Scipios of the village had gathered in front of the hotel. 4. This gunner was an excellent mathematician, a good scholar, and a complete sailor.--DEFOE. 5. I was, in fact, in the chapel of the Knights Templars.--IRVING. 6. The luckless culprit was brought in, forlorn and chapfallen, in the custody of gamekeepers, huntsmen, and whippers-in, and followed by a rabble rout of country clowns.--IRVING. 7. The hare now came still nearer to the place where she was at first started.--BUDGELL. 8. The Fairfaxes were no longer at hand.--IRVING. 9. All the peers and peeresses put on their coronets. 10. Time is no longer slow; his sickle mows quickly in this age.--DISRAELI. 11. Under the humblest roof, the commonest person in plain clothes sits there massive, cheerful, yet formidable, like the Egyptian colossi.--EMERSON.

12. Within forty-eight hours, hundreds of horse and foot came by various roads to the city. 13. The hart and hind wandered in a wilderness abounding in ferny coverts and green and stately trees.--DISRAELI. 14. The ship had received a great deal of damage, and it required some time to repair her.--DEFOE. 15. When Mary, the nurse, returns with the little Miss Smiths from Master Brown’s birthday party, she is narrowly questioned as to their behavior. 16. Of all our fleet, consisting of a hundred and fifty sail, scarce twelve appeared.--SMOLLETT. 17. Hindoos, Russians, Chinese, Spaniards, Portuguese, Englishmen, Frenchmen, Genoese, Neapolitans, Venetians, Greeks, Turks, descendants from all the builders of Babel, come to trade at Marseilles, sought the shade alike.--DICKENS. 18. There lies the port; the vessel puffs her sail.--TENNYSON. 19. I had desire to see the old family seat of the Lucys.--IRVING.

20. The Miss Lambs were the belles of little Britain.--IRVING. 21. Lord Culloden at length appeared with his daughters, Ladies Flora and Grizell.--DISRAELI. 22. Still his honied wealth Hymettus yields.--BYRON. 23. Josephine has been made executrix of her father’s estate. 24. Georgette crouched by the fire, reading a wonderful tale of kings, princesses, enchanted castles, knights and ladies, monks and nuns, wizards and witches. 25. She was a vixen when she went to school.--SHAKSPERE. 26. Keep a gamester from the dice and a good student from his book.--SHAKSPERE. 27. They are sheep and calves which seek out assurance in that.--SHAKSPERE. 28. A score of good ewes may be worth ten pounds.--SHAKSPERE. 29. Let ay’s seem no’s and no’s seem ay’s.--GAY.

30. She clasps a bright child on her upgathered knee; It laughs at the lightning, it mocks the mixed thunder Of the air and the sea.--SHELLEY.

EXERCISE 9

(§§ 71–84, pp. 34–39)

1. Write sentences in which the following words, letters, or figures are used in the plural number:--

German, radius, lens, moose, wharf, index, piano, thesis, 4, 500, p, q, and, syllabus, staff, die, s, t, seraph, hero, stimulus, crisis, elf, heathen, brother-in-law, July, March, spoonful, memorandum, Miss Allen, Master Allen, Mr. Hayes, General Raymond, Knight Templar, head (of cattle), animalcule, potato, valley, formula, penny, curriculum, dwarf, man-child.

2. Write sentences in which the following nouns are used in the singular number:--

strata, phenomena, alumnæ, alumni, candelabra, species, cherubim, errata, bacteria, Japanese, beaux, vertebræ, Messrs., theses, oases.

EXERCISE 10

(§ 88, pp. 41–42)

Mention all the nouns that are in the nominative case, and give the construction (or syntax) of each,--as subject, predicate nominative, vocative (or nominative of direct address), exclamatory nominative, or nominative in apposition.[50]

1. A weary lot is thine, fair maid.--SCOTT. 2. At last, our small acquaintance, Ned Higgins, trudged up the street, on his way to school.--HAWTHORNE. 3. The soil is in general a moist and retentive clay. 4. Rumors alone were their guides through a wild and desolate country.--LONGFELLOW. 5. Young man, have you challenged Charles the wrestler?--SHAKSPERE. 6. Ralph was an Eton boy, and hence, being robust and shrewd, a swimmer and a cricketer. 7. Here Harold was received a welcome guest.--SCOTT. 8. The tall Highlander remained obdurate. 9. The beams and rafters, roughly hewn and with strips of bark still on them, and the rude masonry of the chimneys, made the garret look wild and uncivilized. 10. Deathlike the silence seemed. 11. Sorrow and silence are strong, and patient endurance is godlike.--LONGFELLOW. 12. Fly, fly, detested thoughts, forever from my view!--BEATTIE. 13. Time must not be counted by calendars, but by sensation, by thought.--DISRAELI.

14. This is the history of Charlotte Corday. 15. The nabobs soon became a most unpopular class of men. 16. Before him stretched the long, laborious road, dry, empty, and white.--HARDY. 17. With the great mass of mankind, the test of integrity in a public man is consistency.--MACAULAY. 18. These are trifles, Mr. Premium. 19. My thanks are due to you for your trouble and care. 20. Here’s my great uncle, Sir Richard Ravelin. 21. Rowley, my old friend, I am sure you congratulate me. 22. David, you are a coward! 23. Here come other Pyncheons, the whole tribe, in their half-a-dozen generations. 24. Uncle Venner, trundling a wheelbarrow, was the earliest person stirring in the neighborhood. 25. Up the chimney roared the fire, and brightened the room with its broad blaze. 26. Liberty! freedom! tyranny is dead!--SHAKSPERE. 27. The hostess’s daughter, a plump Flanders lass, with long gold pendants in her ears, was at a side window.--IRVING.

28. Horses! can these be horses that bound off with the action and gesture of leopards?--DE QUINCEY. 29. Peace! silence! Brutus speaks. 30. The rains, frosts, and tempests splinter the chalk above and the waves gnaw it away below.--GEIKIE.

EXERCISE 11

(§§ 89–96, pp. 43–47)

1. Point out all the nouns in the possessive case, and parse them according to the model in § 112.

1. James’s parliament contained a most unusual proportion of new ministers. 2. I live in general quietly at my brother-in-law’s in Norfolk (see § 96). 3. There is a small cottage of my father’s close to the lawn gates. 4. We had found, in that day’s heap of earth, about fifty pounds’ weight of gold dust.--DEFOE. 5. Much the most striking incident in Burns’s life is his journey to Edinburgh. 6. As to freaks like this of Miss Brooke’s, Mrs. Cadwallader had no patience with them.--GEORGE ELIOT. 7. Homeward they bore him through the dark woods’ gloom.--MORRIS. 8. The eye travels down to Oxford’s towers.--ARNOLD. 9. I obeyed all my brother’s military commands with the utmost docility. 10. Tellson’s wanted not elbowroom, Tellson’s wanted no light, Tellson’s wanted no embellishment. Noakes & Co.’s might, or Snooks Brothers’ might; but Tellson’s--thank heaven!--DICKENS.

2. Examine the nouns in the possessive case in 1 (above), and tell which of the possessives might be replaced by an _of_-phrase. Mention particularly those passages in which the possessive would not be used in modern prose.

3. Write sentences containing the possessive singular of--

Henry, James, Thomas, Mr. Fox, child, Charles Price, Mrs. Gibbs, Edward, General Edwards, horse, Hortense, Miss Bellows, father-in-law, Major Ellis, commander-in-chief, Thompson and Howard (_a firm_), Eustis and Morris (_a firm_), Messrs. Cartwright and Robbins, Apollo, Brutus, Ulysses.

4. Write sentences containing the possessive plural of--

Englishman, fireman, washerwoman, fox, sheep, horse, ox, child, emperor, empress, robin, Norman, German, hawk, Knight Templar, lady, sailor, heir, heiress, teacher, whale, walrus, critic, poet, vireo.

5. In which of the sentences that you have written (under 3 and 4) would it be possible to substitute an _of_-phrase for the possessive? In which of them (if any) would this phrase be preferable? Why?

EXERCISE 12

(§§ 97–110, pp. 47–53)

Parse the nouns in the objective case, according to the model in § 112. Tell the particular construction in each instance,--direct object, predicate objective, indirect object, etc.

1. Such was the narrative of Jack Grant, the mate. 2. Rippling waters made a pleasant moan.--BYRON. 3. Swiftly they hurried away to the forge of Basil the blacksmith.--LONGFELLOW. 4. A pale fog hung over London. 5. So like a shattered column lay the king.--TENNYSON. 6. Then sing, ye birds, sing, sing a joyous song.--WORDSWORTH. 7. A blighted spring makes a barren year.--JOHNSON. 8. Dark and neglected locks overshadowed his brow. 9. Imagine the wind howling, the sea roaring, the rain beating. 10. Lay these vain regrets aside. 11. Birds of passage sailed through the leaden air. 12. Authority forgets a dying king.--TENNYSON. 13. Three years she grew in sun and shower.--WORDSWORTH. 14. The sound of horns came floating from the valley, prolonged by the mountain echoes. 15. Hours had passed away like minutes. 16. Your mistrust cannot make me a traitor.--SHAKSPERE.

17. She halted a moment before speaking. 18. The room opened on a terrace adorned with statues and orange trees. 19. The sun is coming down to earth, and the fields and the waters shout to him golden shouts.--MEREDITH. 20. England is unrivalled for two things--sports and politics.--DISRAELI. 21. Thus we lived several years in a state of much happiness. 22. The old gentleman’s whole countenance beamed with a serene look of indwelling delight. 23. I am reading Selwyn’s “Correspondence,” a remarkable book. 24. I have lived my life.--TENNYSON. 25. My heart is like a singing bird.--CHRISTINA ROSSETTI. 26. How like a winter hath my absence been.--SHAKSPERE. 27. Three weeks we westward bore.--LONGFELLOW. 28. It rains pitchforks.--FITZ GERALD. 29. The sublimer and more passionate poets I still read, by snatches and occasionally.--DE QUINCEY. 30. Coningsby slept the deep sleep of youth and health.--DISRAELI.

31. Thou mightst call him a goodly person. 32. My father named me Autolycus. 33. A country fellow brought him a huge fish. 34. I’ll make you the queen of Naples. 35. You call honorable boldness impudent sauciness.--SHAKSPERE. 36. Sir Roger generally goes two or three miles from his house before he beats about in search of a hare or partridge. 37. This misconception caused Washington some embarrassment. 38. I now thank you for Beattie, the most agreeable and amiable writer I ever met with.--COWPER.

EXERCISE 13

(§§ 97–110, pp. 47–53)

1. Write fifteen sentences, each containing a transitive verb and its direct object (§§ 99–100).

2. Substitute a pronoun for each noun in the objective case.

3. Write ten sentences containing both a direct object and a predicate objective (§ 104).

4. Use in sentences fifteen of the verbs in the list in § 105, each with both a direct and an indirect object.

5. For each indirect object, substitute _to_ with an object. Change the order, if necessary.

6. Write ten sentences, each containing a cognate object (§ 108).

7. Write ten sentences, each containing an adverbial objective (§ 109).

8. Write ten sentences, each containing a noun in apposition with a noun in the objective case (§ 110).

EXERCISE 14

(§§ 54–112, pp. 27–54)

Parse every noun, according to the models in § 112.

1. Pennon and banner wave no more. 2. They soon gained the utmost verge of the forest, and entered the country inhabited by men without vice.--GOLDSMITH. 3. Our avenue is strewn with the whole crop of autumn’s withered leaves.--HAWTHORNE. 4. He is the rich man who can avail himself of all men’s faculties.--EMERSON. 5. Like an awakened conscience, the sea was moaning and tossing.--LONGFELLOW. 6. He again called and whistled after his dog. 7. She wrote and addressed a hurried note. 8. The light and warmth of that long-vanished day live with me still. 9. Violet and primrose girls, and organ boys with military monkeys, and systematic bands very determined in tone if not in tune, filled the atmosphere.--MEREDITH. 10. The blood left Wilfrid’s ashen cheek. 11. Give us manners, virtue, freedom, power!--WORDSWORTH. 12. A great deal of shrubbery clusters along the base of the stone wall, and takes away the hardness of its outline.

13. I travelled the whole four hundred miles between this and Madras on men’s shoulders. 14. Here we set up twelve little huts like soldiers’ tents. 15. Swiftly they glided away, like the shade of a cloud on the prairie. 16. Athens, even long after the decline of the Roman empire, still continued the seat of learning, politeness, and wisdom.--GOLDSMITH. 17. Four times the sun had risen and set. 18. Speak! speak! thou fearful guest! 19. The oak rose before me like a pillar of darkness. 20. Another long blast filled the old courts of the castle with its echoes, and was answered by the warder from the walls. 21. Sound, sound the clarion, fill the fife!--SCOTT. 22. Now, Falstaff, where have you been all this while? 23. Sounds of a horn they heard, and the distant lowing of cattle. 24. Homer was always his companion now. 25. Forgive me these injurious suspicions. 26. O, pride! pride! it deceives me with the subtlety of a serpent. 27. I made Mr. Wright’s gardener a present of fifty sorts of plant seeds. 28. Your mother and I last week made a trip to Gayhurst, the seat of Mr. Wright, about four miles off. 29. Beneath the shelter of one hut, in the bright blaze of the same fire, sat this varied group of adventurers. 30. The cares of to-day are seldom the cares of to-morrow.--COWPER.

EXERCISE 15

(§§ 115–129, pp. 55–62)

1. Parse the personal pronouns, using the models in § 168.

1. She peeped from the window into the garden. 2. The little marquis immediately threw himself into the attitude of a man about to tell a long story. 3. It pours and it thunders, it lightens amain.--SCOTT. 4. Master, master, look about you! 5. Leontine, with his own and his wife’s fortune, bought a farm of three hundred a year.--ADDISON. 6. The Tories carry it among the new members six to one.--SWIFT. 7. I wrote to him, but could tell him nothing. 8. On the next morning after breakfast the major went out for a walk by himself. 9. Their hearts quaked within them, at the idea of taking one step farther. 10. Mrs. Forrester’s surprise was equal to ours. 11. It’s twenty years since he went away from home. 12. I seated myself in a recess of a large bow window. 13. At the last moment his heart failed him, and he looked round him for some mode of escape. 14. A friend of mine has been spending some time at Sir Walter Scott’s.

15. Send me a letter directed to me at Mr. Watcham’s. 16. I have lately received from my bookseller a copy of my subscribers’ names. 17. We came in our first morning’s march to very good springs of fresh water. 18. We are both of us inclined to be a little too positive. 19. Heyne’s best teacher was himself.--CARLYLE.

20. Aspasia, you have lived but few years in the world, and with only one philosopher--yourself. 21. I got to the side in time to see a huge liner’s dim shape slide by like a street at night; she would have been invisible but for her row of lights. 22. The cataracts blow their trumpets from the steep.--WORDSWORTH. 23. I am he they call Old Care.--PEACOCK. 24. The sharp and peevish tinkle of the shop-bell made itself audible. 25. The heroes themselves say, as often as not, that fame is their object. 26. He seems to himself to touch things with muffled hands. 27. She took counsel with herself what must be done. 28. The head of the Pyncheons found himself involved in serious financial difficulties. 29. Ha! here is Hepzibah herself!

2. Write sentences in which the personal pronoun of the first person is used as direct object, as indirect object, as predicate nominative; in the possessive singular with a noun; in the possessive singular without a noun.

3. Fill the blanks with personal pronouns of the first or the third person.

1. He thought the burglars were ----.

2. He mistook the burglars for ----.

3. William is better at his lessons than ----.

4. It is ----.

5. These are ----.

6. Nobody volunteered except Edward and ----.

7. ---- boys have formed a debating club.

8. Mr. Jones is going to give ---- boys a baseball field.

9. Who is there? ----.

10. Between you and ----, I am not sorry that he has resigned.

11. If I were ---- I would study art.

12. Arthur likes you better than ----.

13. Behind Ruth and ---- came the guest of honor.

14. Automobiles are not for such as ----.

15. It was ---- that Joseph meant.

16. ---- two are always together.

17. Richard dislikes everybody, ---- most of all.

4. Write sentences in which _myself_, _yourself_, _ourselves_, _himself_, _herself_, _themselves_ are used (1) intensively, (2) reflexively as direct object, (3) reflexively as indirect object.

EXERCISE 16

(§§ 131–142, pp. 62–65)

1. Parse the demonstratives and the indefinites. In parsing the word, tell whether it is used as a pronoun or as an adjective. If it is used as a pronoun, tell the number and the case and give the reason for the case. If it is used as an adjective, mention the substantive which it modifies.

1. What is the meaning of all this? 2. On either side extended a ruinous wooden fence. 3. You have seen that picture, then! 4. This very Judge Pyncheon was the original of the miniature. 5. Twenty years ago this man was equally capable of crime or heroism; now he is fit for neither.--STEVENSON. 6. None are all evil. 7. Solitude has many a dreary hour. 8. Every science has its hitherto undiscovered mysteries.--GOLDSMITH. 9. The same day we visited the shores of the isle in the ship’s boats. 10. None but picked recruits were enlisted. 11. A longing for the brightness and silence of fallen snow seizes him at such times. 12. Such were Addison’s talents for conversation. 13. Nicholas Vedder! why, he is dead and gone these eighteen years! 14. What a lamentable situation was that of the poor baron! 15. Several houses were pillaged and destroyed.

16. Each warrior was a chosen man. 17. See how yond justice rails upon yond simple thief!--SHAKSPERE. 18. Our naval annals owe some of their interest to the fantastic and beautiful appearance of old warships.--STEVENSON. 19. Some are too indolent to read anything till its reputation is established.--JOHNSON. 20. In both sexes, occasionally, this lifelong croak, accompanying each word of joy or sorrow, is one of the symptoms of settled melancholy.--HAWTHORNE. 21. Such voices have put on mourning for dead hopes. 22. Another phenomenon was a package of lucifer matches. 23. How few appear in those streets which but some few hours ago were crowded! 24. This was a very different camp from that of the night before.

25. Alternations of wild hope and cold despair succeeded each other. 26. The poor know best how to console each other’s sorrows. 27. Everybody has his own interpretation for that picture. 28. I strove with none, for none was worth my strife.--LANDOR. 29. Scarcely any of the items in the above-drawn parallel occurred to Phœbe. 30. He went about moping. None spake to him. No one would play with him.--LAMB. 31. Ah, that good Kent! He said it would be thus. 32. How easy is the explanation to those who know! 33. There has been a quarrel between him and Hepzibah this many a day.

2. Fill each blank with a personal pronoun (§ 141).

1. Each of us should do ---- best.

2. Everybody thinks ---- own way is wise.

3. If anybody has a better plan, now is the time for ---- to speak.

4. It was an old-fashioned picnic, every person furnishing ---- share of the provisions.

5. When anybody is talking, it is bad manners to interrupt ----.

EXERCISE 17

(§§ 143–156, pp. 66–71)

1. Parse the relative pronouns, using the models in § 168.

1. The lights in the shops could hardly struggle through the heavy mist, which thickened every moment. 2. I shall not budge from the position that I have taken up. 3. The land of literature is a fairy land to those who view it at a distance.--IRVING. 4. I hate people who meet Time half-way.--LAMB. 5. The weather, which had been stormy and unsettled, moderated toward the evening. 6. He that once indulges idle fears will never be at rest.--JOHNSON. 7. The only ford by which the travellers could cross was guarded by a party of militia. 8. One dark unruly night she issued secretly out of a small postern gate of the castle, which the enemy had neglected to guard. 9. I paused to contemplate a tomb on which lay the effigy of a knight in complete armor. 10. He who loves the sea loves also the ship’s routine.--CONRAD. 11. There were two or three indefatigable men among them, by whose courage and industry all the rest were upheld.--DEFOE.

12. Thou hadst a voice whose sound was like the sea.--WORDSWORTH. 13. They slander thee sorely who say thy vows are frail.--MOORE. 14. The first great poet whose works have come down to us, sang of war long before war became a science or a trade.---MACAULAY. 15. The gusts that drove against the high house seemed ready to tear it from its foothold of rock. 16. At its western side is a deep ravine or valley, through which a small stream rushes. 17. A weak mother, who perpetually threatens and never performs, is laying up miseries both for herself and for her children.--SPENCER. 18. As they approached, a raven, who sat upon the topmost stone, black against the bright blue sky, flapped lazily away.--KINGSLEY. 19. To such of her neighbors as needed other attention, she would give her time, her assistance, her skill. 20. It was such a battle-axe as Rustum may have wielded in fight upon the banks of Oxus. 21. I may neither choose whom I would, nor refuse whom I dislike.

2. Point out the descriptive and the restrictive relatives in 1 (above).

3. Write ten sentences, each containing a descriptive relative; ten sentences, each containing a restrictive relative.

4. Fill the blanks with relatives. In the first eight sentences, at least, use _who_ or _whom_.

1. This is the boy ---- I recommended.

2. The boy ---- I recommended is a Swede.

3. The boy ---- brought the letter is not the one ---- I recommended.

4. I told Anna, ---- I knew would keep my secret.

5. I told Anna, ---- I knew I could trust.

6. I told Anna, ---- I knew to be trustworthy.

7. I told Anna, ---- I knew intimately.

8. No one ---- you know lives in this street.

9. All ---- I can say is, I am sorry.

10. Give me the same horse ---- I had yesterday.

11. A dog, ---- showed his teeth and growled, blocked the way.

12. Choose the partner ---- you like best.

13. The policeman was leading a little child ---- had lost its mother.

14. Take such measures ---- you deem necessary.

15. Take ---- measures seem necessary.

16. Take the measures ---- seem to you necessary.

17. My hat is of the same size ---- yours.

18. This is the picture ---- I am so proud of.

19. This is the picture of ---- I am so proud.

20. The man ---- is talking to Henry is the one ---- owns this house.

5. Supply the relatives that are “understood” (§ 151).

1. It was a bold step she had taken.

2. I am not altogether unqualified for the business I have in hand.

3. His taste of books is a little too just for the age he lives in.

4. Censure is the tax a man pays to the public for being eminent.

5. Who is the wittiest man you know?

6. Morton was the only friend I had.

7. That sonata was the first piece I learned.

8. Ten dollars is the price he asks.

9. Are you the man I bought the coat of?

10. This is the book we are reading evenings.

11. Take any seat you like.

12. “Faust” is the only opera I care for.

13. I have done all I can.

EXERCISE 18

(§§ 157–162, pp. 71–73)

Parse the relatives.

1. Whatever wisdom and energy could do William did. 2. Whatever is done skilfully appears to be done with ease. 3. We must suspect what we see, distrust what we hear, and doubt even what we feel!--MISS BURNEY. 4. Whoever has been in a state of nervous agitation, must know that the longer it continues the more uncontrollable it grows.--IRVING. 5. Time hath reft whate’er my soul enjoyed.--BYRON. 6. The gallant major showed no hesitation whatever. 7. Whoever has made a voyage up the Hudson must remember the Kaatskill Mountains. 8. A recollection of what I had seen and felt the preceding night still haunted my mind. 9. Hard work was what he needed now. 10. Whatever regrets Mrs. Thorverton might indulge in secret, she had had the strength of mind to hide them. 11. Like all weak men, they had recourse to what they called strong measures. 12. We see in him a freer, purer development of whatever is noblest in ourselves. 13. Sir Roger was what you call a fine gentleman. 14. Sweet princes, what I did, I did in honor.--SHAKSPERE. 15. He was really interested in what Coningsby had seen and what he had felt. 16. What was to be seen at Naples, Addison saw.

EXERCISE 19

(§§ 163–168, pp. 73–74)

Parse the interrogative pronouns, mentioning gender, number, person, and case. If the interrogative word is an adjective, tell what noun it limits.

1. Who would not sing for Lycidas? 2. What that sigh meant I cannot say. 3. Columns, arches, pyramids, what are they but heaps of sand? 4. Which of the two was daughter to the duke? 5. Whom next shall we summon from the dusty dead?--LAMB. 6. Why! Peggy, what have you brought us? 7. What’s fame? A fancied life in others’ breath.--POPE. 8. To what shall I compare it? 9. And what art thou, O melancholy voice?--SHELLEY. 10. Proud sufferer, who art thou? 11. What were Swigby’s former pursuits I can’t tell. What need we care? Hadn’t he five hundred a year? Ay, that he had.--THACKERAY. 12. What does it matter? 13. Which way have you looked for Master Caius? 14. What business had they in Prussia?

EXERCISE 20

(§§ 163–168, pp. 73–74)

Fill each blank with _who_ or _whom_, as the construction may require.

1. He asked me ---- was elected.

2. From ---- did she hear this news?

3. To ---- did you apply for assistance?

4. ---- do you regard as the better scholar of the two?

5. ---- shall I ask for the key?

6. ---- did you see when you called?

7. ---- do you think is the best physician in town?

8. ---- can I trust in such an emergency?

9. With ---- have you discussed this affair?

10. ---- do you suppose this letter is from?

11. ---- do you suppose I am?

12. ---- do you suppose I saw?

13. ---- do you think will help us?

EXERCISE 21

(§§ 113–168, pp. 55–74)

Point out each pronoun; tell to what class it belongs, and give its construction.

1. His mind now misgave him. 2. Under the dark and haunted garret were attic chambers which themselves had histories. 3. Passion itself is very figurative, and often bursts out into metaphors.--GOLDSMITH. 4. He had a wiry, well-trained, elastic figure, a stiff military throw-back of his head, and a springing step, which made him appear much younger than he was. 5. It was the owl that shrieked. 6. Slowly, slowly, slowly the days succeeded each other. 7. Say nothing to the men, but have all your wits about you. 8. He saw that it would be dark long before he could reach the village. 9. I must do myself the justice to open the work with my own history. 10. Economy in our affairs has the same effect upon our fortunes which good breeding has upon our conversations.--STEELE. 11. It was a cloudy night, with frequent showers of rain. 12. “Fair sirs,” said Arthur, “wherefore sit ye here?” 13. Who would be free, themselves must strike the blow.--BYRON. 14. This is my son, mine own Telemachus.--TENNYSON.

15. Richard bade them adieu. 16. Ye men of Kent, ’tis victory or death!--WORDSWORTH. 17. We dined yesterday with your friend and mine, the most companionable and domestic Mr. C. 18. Great is the power of the man who has nothing to lose.--DOYLE. 19. Each hamlet started at the sound. 20. Look on me with thine own calm look. 21. Mr. Rigby was not a man who ever confessed himself at fault. 22. They were conversing with much earnestness among themselves. 23. He heard the deep behind him, and a cry before. 24. When Deerslayer reached the fire, he found himself surrounded by no less than eight grim savages. 25. Mine hostess, indeed, gave me a long history how the goblet had been handed down from generation to generation. 26. The uncle and nephew looked at each other for some seconds without speaking. 27. We had yet seen no wild beasts, or, at least, none that came very near us.--DEFOE. 28. We envy you your sea-breezes. 29. Which is he that killed the deer? 30. There was the choice, and it was still open to him to take which side he pleased. 31. There is always something to worry you. It comes as regularly as sunrise.

EXERCISE 22

(§§ 169–188, pp. 75–82)

1. Point out every adjective. Tell whether it is descriptive or definitive (§§ 169–171), and mention the substantive to which it belongs. If the adjective can be compared, give its three degrees of comparison.[51]

1. The old, unpainted shingles of the house were black with moisture. 2. “My very dog,” sighed poor Rip, “has forgotten me!” 3. Loud was the lightsome tumult on the shore.--BYRON. 4. Sweet are the shy recesses of the woodland. 5. Rows of pewter and earthen dishes glittered along the dresser. 6. The major spoke in a matter-of-fact way. 7. The sheep and the cow have no cutting teeth, but only a hard pad in the upper jaw.--HUXLEY. 8. The faint, foggy daylight glimmered dimly on the bare floor and stairs. 9. He wiped his serious, perplexed face on a red bandanna handkerchief, a shade lighter than his complexion. 10. The yellow moonlight sleeps on all the hills.--BEATTIE. 11. The young hostess seemed to perform her office with a certain degree of desperate determination. 12. This warning is meant in a friendly spirit.

13. The house remained untenanted for three years. 14. Numberless torrents, with ceaseless sound, descend to the ocean. 15. The contest between the two branches of the legislature lasted some days longer.

2. Write five sentences containing descriptive adjectives; five containing definitive adjectives.

3. Write sentences containing demonstrative, indefinite, relative, and interrogative adjectives.

4. Write sentences in which the indefinite article is directly followed by--

honorable, youthful, yew, ewe, euphonious, historical, history, hymn, humble, hilarious, university, express, horticultural, oratorio, automatic, heritage, harmonious.

EXERCISE 23

(§§ 181–187, pp. 79–82)

Point out the comparatives and the superlatives. Mention any superlatives used for emphasis (§ 200).

1. The Governor-General is the frankest and best-natured of men. 2. The company grew merrier and louder as their jokes grew duller. 3. A knock alarmed the outer gate. 4. At once there came the politest and friendliest reply. 5. Many a poet has been poorer than Burns, but no one was ever prouder.--CARLYLE. 6. The last tyrant ever proves the worst.--POPE. 7. The profoundest secrecy was observed in the whole transaction. 8. Earth has not anything to show more fair. 9. The natural principle of war is to do the most harm to our enemy with the least harm to ourselves.--IRVING. 10. During the rest of the journey, Rose was in the strangest state of mind. 11. There’s not a nobler man in Rome than Antony. 12. Little he ate, and less he spake. 13. Our journey hither was through the most beautiful part of the finest country in the world. 14. Meanwhile the throng without was constantly becoming more numerous and more savage. 15. Vain are his weapons, vainer is his force. 16. She might have been more lenient.

17. You’ll have to be more practical. 18. How does a love of gain transform the gravest of mankind into the most contemptible and ridiculous!--GOLDSMITH. 19. Most authors speak of their fame as if it were quite a priceless matter.

20. Loveliest and best! thou little know’st The rank, the honor, thou hast lost!--SCOTT.

21. Of two such lessons, why forget The nobler and the manlier one?--BYRON.

EXERCISE 24

(§§ 189–198, pp. 83–87)

1. Parse each adverb by telling whether it is an adverb of manner, time, place, or degree, and by mentioning the verb, adjective, or adverb which it modifies. Compare the adverbs which are capable of comparison.

1. A great part of the island is rather level. 2. They had worked very hard and very cheerfully. 3. When spake I such a word? 4. We can ill spare the commanding social benefits of cities.--EMERSON. 5. She looked up and met his eyes, and thereupon both became very grave. 6. The silence of the prairie at night was well-nigh terrible. 7. Far in the West there lies a desert land. 8. The whistling ploughman stalks afield. 9. Swiftly they glided along. 10. He has only just arrived in England. 11. Fast the white rocks faded from his view. 12. Whole ranks instantly laid down their pikes and muskets. 13. Thick clouds of dust afar appeared. 14. Bitter sobs came thick and fast. 15. How long are you going to be in Paris? 16. To-morrow I intend to hunt again. 17. Answer made King Arthur, breathing hard. 18. Some of us laughed heartily. 19. They had spoken simply and openly about that from the very start.

2. Form an adverb of manner from each of the following adjectives. Use each adverb in a sentence. Tell what it modifies.

Proud, careless, vehement, tender, vigorous, dainty, brave, formal, courteous, blunt, sharp, keen, weary, heavy, true, skilful, legible.

3. Fill each blank with an adverb of degree modifying the adjective or the adverb.

1. Ogilvie was ---- lucky that day.

2. They were thought to be ---- fashionable people.

3. She made her objections ---- delicately as she could.

4. July has been ---- hot.

5. Carlyle was ---- dainty about his food.

6. Jack did not come early ---- to find a seat.

7. The tide runs ---- fast round this point.

8. The balloon soared ---- high that it disappeared.

9. The fugitive reached the pier ---- late to take the steamer.

10. The bear growled ---- savagely that the dogs were frightened.

11. You write ---- more legibly than I.

EXERCISE 25

(§§ 194–196, p. 86)

1. Point out the relative adverbs, and mention the subordinate clause introduced by each. Tell whether each adverb expresses time, place, or manner.

1. Just as the sun went down, they heard a murmur of voices. 2. On waking, he found himself on the green knoll whence he had first seen the old man of the glen. 3. There is no place of general resort wherein I do not often make my appearance. 4. Wherever he determines to sleep, there he prepares himself a sort of nest. 5. I hastened to the spot whence I had come. 6. Where rolled the ocean, thereon was his home.--BYRON. 7. Where shineth thy spirit, there liberty shineth too!--MOORE. 8. He will look on the world, wheresoever he can catch a glimpse of it, with eager curiosity. 9. Until Lady Glenmore came to call next day, we heard of nothing unusual. 10. When she and Miss Pole left us, we endeavored to subside into calmness. 11. Small service is true service while it lasts. 12. Long before we saw the sea, its spray was on our lips. 13. As they ascended, Rip every now and then heard long rolling peals, like distant thunder. 14. The village clock struck five as Mr. Millbank and his guests entered the gardens of the mansion. 15. When only a small space was left between the armies, the Highlanders suddenly drew their broadswords and rushed forward with a fearful yell.--MACAULAY. 16. When he rejoined his companions, he said something to them in Welsh.

2. Point out the interrogative adverbs, and tell what each modifies.

1. Why look’st thou so? 2. Whence came ye, jolly satyrs? whence came ye?--KEATS. 3. Where now shall I go, poor, forsaken, and blind?--CAMPBELL. 4. Why weep ye by the tide?--SCOTT. 5. See how the world its veterans rewards!--POPE. 6. How wildly will ambition steer!--DRYDEN. 7. Where have you been these twenty long years? 8. Here was a Cæsar! When comes such another?--SHAKSPERE. 9. When shall we three meet again? 10. History is clarified experience, and yet how little do men profit by it! Nay, how should we expect it of those who so seldom are taught anything by their own?--LOWELL. 11. Why did you not bring what I asked for?

3. Write ten sentences containing relative adverbs; ten containing interrogative adverbs.

EXERCISE 26

(§§ 197–203, pp. 87–89)

1. Point out the comparatives and superlatives. Tell whether each is an adjective or an adverb.

1. I thought it the most prudent method to lie still. 2. When the people observed I was quiet, they discharged no more arrows. 3. You know your own feelings best. 4. He was taller than any of the other three who attended him. 5. The song and the laugh grew less and less frequent. 6. The harder I try to forget it, the more it comes into my mind. 7. The night grew darker and darker; the stars seemed to sink deeper in the sky. 8. I answered in a few words, but in a most submissive manner. 9. Their sight is much more acute than ours. 10. The natives came by degrees to be less apprehensive of any danger from me. 11. Whoever performs his part with the most agility, and holds out longest in leaping, is rewarded with the blue-colored silk. 12. It received less damage than I expected. 13. Long live the most puissant king of Lilliput! 14. Fast are the flying moments, faster are the hoofs of our horses. 15. Nigh come the strangers and more nigh.--SCOTT.

2. Write sentences containing either the comparative or the superlative of the following words:--

merry, uncomfortable, ill, joyfully, northern, old (_both forms_), far, in, out, early, little (_adjective_), little (_adverb_), badly, often, worthy, wonderful, accurate, far, nigh, top, much, severe.

3. Write six sentences containing adverbs which are incapable of comparison; six containing adjectives which are incapable of comparison.

EXERCISE 27

(§§ 204–208, pp. 89–90)

1. Write five sentences in which cardinal numerals are adjectives, five in which they are nouns. Use the same numerals in the ordinal form as adjectives, as nouns.

2. Write five sentences, each containing a numeral adverb; five containing an adverbial phrase that includes a numeral.

EXERCISE 28

(§§ 209–215, pp. 91–93)

1. Point out all the verbs and verb-phrases. Tell whether each is transitive or intransitive. Tell which are copulative; which are auxiliary. Mention any examples of the copula.

1. Little tasks make large return. 2. We must now return to the fortress of Tillietudlem and its inhabitants. 3. Though I look old, yet I am strong and lusty. 4. The sunshine might now be seen stealing down the front of the opposite house. 5. He sat apart from them all, and looked at them with a melancholy, haughty countenance; while the rest hallooed and sang and laughed, and the room rang. 6. You cannot relieve me, but you may add to the torments I suffer. 7. One gains nothing by attempting to shut out the sprites of the weather. They come in at the keyhole; they peer through the dripping panes; they insinuate themselves through the crevices of the casement, or plump themselves down chimney astride of the raindrops.--WHITTIER. 8. A large lamp threw a strong mass of light upon the group. 9. The baron pardoned the young couple on the spot. 10. Every now and then he would turn his head slowly round.

11. The river sleeps along its course and dreams of the sky and of the clustering foliage. 12. A severe gale compelled him to seek shelter. 13. Miss Betsy Barker dried her eyes and thanked the Captain heartily. 14. Pray you, look not sad. 15. I am! yet what I am who cares, or knows?--CLARE. 16. After all, it is a glorious pastime to find oneself in a real gale of wind, in a big ship, with not a rock to run against within a thousand miles.--KINGSLEY. 17. We will talk over all this another time. 18. What is progress? Movement. But what if it be movement in the wrong direction?--DISRAELI. 19. They say you are a melancholy fellow. 20. The valiant Clifford is no more. 21. The wreck had evidently drifted about for many months; clusters of shellfish had fastened about it, and long seaweed flaunted at its sides.--IRVING. 22. Times grew worse and worse with Rip Van Winkle as years of matrimony rolled on.

2. Frame twenty sentences, each containing a verb-phrase. Use the auxiliaries mentioned in § 210. Let some of the sentences be interrogative.

3. Make a list of twenty verbs that are transitive in one sense, intransitive in another (§ 212). Use these verbs in sentences.

4. Illustrate the absolute use of transitive verbs by framing ten sentences (§ 213).

5. Make a list of six copulative verbs (§ 214). Use them in sentences. Frame sentences in which the same verbs are not copulative (§ 215).

6. Use the copula (§ 214) in twenty sentences, several of which shall illustrate its use in verb-phrases.

EXERCISE 29

(§§ 217–225, pp. 94–99)

1. Write ten sentences in each of which a weak (or regular) verb is used in the past tense; ten, in each of which a strong (or irregular) verb is used in the past tense.

2. Construct sentences in which the past tense of each of the following verbs is used: _drink_, _lie_, _sow_, _get_, _wake_, _dwell_, _sing_, _pay_, _bid_, _light_, _bereave_, _build_, _ride_, _hang_, _swim_, _lay_, _split_, _shrink_, _slay_, _wring_, _weave_, _thrive_, _spin_, _tread_, _shake_, _burst_, _slink_, _dive_, _flee_, _fly_, _swing_, _wet_, _fling_, _kneel_, _let_, _chide_.

3. Point out all the verbs (except the copula and auxiliaries) in Exercise 28, 1, and conjugate them in the present and the past tense. Tell which are weak (regular) and which are strong (irregular). Account for the person and number.

EXERCISE 30

(§§ 226–232, pp. 100–102)

1. Fill each blank with _am_, _is_, or _are_.

1. England and the United States ---- at peace.

2. Neither Arthur nor John ---- right.

3. Either a saw or an axe ---- necessary.

4. Either you or Dorothy ---- going.

5. You and I ---- going.

6. You and he ---- going.

7. Is it Mr. Allen or is it his children who ---- going?

8. Either he ---- going or you ----.

9. Either you ---- going or I ----.

10. The sum and substance of the article ---- this.

11. Half the sheep ---- missing.

12. A number of Italians ---- present.

13. The number of Italians in this town ---- small.

14. Mathematics ---- my most difficult study.

15. The number of applicants ---- not sufficient

16. A number of reasons ---- alleged.

17. The jury ---- in agreement.

18. The jury ---- being charged by the judge.

19. The committee ---- composed of five members.

20. The committee ---- always wrangling with one another.

21. I, who ---- only a beginner, cannot compete with Richards, who ---- an expert.

22. He is one of those men who ---- always out of work.

23. I am not a man who ---- easily frightened.

24. Walter is one of the best fellows there ---- in this town.

25. Is it the king and queen who ---- coming?

26. Is it the king or the queen who ---- coming?

27. They made me, who ---- the shyest of mortals, respond to a toast.

28. A gift of four hundred books, eighteen maps, and ten plaster casts ---- to be made to our school.

29. Vocal and instrumental music ---- taught here.

30. Neither vocal nor instrumental music ---- taught here.

31. Neither elementary nor advanced physics ---- taught here.

32. Neither organic nor inorganic chemists ---- trained here.

33. One or two pages ---- missing.

34. Physics, together with algebra and Latin, ---- taught the first year.

35. Stevenson’s “Memories and Portraits” ---- lying on the table.

36. The insurgent general with ten of his followers ---- said to have surrendered.

37. James, as well as his sisters, ---- coming.

38. Six months ---- a long time to wait.

39. A series of lectures ---- given here every winter.

2. Make a list of ten collective nouns. Use them in sentences (1) with a singular verb, (2) with a plural verb. Explain the difference in meaning.

3. Use the relative _who_ in ten sentences in which the antecedent is in the first or the second person.

EXERCISE 31

(§§ 233–241, pp. 102–105)

1. Explain the use of _will_ and _shall_ in the following sentences.

1. We shall never forget what you have done for us. 2. “You ought to know my military secretary,” said the general, as Lothair entered, “and therefore I will introduce you.” 3. I am very patient; I will wait. 4. If I do return, I will vote against them. But I will not return. I have made up my mind to that. 5. I will send you Jennings’s poem, if you like. 6. You will of course make a drawing and an estimate, and send them to me (§ 240). 7. Do congratulate her for me, will you? 8. Another Athens shall arise.--SHELLEY. 9. “I won’t allow it!” cried Lady Niton, “he sha’n’t go!” 10. Shall I find you at home if I call some day soon, between five and six o’clock? 11. You must be convinced, and on reflection you will be convinced. 12. Before my journey to Rochdale, you shall have due notice where to address me. 13. I consider myself a first-rate shot, and you shall practise with me. 14. Shall I ever forget that party? 15. Shall you hunt to-morrow, Mr. Deronda? 16. When shall you be at Cambridge?

17. Lady St. Jerome is a little indisposed--a cold caught at one of her bazaars. She will hold them, and they say that no one ever sells so much.--DISRAELI. 18. Will you be good enough to keep an account of all the manuscripts you receive, for fear of omission? 19. O rest ye, brother mariners, we will not wander more.--TENNYSON. 20. Will you forward the inclosed immediately to Corbet, whose address I do not exactly remember? 21. Byron was no common man: yet if we examine his poetry with this view, we shall find it far enough from faultless.--CARLYLE. 22. I shall be in town by Sunday next, and will call and have some conversation on the subject of Westall’s proposed design. 23. Will you go down, dear? I will follow you in a moment. 24. Will not your trip to Bath afford you an opportunity to take a peep at Weston? 25. Never, as long as I live, will I speak to you again, nor shall Harry, whom you have humiliated!

26. Yet he for whom I grieve shall never know it. 27. Shall you let him go to Italy? 28. Prone to the dust Oppression shall be hurled.--CAMPBELL. 29. You sha’n’t go on with this affair, I tell you, Harry. 30. I shall probably return this evening, but I will see you before I go.--TROLLOPE. 31. In the interim I shall leave town; on Sunday I shall set out for Herefordshire, from whence, when wanted, I will return. 32. If my father does not return with me in the spring, it shall not be for want of urging on my part.--COOPER.

2. Fill each blank with _will_ or _shall_.

1. I ---- be glad to see you.

2. We ---- be obliged to go home early.

3. I ---- help you whenever you wish.

4. I promise that he ---- not trouble you again.

5. You ---- be kind enough to take your seat.

6. We ---- miss our train, I fear.

7. I must hurry or I ---- be late.

8. Robert ---- have as much as is good for him.

9. Arthur ---- disobey me in spite of all I can do.

10. Arthur ---- obey you, I am sure.

11. Arthur ---- obey me, or I ---- punish him.

12. If we reject these offers, we ---- regret it.

13. I ---- no longer endure his insolence.

14. ---- they return in season for dinner?

15. I ---- have to excuse you this time, I suppose.

16. I ---- gladly see you at any time.

17. You ---- not leave this room until you have confessed.

18. He ---- give you the money, I feel confident.

19. He ---- give you the money, or I ---- have no more to do with him.

20. ---- we allow them to do as they please?

3. Write declarative sentences, using _will_ or _shall_ in the first person (singular or plural) to express a threat, a promise, resolution, consent, desire, determination, simple futurity.

4. Fill the blanks in the following questions with _will_ or _shall_. Write sentences (using _will_ or _shall_) in answer.

1. ---- you promise to do better?

2. ---- you make any promises if he insists?

3. ---- we miss our train?

4. ---- we go? Just ask us!

5. ---- I go now? I fear I am wearying you.

6. ---- I tell you what I really think?

7. ---- you call a cab for me, if you please?

8. ---- you be glad to see him?

9. ---- you see me if I call at one o’clock?

10. ---- we see you this evening?

11. ---- you be kind enough to open that door, or ---- I?

12. ---- you miss your brother?

13. ---- we wait here, or ---- you relent and let us go with you?

14. ---- we allow this evil to continue?

15. ---- you forgive me?

EXERCISE 32

(§§ 242–245, pp. 106–107)

1. Name all the complete (or compound) tenses and explain their formation.

1. Four long years in the times of the war had he languished a captive.--LONGFELLOW. 2. The adventurer has subsequently returned to his native country. 3. Spiders had built their webs in the angles of the walls and ceilings. 4. Whole fleets had been cast away. Large mansions had been blown down. 5. I am just returned from staying three days at a delightful inn by the river Ouse, where we always go to fish (§ 242, 1, note).--FITZ GERALD. 6. In the evening we reached a village where I had determined to pass the night. 7. I have sent by the Gisbornes a copy of the “Elegy on Keats.” 8. I have really done my best. 9. Our visits to the islands have been more like dreams than realities. 10. We are here arrived at the crisis of Burns’s life. 11. The chills of a long winter had suddenly given way; the north wind had spent its last gasp; and a mild air came stealing from the west. 12. The officer at last turned away, having satisfied himself that the room was empty. 13. Carson will have reached shelter long before this.

2. Construct ten sentences in which the verbs in Exercise 29, 2 are used in the perfect tense.

3. Turn the verbs in these sentences into the pluperfect tense; into the future perfect tense. Write sentences in which the same verbs are used as perfect participles; as perfect infinitives.

EXERCISE 33

(§§ 246–254, pp. 107–112)

1. Tell whether each verb is in the active or the passive voice.

2. If the verb is active, change it to the passive, and make such other changes as may be necessary. If the verb is passive, change it to the active.

3. Conjugate each verb in the tense in which it occurs.

1. The customs of mankind are influenced in many ways by climate. 2. The door, which was slightly ajar, was suddenly pushed open. 3. The landlord handed the stranger the newspaper. 4. After a short pause, my host resumed his narration. 5. During the greater part of that night my slumbers were disturbed by strange dreams. 6. Not a word was spoken, not a sound was made. 7. The great willow tree had caught and retained among its leaves a whole cataract of water. 8. Early in the morning I was awakened by the voices of Peter and his wife. 9. He that is loudly praised will be clamorously censured.--JOHNSON. 10. Out of this story he formed a tragedy. 11. The assailants were repulsed in their first attack, and several of their bravest officers were shot down in the act of storming the fortress sword in hand. 12. This fatal question has disturbed the quiet of many other minds. 13. No genius was ever blasted by the breath of critics.--JOHNSON. 14. The jury then heard the opinion of the judge.

15. What cruel maxims are we taught by a knowledge of the world!--MISS BURNEY. 16. Their departure made another material change at Mansfield. 17. The appearance of a housemaid prevented any further conversation. 18. Each word of this leave-taking was overheard by Kezia. 19. Before nine o’clock next morning the two canoes were installed on a light country cart. 20. An old harper was summoned from the servants’ hall. 21. He had been wounded at Waterloo. 22. This advice struck the disputants dumb. 23. Through the night were heard the mysterious sounds of the desert. 24. A violent storm of rain obliged them to take shelter in an inn. 25. Far was heard the fox’s yell.--SCOTT. 26. Adams highly commended the doctor’s opinion.

4. Rewrite the following sentences, changing the form of the verbs from active to passive, or from passive to active. Notice the effect upon subjects and objects.

1. I was brought up by my uncle. 2. I have found them. 3. We were delayed by the storm. 4. They were warned by the pilot. 5. She saw us. 6. That winter will never be forgotten by any of us. 7. You surprise me. 8. Will you meet me? 9. Was he struck by a bullet? 10. Have you forgotten me? 11. How the crowd cheered him! 12. Tom, the blacksmith, makes horseshoes. 13. The schooner was run down by the steamship. 14. The old man has opened a little shop. 15. Mary has invited Ellen. 16. Mary might have invited Ellen. 17. Mary will invite Ellen. 18. The storm has made great havoc along the coast. 19. The children have been called home by their nurse. 20. He vexes me. 21. The tower was struck by lightning yesterday. 22. A policeman helped her over the crossing. 23. I was amused by your letter.

5. Use each of the following verbs in both the active and the passive of the past, the future, and the perfect (or present perfect):--_send_, _bring_, _teach_, _drink_, _get_, _set_, _lay_, _leave_, _find_, _forget_.

6. Use each of the verbs in § 105 in the active voice of the past tense with both a direct and an indirect object. Change to the passive.

EXERCISE 34

(§§ 255–261, pp. 113–114)

1. Point out all the progressive and all the emphatic verb-phrases. Mention the tense and voice of each. Note any instances where _do_ and _did_ are not emphatic.

1. Thus did the long sad years glide on. 2. Now pray do settle in England. 3. Meanwhile, I go about in my little ship, where I do think I have two honest fellows to deal with. 4. I remember. I do indeed remember--too well! 5. Not until it was broad daylight did I quit the haunted house. 6. Do but look on her eyes. 7. Roland reached the boat just as the gang plank was being hauled in. 8. We are being entertained by the Archers. 9. The man at our wheel was spinning his spokes desperately to avoid banging into vessels we could not see, but whose bells were ringing everywhere about us. 10. Wild weeds are gathering on the wall. 11. I did actually pick up a French crown piece, worth about a dollar and six cents, near high-water mark. 12. I was loitering about the old gray cloisters of Westminster Abbey. 13. The friends of Coningsby were now hourly arriving. 14. My eyes have been leaving me in the lurch again.

15. They had been for some time passing through narrow gorges of the mountains, along the edges of a tumbling stream. 16. We are just sitting down to dinner with a pleasant party. 17. The large Newfoundland house-dog was standing by the door. 18. “Do thou,” said Bertram, “lead the way.”--SCOTT. 19. Music in his ears his beating heart did make. 20. Over the hillsides the wild knell is tolling.--HOLMES.

2. Write sentences in which the verb _teach_ is used in the present progressive, past progressive, future progressive, perfect progressive, pluperfect progressive, and future perfect progressive tenses of the active voice.

3. Write ten questions containing some form of _do_ (or _did_).

EXERCISE 35

(§§ 262–286, pp. 115–123)

Point out all the verbs in the imperative or the subjunctive mood. Tell the subjects of the imperatives and explain the forms and uses of the subjunctives.

1. And now dispatch we toward the court, my lords.--SHAKSPERE. 2. I think you had better speak to Lady Corisande yourself (§ 285). 3. My dear boy, God bless thee a thousand times over! 4. O that the desert were my dwelling place! 5. “Rest we here,” Matilda said.--SCOTT. 6. Go where thy destiny calls thee. 7. Now Hesper guide my feet.--AKENSIDE. 8. O that such hills upheld a freeborn race!--BYRON. 9. Perish those riches which are acquired at the expense of my honor or my humanity!--GOLDSMITH. 10. Would all were well! but that will never be.--SHAKSPERE. 11. The distaff were more fitting for you. 12. Robert hesitated, as if he were inclined to refuse. 13. Do what they might, the hook was in their gills.--GEORGE MEREDITH. 14. Fare you well, fair gentlemen.--SHAKSPERE. 15. Suffice it to say, the robbers were defeated. 16. Disclose thy treachery, or die! 17. Let us not be influenced by any angry feelings. 18. Be that as it may, Kidd never returned to recover his wealth.

19. I would to God my heart were flint, like Edward’s.--SHAKSPERE. 20. Move we on.--SCOTT. 21. Mark that the signal-gun be duly fired.--BYRON. 22. The hull drives on, though mast and sail be torn. 23. I am glad that you liked my song, and, if I liked the others myself so well as that I sent you, I would transcribe them for you also.--COWPER. 24. I beseech you, punish me not with your hard thoughts.--SHAKSPERE. 25. If there be change, no change I see.--LANDOR. 26. Be it as thou wilt. 27. Weep you no more, sad fountains. 28. If thou leave thy father, he will die.--WORDSWORTH. 29. Come thou no more for ransom, gentle herald.--SHAKSPERE. 30. Learn thou his purpose. 31. Come, go we in procession to the village.--SHAKSPERE. 32. The destruction of property which took place within a few weeks would be incredible, if it were not attested by witnesses unconnected with each other and attached to very different interests.

33. I wish I were as I have been, Hunting the hart in forest green.--SCOTT.

34. Come what come may, Time and the hour runs through the roughest day.--SHAKSPERE.

35. Buried be all that has been done, Or say that naught is done amiss.--CRABBE.

EXERCISE 36

(§§ 272–286, pp. 118–123)

Fill each blank with a verb in the appropriate form.

1. O that he ---- here!

2. Would that I ---- there!

3. If he ---- a little older, I should take him into partnership.

4. ---- you asked me to go, I should have refused.

5. ---- you to ask me, I should refuse.

6. If you ---- there, I should have seen you.

7. I am glad I saw the play, even if I ---- a little disappointed.

8. I should have been glad to see the play, even if I ---- a little disappointed.

9. I should be glad to see the play, even if I ---- a little disappointed.

10. I shall be glad to see the play, even if I ---- a little disappointed.

11. Though he ---- to increase my salary, I should not remain in his employ. [Use the copula.]

12. Unless he ---- to increase my salary, I should not remain in his employ. [Use the copula.]

13. When Tom saw you, you looked as if you ---- angry. [Use the copula.]

14. When Tom sees you, I suppose you will look as if you ---- angry.

15. I must remind him to post this letter, lest he ---- it.

EXERCISE 37

(§§ 287–295, pp. 124–127)

Explain the meaning of each potential verb-phrase, and parse the phrase. In parsing such a phrase, describe it merely as a potential verb-phrase and tell the tense, voice, person, and number, without assigning it to any mood.

1. Enough! You may depart. 2. Men should travel. 3. What must be shall be. That’s a certain text.--SHAKSPERE. 4. At times, with a strong effort, he would glance at the open door which still seemed to repel his eyes. 5. Nothing can bring you peace but yourself.--EMERSON. 6. It was sometimes sad enough to watch him as he sat alone. He would have a book near him, and for a while would keep it in his hands.--TROLLOPE. 7. O, my friend! may I believe you? May I speak to you? 8. Presently he faced Adrian, crying, “And I might have stopped it!” 9. Nothing is impossible to the man who can will.--EMERSON. 10. A scholar may be a well-bred man, or he may not.--EMERSON. 11. “I trust we’re at liberty to enter,” said the elder lady with urbanity. “We were told that we might come at any time.” 12. I sent for you that I might have your counsel and assistance. 13. I could no longer doubt the doom prepared for me.

14. I am as well as I can expect to be under the excitement which I suffer. 15. I can become a party to no such absurd proceeding. 16. I could scarcely refrain from tears. 17. Come! we must go back. 18. We must be strangers to each other in future. 19. As my horse must now have eaten his provender, I must needs thank you for your good cheer, and pray you to show me this man’s residence, that I may have the means of proceeding on my journey.

EXERCISE 38

(§§ 289–291, pp. 125–126)

1. Fill each blank with _can_ or _may_.

1. ---- I borrow your pen?

2. Yes, you ----.

3. No, you ---- not.

4. I ---- swim across this river some day, for I know well enough that I ----.

5. I shall ask my father if I ---- swim across this river. I know well enough that I ----.

6. My father is confident that I ---- swim across the river safely.

7. My father says that I ---- swim across the river if I will wait until he ---- go with me.

8. ---- I trouble you to give me that tennis racket?

9. It ---- be that you will regret this.

10. It ---- not be that you will regret this.

11. ---- you take a vacation this year, or is permission still refused?

12. Why not ask if you ---- take a vacation?

13. You ---- take your vacation after I have taken mine.

14. The weather man says we ---- hope for sunshine to-morrow.

15. He ---- be thankful that he escaped so easily.

16. When you are twenty-one, you ---- have your own way.

2. Write sentences asking permission in the first, second, and third persons. Write sentences (1) granting these requests; (2) refusing them.

EXERCISE 39

(§§ 297–308, pp. 127–132)

1. Justify the use of the auxiliary (_should_ or _would_). In some of the sentences, _should_ might be substituted for _would_. Which are they?

1. If I were you, I would not dwell too much on this fancy of yours. 2. I have neither servants nor clothes, and, if it had not been for these good people, I should not have had food. 3. I should delight in having her for a sister-in-law. 4. I should hardly wish to go out before Friday. 5. I shouldn’t wonder if this made him set his teeth. 6. Well, that’s over! and I’m sure neither Oliver nor I would go through it again for a million of money. 7. If I were you, I would turn it over in my mind. 8. I should be afraid to express myself in this manner, if the matter were not clear and indisputable.--BURKE. 9. I should like to remain where I am for another week or ten days. 10. Would you do me the favor to look at a few specimens of my portrait-painting?--DICKENS. 11. “Would you come?” she said, with a serious, searching glance, and in a kind of coaxing manner.--“I should be an intruder, my dear lady,” said Theodore, declining the suggestion.--DISRAELI.

12. I should not like to be out of my seat were the House in session.--W. J. LOCKE. 13. If I were you I would not tempt Fate by remaining here a day longer.--W. E. NORRIS. 14. Candidates would rather, I suppose, climb in at a window than be absolutely excluded.--COWPER. 15. Impey would not hear of mercy or delay. 16. I should not be surprised if he were here immediately. 17. There’s a plantation of sugar-canes at the foot of that rock: should you like to look?--GEORGE ELIOT.

2. Explain the use of the auxiliary (_shall_, _should_, or _will_, _would_) in each subordinate clause.

1. With this purpose in view, he sent a skilful architect to build him such a palace as should be fit for a man of his vast wealth to live in. 2. Their majesties commanded me to submit to whatever Bobadilla should order in their name. 3. Should you find yourself able to push on to Braemar, your visit will be most welcome. 4. It’s a simple affair enough, if you’ll just leave it as it stands. 5. Fearing to awaken Joseph a second time, lest he should again hazard all by his thoughtlessness, he crept softly out of the wigwam. 6. I watched the grapes from day to day till they should have secreted sugar enough from the sunbeams. 7. If an old prophecy should come to pass, we may see a man, some time or other, with exactly such a face as that. 8. He kept his heart continually open, and thus was sure to catch the blessing from on high, when it should come.--HAWTHORNE. 9. This law provided that the presidency of Bengal should exercise a control over the other possessions of the Company. 10. It is time that we should proceed.

11. It is necessary that he should have some work to do. 12. I shall be thankful if you will condescend to enlighten my ignorance. 13. It was natural that the leading authors should affect a style of levity and derision.--JEFFREY. 14. I will take care that you shall not be troubled by him again. 15. That the Duke of Wellington should cordially approve is singular enough. 16. “Boys,” interrupted Wilder, “it is now proper that you should know something of my future movements.”--COOPER. 17. We all stood ready to succor them if there should be occasion.--DEFOE. 18. You are so well qualified for the task yourself that it is impossible you should need any assistance; at least, it is hardly possible that I should afford you any.--COWPER. 19. The brave sufferer refused to purchase liberty, though liberty to him would have been life, by recognizing the authority which had confined him. 20. I meant that he should walk off, but he did not choose to understand me. 21. When time shall serve, you shall have the fruit of my labors.--COWPER.

22. I shall be so glad if you will tell me what to read.--GEORGE ELIOT. 23. I protest against such a combat, until the king of England shall have repaid the fifty thousand bezants.--SCOTT. 24. Unless something should go wrong, I flatter myself that the performance will elicit your generous approbation. 25. A seat in the cabinet was offered to him, on condition that he would give efficient support to the ministry in Parliament. 26. The proposition which he made was, that Fox should be Secretary of State.

27. That night he put forth a proclamation, directing that the posts should be stopped, and that no person should, at his peril, venture to harbor the accused members.--MACAULAY. 28. Hyde interfered, and proposed that the question should be divided. 29. I am sorry that you should be bothered in this way. 30. I am sorry that Murray should groan on my account.--BYRON. 31. There are old brass andirons, waiting until time shall revenge them on their paltry substitutes. 32. Should he be acquitted, that, I imagine, should end the matter. 33. A rumor was circulated that some new pageant was about to be exhibited, which should put a fitting close to the splendid festivities. 34. If this new purpose of conquest shall be abandoned, Richard may yet become King of Jerusalem by compact.--SCOTT. 35. Saladin desires no converts save those whom the holy prophet shall dispose to submit themselves to his law. 36. Pride now came to Montezuma’s aid, and, since he must go, he preferred that it should appear to be with his own free will. 37. God forbid that I should regret those gifts!

EXERCISE 40

(§§ 309–323, pp. 132–137)

1. Point out each infinitive and explain its construction as noun, as complementary infinitive, as infinitive of purpose, as modifier of a noun or an adjective, or as part of a verb-phrase (with an auxiliary).

2. Point out any modifiers or objects of infinitives.

1. To advance toward London would have been madness. 2. To trace the exact boundary between rightful and wrongful resistance is impossible.--MACAULAY. 3. I was too young to keep any journal of this voyage. 4. The baron hastened to receive his future son-in-law. 5. It was her habit to go over to the deanery (§ 318). 6. He could not consent to turn his back upon a party of helpless travellers. 7. The fixed purpose of these men was to break the foreign yoke. 8. Here rise no cliffs the vale to shade. 9. They saw the gleaming river seaward flow (§ 322). 10. She perceived one of the eyes of the portrait move. 11. His first scheme was to seize Bristol. 12. The first business of the Commons was to elect a Speaker. 13. The old man frequently stretched his eyes ahead to gaze over the tract that he had yet to traverse. 14. When other things sank brooding to sleep, the heath appeared slowly to awake and listen.--HARDY. 15. All were anxious to hear the story of the mysterious picture. 16. I see the lights of the village gleam through the rain and the mist. 17. Then the bishop rose from his chair to speak.

18. To dismiss him from his high post was to emancipate him from all restraint. 19. This is not a time to hesitate. 20. Burghers hastened to man the wall. 21. I felt Leslie’s hand tremble on my arm. 22. He heard a mighty bowstring twang.--MORRIS. 23. Mr. Ralph Nickleby sat in his private office one morning, ready dressed to walk abroad. 24. I put down the letters, and began to muse over their contents. 25. Waves of clear sea are, indeed, lovely to watch. 26. Halifax had now nothing to give. 27. The neighborhood seemed to breathe a tranquil prosperity. 28. It is always perilous to adopt expediency as a guide. 29. Soldiers were drawn up to keep the passage clear.

3. Write sentences containing an infinitive used as subject, as predicate nominative, as appositive, as the object of a preposition, as an adjective; a complementary infinitive; an infinitive of purpose; an infinitive used with _shall_, with _will_, with _must_.

4. Note any modifiers or objects that you have used with the infinitives.

EXERCISE 41

(§§ 324–328, pp. 137–139)

1. Point out each infinitive clause. Mention the verb of which it is the object. Find the subject of each infinitive. When it is possible, substitute a _that_-clause for the infinitive clause.

1. It might seem irreverent to make the gray cathedral and the tall time-worn palaces echo back the exuberant vociferation of the market. 2. We have made you wait. 3. We then went to Pembroke College, and waited on his old friend Dr. Adams, the master of it, whom I found to be a most polite, pleasing, communicative man.--BOSWELL. 4. The doctor expects Captain Starbuck to recover. 5. For a good sailor to foul the first buoy was ludicrous enough. 6. Will you ask Annie to feed the parrot? 7. I believe it to be a speaking likeness. 8. I suppose them to be utterly ignorant of their own condition.

9. Hepzibah bade her young guest sit down. 10. Calamity and peril often force men to combine. 11. He knew himself to be a liar whom nobody trusted. 12. I must not ask the reader to suppose that he was cheerful. 13. I felt this melancholy to be infectious. 14. No one on seeing Mr. Crawley took him to be a happy man, or a weak man, or an ignorant man, or a wise man.--TROLLOPE. 15. Humanity impelled him to rescue the poor wretch.

2. Write sentences containing infinitive clauses used after verbs of _wishing_, _commanding_, _believing_, _declaring_, _perceiving_.

3. Fill each blank with a personal pronoun.

1. He believes the author to be ----. [First person.]

2. He believes that the author is ----. [First person.]

3. I knew the thief to be ----. [Third person.]

4. I thought that the thief was ----. [Third person.]

5. We thought the strangers to be ----. [Third person.]

6. We thought that the strangers were ----. [Third person.]

4. Fill each blank with _who_ or _whom_.

1. The man ---- I believe to be responsible for this accident is the engineer.

2. I believe that the man ---- is responsible for this accident is the engineer.

3. My knock was answered by a lad ---- I believed to be a lodger.

4. You are not the person ---- I believed you to be.

EXERCISE 42

(§§ 329–343, pp. 140–143)

1. Point out all the participles, present and past, and tell what substantive each modifies. Mention such as are used as pure adjectives. Mention any modifiers or objects of participles.

1. The ship is anchored safe and sound, its voyage closed and done.--WHITMAN. 2. Even the tight windows and the heavy silken curtains drawn close could not shut out the sound of the driving sleet. 3. Godolphin was not a reading man. 4. Mr. Sikes, dragging Oliver after him, elbowed his way through the thickest of the crowd. 5. Betrayed, deserted, disorganized, unprovided with resources, begirt with enemies, the noble city was still no easy conquest. 6. Thus regretted and cautioned on all hands, Mordaunt took leave of the hospitable household. 7. Far away, an angry white stain undulating on the surface of steely-gray waters, shot with gleams of green, diminished swiftly, without a hiss, like a patch of pure snow melting in the sun.--CONRAD. 8. I set her on my pacing steed.--KEATS.

9. But the poor traveller paused here barely for a minute, and then went on, stumbling through the mud, striking his ill-covered feet against the rough stones in the dark, sweating in his weakness, almost tottering at times, and calculating whether his remaining strength would serve to carry him home.--TROLLOPE. 10. His teeth are set, his hand is clenched. 11. Passing through the ravine, they came to a hollow, like a small amphitheatre. 12. He found the house gone to decay--the roof fallen in, the windows shattered, and the doors off the hinges. 13. And now, sir, when you next go to the British Museum, look for a poet named Vaughan. 14. A heavy sea struck us on our starboard quarter, almost throwing us on our beam-ends. 15. He stood chuckling and rubbing his hands, and scarcely hearing a word the parson said. 16. The light struggles dimly through windows darkened by dust. 17. We sailed merrily forward for several days, meeting with nothing to interrupt us.

2. Write sentences containing the past participles of six weak verbs; of six strong verbs.

3. Write sentences containing a participle used as a pure adjective; a participle used as a predicate adjective; a participle modified adverbially; a participle taking an object.

4. Write ten sentences each containing a perfect participle. Substitute for each a clause introduced by _when_.

EXERCISE 43

(§§ 344–346, p. 144)

Explain all examples of the nominative absolute. Substitute a modifying clause in each sentence.

1. A carriage, drawn by half a dozen horses, came driving at a furious rate, the postilions smacking their whips like mad. 2. As far as the eye could reach, the sea in every direction was of a deep blue color, the waves running high and fresh, and sparkling in the light. 3. For some years past there had been a difficulty about the rent, things not having gone at the Dragon of Wantly as smoothly as they had used to go. 4. He began to talk rapidly, all diffidence subdued. 5. Noon coming, and the Doctor not returning, Mr. Lorry advised with Lucie. 6. The second mate falling ill during the passage, I was promoted to officer of the watch. 7. The dog now roused himself and sat on his haunches, his ears moving quickly backward and forward. 8. This done, Mazeppa spread his cloak. 9. She was seated alone, her arms on the table, her head bent down. 10. There being some time upon his hands, he left his luggage at the cloak-room, and went on foot along Bedford Street to the church.

EXERCISE 44

(§§ 347–353, pp. 145–147)

1. Point out the present participles, and also the verbal nouns in _-ing_ (participial nouns). Show the difference. Mention any modifiers or complements used with either.

1. The consternation was extreme. Some were for closing the gates and resisting; some for submitting; some for temporizing. 2. A troop of strange children ran at his heels, hooting after him, and pointing at his gray head. 3. The wicket opened on a stone staircase leading upward. 4. Watching and toil were to me pleasure, for my body was strong, and my spirits winged. 5. The lingerings of decent pride were visible in her appearance. 6. His deep bass voice had a quavering in it, his eyes looked dim, and the lines on his face were deep. 7. There were several French privateers hovering on the coast. 8. He does not like talking of these matters to strangers. 9. Miss Matty cared much more for the circumstance of her being a very good card-player. 10. His discourse was broken off by his man’s telling him he had called a coach. 11. Swallows and martens skimmed twittering about the eaves. 12. I have loved, lived with, and left the sea without ever seeing a ship’s tall fabric of sticks, cobwebs, and gossamer go by the board.--CONRAD.

13. The sexton was a meek, acquiescing little man, of a bowing, lowly habit; yet he had a pleasant twinkling in his eye. 14. The rain always made a point of setting in just as he had some outdoor work to do. 15. I have been employed this morning in composing a Latin motto for the king’s clock. 16. Two more of the boats were lost by being stove and swamped alongside. 17. I heard the ripple washing in the reeds. 18. After wandering through two or three streets, I found my way to Shakspere’s birthplace. 19. Rip’s heart died away at hearing of these sad changes in his home and friends. 20. The fish did not bite freely, and we frequently changed our fishing ground without bettering our luck. 21. Lady Niton sat blinking and speechless. 22. I cannot help hearing things, and reading things, and observing things, and they fill me with disquietude. 23. Here was circumstance after circumstance goading me onward. 24. I sat staring at a book of my own making. 25. That thought actually drove out of my head the more pressing danger.

2. Write sentences in which (1) a verbal noun and (2) a present participle are formed from--

run, hunt, leap, swim, strike, find, speak, sing, shout, play, skate, blow, spend, listen, eat, move, translate, recite, murmur, whisper, read, talk, complain, paint, build, give, breathe, teach, flow, shine.

3. Whenever it is possible, substitute either a noun or an infinitive for each verbal noun in your sentences.

4. Select three of these verbal nouns, and write other sentences in which each is used (1) as a subject, (2) with a direct and an indirect object, (3) with an adjective modifier, (4) with an adverbial modifier.

EXERCISE 45

(§§ 354–371, pp. 148–154)

1. Point out and parse the prepositions and conjunctions.

In parsing a preposition, tell (1) the object, and (2) the word to which the preposition shows the relation of the object.

In parsing a conjunction, indicate the words or groups of words which it connects, tell whether it is coördinate or subordinate, and mention its correlative (§ 369) if it has one.

1. Neither witch nor warlock crossed Mordaunt’s path. 2. But I will be bolder, and do not doubt to make it good, though a paradox, that one great reason why prose is not to be used in serious plays, is, because it is too near the nature of converse.--DRYDEN. 3. All down that immense vista of gloomy arches there was one blaze of scarlet and gold. 4. No doubt, something of Shakspere’s punning must be attributed to his age, in which direct and formal combats of wit were a favorite pastime of the courtly and accomplished.--COLERIDGE. 5. Bodily labor is of two kinds: either that which a man submits to for his livelihood, or that which he undergoes for his pleasure.--ADDISON. 6. Early upon the morrow the march was resumed. 7. The camp was broken up, and the troops were sent to quarters in different parts of the country. 8. My attention was called off for a moment by the cries of birds and the bleatings of sheep. 9. This is well to be weighed, that boldness is ever blind, for it seeth not dangers and inconveniences.--BACON. 10. At a little distance from Sir Roger’s house, among the ruins of an old abbey, there is a long walk of aged elms. 11. Then I sent you the Greek instead of the Persian whom you asked for?--FITZ GERALD. 12. Rowland’s allowance at college was barely sufficient to maintain him decently, and, his degree nevertheless achieved, he was taken into his father’s counting-house to do small drudgery on a proportionate stipend.

13. Though this lady never expressed an idea, Richard was not mistaken in her cleverness. 14. If I am tired, your letter will refresh me. 15. The young ladies however, and Mr. Pecksniff likewise, remained in the very best of spirits in spite of these severe trials, though with something of a mysterious understanding among themselves. 16. He went along almost gaily, nor felt the fatigue of the road.

2. Write sentences in which, the following words are used as indicated:--

for (_preposition_, _conjunction_), then (_conjunction_, _adverb_), notwithstanding (_preposition_, _conjunction_), since (_preposition_, _adverb_, _relative adverb_), until (_preposition_, _relative adverb_), as (_conjunction_, _relative pronoun_, _relative adverb_), that (_conjunction_, _relative pronoun_, _demonstrative adjective_, _demonstrative pronoun_), but (_preposition_, _conjunction_).

3. Construct sentences containing _either_ and _or_, _neither_ and _nor_, _whether_ and _or_, _not only_ and _but also_, _both_ and _and_, _though_, _if_, _because_.

4. Construct six sentences containing coördinate conjunctions; six containing subordinate conjunctions; six containing relative adverbs.

EXERCISE 46

(§§ 372–375, pp. 155–156)

Point out all interjections, all other parts of speech used here in exclamation, and all exclamatory phrases.

1. Ring the alarum-bell! Murder and treason!--SHAKSPERE. 2. Kipling is by far the most promising young man who has appeared since--ahem--I appeared.--STEVENSON. 3. O, to be in England! 4. “Courage!” he said, and pointed toward the land.--TENNYSON. 5. Ah! my lord Arthur, whither shall I go? 6. Alas for my credulous fancy! 7. Tut, man! we must take things as they come. 8. O day, the last of all my bliss on earth!--MARLOWE. 9. Adieu, fair Cadiz! yea, a long adieu!--BYRON. 10. Peace, sister, peace! 11. Fie, fie, my brother! 12. How now, Thersites? what, lost in the labyrinth of thy fury? 13. Farewell for the present, my dear sir. 14. O Jupiter! how weary are my spirits!--SHAKSPERE. 15. Guilty, my lord, guilty! I confess, I confess! 16. Hence, you long-legg’d spinners, hence! 17. O monstrous! O strange! we are haunted! 18. Faith, he is gone unto the taming school. 19. But, soft! whom have we here?

20. A Tory! a Tory! a spy! a refugee! hustle him! away with him! 21. What! this gentleman will outtalk us all. 22. Up, up, Glentarkin! rouse thee, ho!--SCOTT. 23. And now good-bye, my dear fellow. 24. Ahem! you remember, friend? Grand triumphs those, eh?

EXERCISE 47

(§§ 376–392, pp. 157–162)

1. Construct ten sentences in which the simple subject (noun or pronoun) is modified by an adjective clause; ten in which the simple predicate is modified by an adverbial clause.

2. Tell the construction (as subject, predicate nominative, object, etc.) of each noun clause in § 392. Mention the simple subject and predicate of each clause.

EXERCISE 48

(§§ 395–402, pp. 163–165)

1. Tell whether each of the subordinate clauses expresses place, time, cause, or concession. Is the clause adjective or adverbial? What introduces it? What does it modify?

1. Though often misled by prejudice and passion, he was emphatically an honest man. 2. When a prisoner first leaves his cell, he cannot bear the light of day. 3. As I walked through the wilderness of this world, I lighted on a certain place where was a den.--BUNYAN. 4. He postponed his final decision till after the Parliament should have reassembled. 5. They gave a dismal croak or two, and hopped aside into the darkest corner, since it was not yet their hour to flap duskily abroad. 6. Calmly and sadly she waited, until the procession approached her. 7. Half the task was not done when the sun went down. 8. However I might be disposed to trust his probity, I dare not trust his prejudices. 9. After a little more conversation we strolled to the stable, where my horse was standing. 10. As we approached the house, we heard the sound of music, and now and then a burst of laughter. 11. His face was not cruel, though it was desperate.

12. We again set out for the hut, at which we deposited our golden burdens. 13. It will be midnight before we arrive at our inn. 14. Though I was not particularly well supplied with money, I had enough for the expenses of my journey. 15. The day, though it began brightly, had long been overcast. 16. As there were no men in the company, the girls danced with each other. 17. Although without fear, I did not neglect to use all proper precautions. 18. When I return, I shall find things settled. 19. Clifford, as the company partook of their little banquet, grew to be the gayest of them all. 20. The mill where Will lived with his adopted parents stood in a falling valley between pinewoods and great mountains. 21. As Ichabod approached this fearful tree, he began to whistle. 22. Infected be the air whereon they ride!--SHAKSPERE. 23. So they were forced to go, because he was stronger than they.

24. Since you will not help me, I must trust to myself. 25. When they beheld his face, they recognized Basil the blacksmith. 26. This is the third day since we came to Rome. 27. Amsterdam was the place where the leading Scotch and English assembled. 28. These considerations might well have made William uneasy, even if all the military means of the United Provinces had been at his absolute disposal. 29. Although the breeze had now utterly ceased, we had made a great deal of way during the night.

2. Illustrate clauses of place, time, cause, and concession, by constructing twenty sentences, five for each.

3. Tell whether the clauses are adjective or adverbial. What does each modify?

4. See if you can replace your clauses of time by participles or adverbial phrases.

EXERCISE 49

(§§ 403–410, pp. 166–167)

1. Point out the clauses of purpose and those of result.

1. The weather was so bad I could not embark that night. 2. She opened the casement that the cool air might blow upon her throbbing temples. 3. So intent were the servants upon their sports, that we had to ring repeatedly before we could make ourselves heard. 4. The consequence was that, according to the rules of the House, the amendment was lost. 5. Therefore I am going this way, as I told you, that I may be rid of my burden. 6. Tess’s friends lived so far off that none could conveniently have been present at the ceremony. 7. Sometimes I was afraid lest I should be charged with ingratitude. 8. There is such an echo among the old ruins and vaults that, if you stamp but a little louder than ordinary, you hear the sound repeated.--ADDISON. 9. They durst not speak without premeditation, lest they should be convicted of discontent or sorrow. 10. My purpose was, to admit no testimony of living authors, that I might not be misled by partiality, and that none of my contemporaries might have reason to complain.--JOHNSON. 11. It is King Richard’s pleasure that you die undegraded.

2. Write five sentences containing each a clause of purpose; of result; an infinitive clause expressing purpose.

3. Write ten sentences in which the infinitive (without a subject) expresses purpose.

4. Review Exercise 40.

EXERCISE 50

(§§ 411–427, pp. 167–172)

1. Tell whether the conditional clauses in the following sentences are non-committal or contrary to fact, and whether they represent present, past, or future condition.

1. Should Hayley be with you, tell him I have given my friend Mr. Rose an introductory letter to him. 2. If the judgment against him was illegal, it ought to have been reversed. If it was legal, there was no ground for remitting any part of it. 3. If I ever saw horror in the human face, it was there. 4. His affliction would have been insupportable, had not he been comforted by the daily visits and conversations of his friend. 5. We perish if they hear a shot.--SCOTT. 6. Can Freedom breathe if Ignorance reign?--HOLMES. 7. If power be in the hands of men, it will sometimes be abused. 8. If hopes were dupes, fears may be liars.--CLOUGH. 9. If you write to Moore, will you tell him that I shall answer his letter the moment I can muster time and spirits? 10. If you have any good news to tell, it will not be unwelcome; if any bad, you need not be afraid. 11. I feel quite as much bored with this foolery as it deserves, and more than I should be, if I had not a headache. 12. Will you let me offer you this little book? If I had anything better, it should be yours.

13. I shall hope, if we can agree as to dates, to come to you sometime in May. 14. If I could only get to work, we could live here with comfort. 15. If he had been left to himself, he would have whistled life away in perfect contentment. 16. If this frolic should lay me up with a fit of rheumatism, I shall have a blessed time with Dame Van Winkle. 17. I know that two and two make four, and should be glad to prove it, if I could,--though, I must say, if by any sort of process I could convert two and two into five, it would give me much greater pleasure.--BYRON. 18. I would not say this if I could help it. 19. If you are disposed to write--write; and if not, I shall forgive your silence, and you will not quarrel with mine. 20. Had not exercise been absolutely necessary for our well-being, nature would not have made the body so proper for it.--ADDISON. 21. Nothing will ever be attempted, if all possible objections must first be overcome.--JOHNSON. 22. If fashion gives the word, every distinction of beauty, complexion, or stature ceases.--GOLDSMITH.

2. Write twenty sentences, each containing a conditional clause. Tell whether each condition refers to present, past, or future time. Which of them are contrary to fact?

EXERCISE 51

(§§ 428–429, p. 173)

1. Point out the clauses of comparison and explain such forms of verbs or pronouns as may require comment.

1. Dull as a flower without the sun, he sat down upon a stone. 2. He sighed as if he would break his heart. 3. The modern steamship advances upon a still and overshadowed sea with a pulsating tremor of her frame, an occasional clang in her depths, as if she had an iron heart in her iron body.--CONRAD. 4. It would have been as difficult, however, to follow up the stream of Donatello’s ancestry to its dim source, as travellers have found it to reach the mysterious fountains of the Nile. 5. I will become as liberal as you. 6. The triumph was as destructive to the victorious as to the vanquished. 7. The public conduct of Milton must be approved or condemned, according as the resistance of the people to Charles the First shall appear to be justifiable or criminal. 8. There was no one in all Clavering who read so many novels as Madame Fribsby. 9. No kind of power is more formidable than the power of making men ridiculous.--MACAULAY.

10. The leader of the orchestra was sawing away at his violin as savagely as if he were calling on his company to rush up and seize a battery of guns.--BLACK. 11. He shouts as if he were trying his voice against a northwest gale of wind. 12. The playground seemed smaller than when I used to sport about it. 13. The blood in me ran cold, and I drew in my breath as if I had been struck. 14. There are few things more formidable than the unwonted anger of a good-natured man.--MILLER. 15. Nor was Lochiel less distinguished by intellectual than by bodily vigor. 16. He showed less wisdom than virtue. 17. He was as courageous an animal as ever scoured the woods. 18. As fierce a beak and talon as ever struck--as strong a wing as ever beat, belonged to Swift.--THACKERAY.

19. Homer’s description of war had as much truth as poetry requires.--MACAULAY. 20. Of all the objects I have ever seen, there is none which affects my imagination so much as the sea.--ADDISON. 21. “Somebody must go,” murmured Mrs. Heathcliff, more kindly than I expected. 22. We do not so often disappoint others as ourselves.--JOHNSON. 23. The battle raged as fiercely on the lake as on the land. 24. The young man looked down on me from the corner of his eyes, for all the world as if there were some mortal feud unavenged between us.--E. BRONTË.

2. Write ten sentences containing _as if_ with a subjunctive.

3. Insert personal pronouns of the first or third person.

1. You are much stronger than ----.

2. Your anger hurts yourself more than it hurts ----.

3. You are not so studious as ----.

4. He was quite as much to blame as ----.

5. I blame myself rather than ----.

6. You should rather blame yourself than ----.

7. How much older are you than ----?

8. Is Jack more ambitious than ----?

9. Do you wish to please yourself more than ----?

10. Your conduct was less censurable than ----.

EXERCISE 52

(§§ 430–436, pp. 173–176)

1. Change the direct statements to indirect discourse, prefixing _He said_. Thus,--

Supper was announced shortly after my arrival.

He said that supper was announced shortly after his arrival.

Be careful to make the proper changes in person and tense.

1. Supper was announced shortly after my arrival. 2. Misery loves company. 3. Iron floats in mercury. 4. The grime and sordidness of the House of the Seven Gables seem to have vanished. 5. Nothing is to be seen. 6. Straws show which way the wind blows. 7. I remained undecided whether or not to follow my servant. 8. Rest of mind and body seems to have reëstablished my health. 9. The fortifications consist of a simple wall overgrown with grass and weeds. 10. Fire is a good servant but a bad master. 11. Not a cheer was heard; not a member ventured to second the motion. 12. The most rigid discipline is maintained. 13. Without our consent, such an expedition cannot legally be undertaken. 14. The newspapers will happily save me the trouble of relating minute particulars.

15. The ringing of bells is at an end; the rumbling of the carriages has ceased; the pattering of feet is heard no more. 16. My mind has been much disturbed, and too agitated for conversation. 17. While all this is taking place within the Towers, vast bodies of people are assembling without. 18. The spelling and handwriting are those of a man imperfectly educated. 19. I have an unconquerable repugnance to return to my chamber. 20. I like to see a man know his own mind.

2. Change into a direct statement each clause that is in the indirect discourse. Mention the construction of the clause (as subject, object, etc.).

1. The booming of a gun told them that the last yacht had rounded the lightship. 2. All of a sudden she thought she heard something move behind her. 3. Though they spoke French fluently, I perceived that it was not their native language. 4. I soon found that, in making the acquaintance of the young man, I had indeed made a valuable acquisition. 5. I thanked him, but said that Dr. Johnson had come with me from London, and I must return to the inn and drink tea with him; that my name was Boswell, and I had travelled with him in the Hebrides. 6. I discovered that he was wonderfully fond of interfering with other people’s business. 7. I had heard that he had been unhappy, that he had roamed about, a fevered, distempered man, taking pleasure in nothing. 8. I had observed that the old woman for some time past had shown much less anxiety about the book. 9. I learned that times had gone hard with her. 10. I perceived that the objects which had excited my curiosity were not trees, but immense upright stones.

11. That no man can legally promise what he cannot legally perform is a self-evident proposition.--MACKINTOSH. 12. That there are some duties superior to others will be denied by no one. 13. It can hardly be doubted that the highest obligation of a citizen is that of contributing to preserve the community. 14. Reports had been brought back that six Christians were lingering in captivity in the interior of the country. 15. If it be true that, by giving our confidence by halves, we can scarcely hope to make a friend, it is equally true that, by withdrawing it when given, we shall make an enemy.--PRESCOTT. 16. He concluded with the assurance that the whole fleet would sail on the following day. 17. Pen protested that he had not changed in the least.

3. Write five sentences in which indirect discourse is expressed by an infinitive clause (§ 435).

EXERCISE 53

(§ 436, p. 176)

1. Change each of the sentences quoted at the end of § 436 into one of the other two passive constructions described in that section.

2. Write ten sentences in each of which a clause in the indirect discourse is the subject of a passive verb.

EXERCISE 54

(§§ 438–439, pp. 177–178)

1. Explain the use of _shall_, _should_, _will_, or _would_ in each instance. Change the indirect discourse to the direct.

1. I believe I should like to live in a small house just outside a pleasant English town all the days of my life.--FITZ GERALD. 2. The sultan said he would oblige us with donkeys or anything else if we would only give him a few more pretty cloths.--SPEKE. 3. I think that I should like it to be always summer. 4. He often told his friends afterwards, that unless he had found out this piece of exercise, he verily believed he should have lost his senses.--ADDISON. 5. Do you remember once saying to me that you hoped you should never leave Brentham? 6. I knew that he would not have accepted office in 1841–1842 if he could have avoided it. 7. Promise you will give him this little book of drawings. 8. I have often thought that there has rarely passed a life of which a judicious and faithful narrative would not be useful.--JOHNSON. 9. She said, very quietly, that she wished to speak to him after breakfast, and that he would find her in her sitting room. 10. Lady Annabel had promised the children that they should some day ride together to Marringhurst.

11. One of them told us that he would make us a canoe. 12. Promise, Marion--pray promise you will not even mention my name to him when you write next. 13. He felt that no argument of his would be of any use. 14. I know very well that I shall sign my own death warrant on the day when I retire from business. 15. She knew very well now that Grandcourt would not go without her; but if he must tyrannize over her, he should not do it precisely in the way he would choose. She would oblige him to stay in the hotel. 16. They were afraid that they should not long be able to put him off with promises. 17. Bungay replied that he should be happy to have dealings with Mr. Pendennis.

2. Fill the blanks with the proper auxiliary (_shall_ or _should_, or _will_ or _would_).

1. Your father said that he ---- be glad to see me.

2. I told him that I ---- be obliged to dismiss him.

3. I wrote that we ---- gladly accept his invitation.

4. My friends believed that I ---- not be willing to go.

5. Robert thinks that he ---- have to work evenings.

6. Robert says that I ---- have to work evenings.

7. They say that Robert ---- work evenings, although he ought not.

8. I promised that Robert ---- not work evenings.

9. I told Mary that I was sure she ---- succeed.

10. Mary said she had no doubt that I ---- succeed.

11. Mary will say that she has no doubt I ---- succeed.

12. I repeat that I have no doubt you ---- succeed.

13. He declared that you ---- go, even against your will.

14. The report is that we ---- dissolve partnership.

3. Change the indirect statements in the sentences which you have just made to direct statements.

EXERCISE 55

(§§ 440–445, pp. 179–181)

1. Some, but not all, of the following sentences contain indirect questions. Point out these questions and tell what introduces them (interrogative pronoun, interrogative adverb, subordinate conjunction). Mention the construction of each interrogative clause (as subject, object, etc.).

2. Turn each indirect question into a direct question.

3. Point out such relative clauses as you find in the sentences. Are they adjective or adverbial modifiers?

1. Warrington did not know what his comrade’s means were. 2. He could scarcely tell whether she was imbued with sunshine, or whether it was a glow of happiness that shone out of her. 3. I started the question whether duelling was consistent with moral duty.--BOSWELL. 4. The pilgrims then began to inquire if there was no other way to the gate. 5. He knew not what to make of the letter. 6. I hardly heard what he said. 7. Every one knows practically what are the constituents of health or of virtue.--NEWMAN. 8. Think calmly over what I have written. 9. Then she asked him whence he was and whither he was going; and he told her. 10. What to expect, he knew not. 11. Theseus wondered what this immense giant could be. 12. Hack says it was Mrs. Bungay who caused all the mischief. 13. The question was how best to extricate the army from its perilous position. 14. Addison was a delightful companion when he was at his ease. 15. I doubt whether the wisest of us know what our own motives are.

16. I puzzled my head for some time to find out which of the two cases was the more applicable. 17. I returned to the studies which I had neglected. 18. I cannot tell how I dared to say what I did. 19. How long he slept he could not say. 20. Fanny, in dismay at such an unprecedented question, did not know which way to look, or how to be prepared for an answer.--MISS AUSTEN. 21. What my course of life will be when I return to England is very doubtful. 22. I cannot tell you how vaingloriously I walked the streets. 23. Then I told what a tall, upright, graceful person their great-grandmother Field once was. 24. When the bean-vines began to flower on the poles, there was one particular variety which bore a vivid scarlet blossom. 25. I know not which way I must look. 26. Why she submitted, Mrs. Turpin could not have told you. 27. I began to become conscious what a strange den that sanctum was. 28. How Ferguson escaped, was, and still is, a mystery. 29. How far he felt the force of this obligation will appear in the sequel.

4. Write sentences containing indirect questions introduced by _who_, _which_, _what_, _when_, _how_, _why_, _whether_, _if_.

5. Fill the blanks with _who_ or _whom_. Tell, in each sentence, whether _who_ or _whom_ is an interrogative or a relative pronoun.

1. I know ---- it was that broke the window.

2. I know ---- it was that you saw.

3. I know ---- you saw.

4. I know the person ---- you saw.

5. I asked if the man ---- we saw was Douglas.

6. I asked if the boy ---- broke the window was Archer.

7. I know ---- it was you overheard.

8. Tell me ---- it is that I resemble.

9. Tell me ---- I resemble.

10. Tell me ---- you think I resemble.

11. Tell me if I resemble anybody ---- you know.

6. Turn all the indirect questions which you have just written into direct questions.

7. Construct sentences in which each of the verbs (or verb-phrases) is followed by an indirect question:--

asked, tell, inquire, is learning, see, might discover, had heard, have found, doubt, have perceived, is thinking, wonders, knew, was told, understands, to comprehend, is, could ascertain, has reported, will announce.

EXERCISE 56

(§ 447, p. 182)

1. Turn each indirect question into the direct form. Explain the use of _shall_, _should_, _will_, _would_.

1. “I doubt,” said Donatello, “whether they will remember my voice now.” 2. I did not know whether to resent his language or pursue my explanations. 3. I clambered to its apex, and then felt much at a loss as to what should be next done. 4. How we shall live I cannot imagine. 5. When I shall get to town I cannot divine, but it will be between this and Christmas. 6. I scarcely know which of us three would be the sorriest. 7. I can feel for you, because I know what I should feel in the same situation. 8. Let us see if she will know you. 9. I wonder how you will answer me a year hence. 10. I asked if Georgiana would accompany her. 11. You must see the carriage, Jane, and tell me if you don’t think it will suit Mrs. Rochester exactly, and whether she won’t look like Queen Boadicea, leaning back against those purple cushions.--C. BRONTË. 12. Catherine had no idea why her father should be crosser or less patient in his ailing condition than he was in his prime. 13. Mr. Hindley will have to proceed to extremities,--see if he won’t!

2. Fill the blanks with the proper auxiliary (_shall_, _should_, _will_, _would_). Then change each indirect question to the direct form.

1. Tom asked me if I ---- like to go with him.

2. They inquired whether I ---- prefer to go or to stay.

3. She asked me if I ---- help her.

4. Tell me whether he ---- consent or not.

5. He wishes to know if you ---- recommend him.

6. I was in doubt whether I ---- succeed or fail.

7. I do not know whether you ---- find her at home or at her uncle’s.

8. He is in doubt whether or not he ---- get the appointment.

9. We think we ---- like to sail on the twentieth.

10. He thinks he ---- like to be a farmer.

EXERCISE 57

(§§ 448–453, pp. 183–186)

1. Mention the substantives that make up the compound subjects and the verbs that make up the compound predicates in § 450; in Exercise 4.

2. See if you can make any of the sentences compound by inserting personal pronouns as subjects.

3. Divide each compound sentence in § 452 and in Exercise 6 into the independent coördinate clauses that compose it.

4. Make each sentence in § 450 complex by inserting or adding a subordinate clause. Is your clause adjective or adverbial? What does it modify?

5. Divide each complex sentence in Exercises 17, 25, 39 (2), 48–51, into the independent (main) clause and the subordinate clause.

EXERCISE 58

(§§ 458–461, pp. 188–190)

1. Analyze (according to the directions in §§ 458–461) the simple sentences in Exercise 1. In analyzing, describe each sentence as declarative, interrogative, etc. If the sentence is imperative, supply the subject.

2. Analyze the compound and the complex sentences in Exercises 6, 17, 25, 39 (2), 48–51.

3. Analyze the compound complex sentences in §§ 456–457, 515.

EXERCISE 59

(§§ 462–473, pp. 191–196)

1. Point out the adjectives used as modifiers of the subject. Substitute for each an adjective phrase; an adjective clause (§§ 467–468).

1. Standing in the door was a tearful child. 2. A tall Scot shut off my view. 3. An iron mask concealed the prisoner’s face. 4. Honorable men pay their debts. 5. A tumble-down shed stood in the hollow. 6. A three-cornered hat was cocked over one of his ears. 7. The American Indians are becoming extinct. 8. An experienced stenographer should spell correctly. 9. A deep fosse or ditch was drawn round the whole building. 10. The royal army was assembled at Salisbury. 11. The mid-day meal was excellent. 12. The morning mist lies heavy upon yonder chain of islands.

2. Construct sentences, using the following adjective phrases as modifiers of the subject:--

of great height; in a red hat; with black hair; from Cairo; to Indianapolis; from India; with high gables; of brilliant plumage; on the rear platform; in a state of intense agitation; between the two ships; over the mountain; on the summit of the tower.

3. Substitute (if possible) an adjective clause for each adjective phrase in the sentences you have just written.

4. Point out all participles used as modifiers of the simple subject in Exercise 42. Write ten sentences containing such modifiers (§ 469).

5. Construct ten sentences similar to those in § 470 (with infinitives modifying the simple subject).

6. Write ten sentences containing nouns or pronouns in the possessive case used as modifiers of the subject (§ 471).

7. Write ten sentences containing nouns in apposition with the subject (§§ 88, 5; 472); five in which a noun clause is thus used (§§ 386, 473).

EXERCISE 60

(§§ 474–481, pp. 196–199)

1. Point out all the adverbs used to modify the simple predicate. Substitute for each an adverbial phrase or clause.

1. The witness chose his words deliberately. 2. The old man moved slowly down the street. 3. I carefully avoided making that promise. 4. Do not speak so loud. 5. I am eagerly looking forward to your visit. 6. That golf ball must have hit him hard. 7. Allan has played in public twice. 8. I shall call you early. 9. We often see your eccentric friend. 10. The priest shook his head doubtfully. 11. Your father barely escaped drowning. 12. The next morning Chester awoke late. 13. The accident happened here. 14. The captain had gone below. 15. Marion refuses to go by coach unless she can sit outside. 16. Frank left home three years ago, and has not been heard from since. 17. Look yonder and tell us where the path lies.

18. We were then presented to Governor Gore. 19. I have not been there since April. 20. Bruce was afterward ashamed of his discouragement. 21. The sun will soon set. 22. You are expected to arrive in good season hereafter. 23. Alice cannot spell correctly. 24. The Indian suddenly disappeared. 25. The girl laughed carelessly. 26. The moose fell heavily to the earth. 27. He passionately longs to see Italy. 28. All foreigners seem to speak rapidly. 29. Edith listened attentively.

2. Write ten sentences in which the simple predicate is modified by an infinitive (§§ 323, 477); by an adverbial objective or by a phrase containing one (§§ 109, 478); by a nominative absolute (§§ 345, 479); by an indirect object (§§ 105, 480); by a cognate object (§§ 108, 481).

3. Point out the complementary infinitives and the infinitives of purpose in Exercise 40, and tell what verb each modifies.

EXERCISE 61

(§§ 482–493, pp. 200–204)

1. Point out the complements and describe each (as direct object, predicate nominative, etc.). Analyze the sentences.

1. The most amazing wonder of the deep is its unfathomable cruelty.--CONRAD. 2. Music is Love in search of a word.--LANIER. 3. The destination of the fleet was still a matter of conjecture. 4. The reports from the front made Washington anxious. 5. Plato says that the punishment which the wise suffer who refuse to take part in the government, is, to live under the government of worse men.--EMERSON. 6. I thought your book an imposture; I think it an imposture still.--JOHNSON. 7. Moses chose able men out of all Israel and made them heads over the people. 8. The old gray porter raised his torch. 9. This you will call impudence. 10. Firm and irrevocable is my doom. 11. In return for mere board and lodging, Topham became Mr. Starkey’s assistant. 12. It was they who attacked us.

13. Serene will be our days and bright. 14. Warwick thought the situation awkward, but he held his peace. 15. If there were not too great a risk of the dispersion of their fleet, I should think their putting to sea a mere manœuver to deceive.--IRVING. 16. I thought “Aladdin” capital fun.--STEVENSON. 17. The faces of the father and mother had a sober gladness; the children laughed; the eldest daughter was the image of Happiness at seventeen; and the aged grandmother, who sat knitting in the warmest place, was the image of Happiness grown old. 18. His stories were what frightened people worst of all. 19. The old man was nervous, fidgety, and very pale. 20. I am growing old, the grey hairs thicken upon me, my joints are less supple, and, in mind as well as body, I am less enterprising than in former years.--SOUTHEY. 21. I was uneasy about my letter. 22. Confidence is almost everything in war. 23. He thinks me a troublesome fellow.

24. At the end of this strange season, Burns gloomily sums up his gains and losses. 25. Little fire grows great with little wind.--SHAKSPERE. 26. As he rose to walk, he found himself stiff in the joints. 27. Noise had been my native element. 28. I caught tantalizing glimpses of green fields, shut from me by dull lines of high-spiked palings. 29. One house in a back street was bright with the cheerful glare of lights.

2. Write ten simple sentences, each containing the direct object of a verb; a predicate objective; a predicate nominative; a predicate adjective. Analyze your sentences.

EXERCISE 62

(§§ 494–497, pp. 205–206)

1. Point out any modifiers of complements in the sentences called for in Exercise 61, 2. Introduce other modifiers of complements if you can without injuring the sentences.

2. Write sentences similar to those in § 492, taking care to include in each a complement modified.

3. Write ten sentences, each containing a substantive complement modified by an adjective clause (§ 496); an adjective complement modified by an adverbial clause (§ 497). Analyze your sentences.

4. Point out all modifiers of complements in Exercises 12 and 22.

5. Analyze the sentences in § 495.

EXERCISE 63

(§§ 498–500, pp. 207–208)

1. Write ten sentences illustrating adjectives (or adjective phrases) modified either by adverbs or by groups of words used adverbially.

2. Write ten sentences, each containing a possessive noun modified; an appositive modified; an adverbial phrase modified.

3. Write ten sentences illustrating the use of adjective or adverbial clauses as modifiers of modifiers.

4. Analyze the sentences in § 498.

EXERCISE 64

(§§ 501–503, p. 209)

Point out the independent elements. Tell whether each is an interjection, a vocative (nominative by direct address), an exclamatory nominative, or a parenthetical expression. Analyze the sentences.

1. The king, Melfort said, was determined to be severe. 2. O Mary, go and call the cattle home. 3. Pardon me, my dear fellow. 4. Between ourselves, I shall not be sorry to have a quiet evening. 5. Knowledge, indeed, and science express purely intellectual ideas.--NEWMAN. 6. Oh! oh! pictures don’t pay. 7. To make a long story short, the company broke up. 8. True, our friend is already in his teens. 9. To use a ready-made similitude, we might liken universal history to a magic web.--CARLYLE. 10. Poor fellows! they only did as they were ordered, I suppose. 11. The world, as we said, has been unjust to him. 12. Therefore, good Brutus, be prepared to hear.

13. Peace! count the clock. 14. Excuse, no doubt, is in readiness for such omission. 15. The lord--for so I understood he was--looked at me with an air of surprise. 16. Lo, Cæsar is afraid. 17. Delay not, Cæsar; read it instantly. 18. My counsel, I need not say, made full use of this hint. 19. My small services, you remember, were of no use. 20. I knew--one knows everything in dreams--that they had been slain. 21. I knew it, I say, to be a fallacy. 22. Liberty! freedom! tyranny is dead! 23. Stay, ho! and let us hear Mark Antony.

EXERCISE 65

(§§ 504–523, pp. 210–219)

1. Analyze the simple sentences in § 509; the compound sentences in § 511; the complex sentences in § 512; the compound complex sentences in §§ 514–515.

2. Study the examples in §§ 517–523, and explain their structure orally. Tell whether the various subordinate clauses are simple, compound, or complex, and why. Give the construction of each. Analyze the sentences.

3. Construct five complex sentences on the principle of § 517; of § 520; of § 521; of § 522.

EXERCISE 66

(§§ 524–526, pp. 220–223)

1. Study the sentences in §§ 525–526 until you can explain their structure.

2. Find, in some good English or American author, ten sentences of considerable length and explain their structure.

EXERCISE 67

(§§ 527–533, pp. 224–226)

1. Analyze the sentences in § 528. Explain the ellipsis in each sentence.

2. Supply the word or words omitted in each of the elliptical sentences in § 533 (p. 226). Explain the ellipsis in each sentence.

3. Analyze the sentences in § 533.

4. Write five sentences illustrating each of the following kinds of ellipsis:--(1) the subject of an imperative; (2) a relative pronoun; (3) the conjunction _that_; (4) the copula and its subject with _while_, _when_, _though_, _if_; (5) ellipsis in a clause with _as_ or _than_.

EXERCISE 68

(§§ 448–526, pp. 183–223)

The following compound, complex, and compound complex sentences will give further practice in analysis and in study of the relations of clauses.

1. Deerslayer hesitated a single instant ere he plunged into the bushes. 2. The mind of man is like a clock that is always running down and requires to be as constantly wound up.--HAZLITT. 3. He became sensible that his life was still in imminent peril. 4. A young author is apt to run into a confusion of mixed metaphors, which leave the sense disjointed, and distract the imagination.--GOLDSMITH. 5. Everybody kept his head as best he might and scrambled for whatever he could get. 6. The dialogue had been held in so very low a whisper that not a word of it had reached the young lady’s ears. 7. The captain screwed his lips up, and drummed on the table, but he did not speak. 8. Poor Andrew Fern had heard that his townsman’s sloop had been captured by a privateer. 9. Through the grounds we went, and very pretty I thought them. 10. He sometimes made doleful complaint that there were no stagecoaches, nowadays.

11. Lights gleamed in the distance, and people were already astir. 12. That few men celebrated for theoretic wisdom live with conformity to their precepts, must be readily confessed.--JOHNSON. 13. Down went Pew with a cry that rang high into the night. 14. Pluck the dog off, lest he throttle him. 15. I knew that the worst of men have their good points. 16. A rumor spread that the enemy was approaching in great force. 17. Mr. Henry went and walked at the low end of the hall without reply; for he had an excellent gift of silence. 18. It is a bright brisk morning, and the loaded wagons are rolling cheerfully past my window. 19. The musician was an old gray-headed negro, who had been the itinerant orchestra of the neighborhood for more than half a century. 20. After he had waited three hours, the general’s patience was exhausted, and, as he learned that the Mexicans were busy in preparations for defence, he made immediate dispositions for the assault.--PRESCOTT.

21. As I rode along near the coast, I kept a very sharp lookout in the lanes and woods. 22. Every man desires to live long, but no man would be old.--SWIFT. 23. If my face had been pale the moment before, it now glowed almost to burning. 24. The sentinels who paced the ramparts announced that the vanguard of the hostile army was in sight. 25. Her heart was happy and her courage rose. 26. There is a report that Clifford is to be secretary. 27. The season of winter, when, from the shortness of the daylight, labor becomes impossible, is in Zetland the time of revel, feasting, and merriment. 28. Every log which is carried past us by the current has come from an undiscovered country. 29. The fair heavens shone over the windy blue seas, and the green island of Ulva lay basking in the sunlight. 30. The greatest event was, that the Miss Jenkynses had purchased a new carpet for the drawing room. 31. My grandfather made a bow to the motley assemblage as he entered. 32. Talk to a man about himself, and he is generally captivated.

33. Pen was as elated as if somebody had left him a fortune. 34. When the morning dawned, the king gazed with admiration at the city, which he hoped soon to add to his dominions.--IRVING. 35. No one doubts that the sloth and the ant-eater, the kangaroo and the opossum, the tiger and the badger, the tapir and the rhinoceros, are respectively members of the same orders.--HUXLEY. 36. The traveller, a man of middle age, wrapped in a gray frieze cloak, quickened his pace when he had reached the outskirts of the town, for a gloomy extent of nearly four miles lay between him and his home. 37. It was a scene on which I had often looked down, but where I had never before beheld a human figure. 38. He found that he had undertaken a task which was beyond his power. 39. In the Dutch garden is a fine bronze bust of Napoleon, which Lord Holland put up in 1817, while Napoleon was a prisoner at Saint Helena.

40. The girl’s was not one of those natures which are most attracted by what is strange and exceptional in human character. 41. Mrs. Pendennis was sure that he would lead her dear boy into mischief, if Pen went to the same college with him. 42. I had been some time at sea before I became aware of the fact that hearing plays a perceptible part in gauging the force of the wind. 43. The Macedonian conqueror, when he was once invited to hear a man that sang like a nightingale, replied with contempt, that he had heard the nightingale herself; and the same treatment must every man expect, whose praise is that he imitates another.--JOHNSON. 44. Tie a couple of strings across a board and set it in your window, and you have an instrument which no artist’s harp can rival.--EMERSON. 45. I was on the point of asking what part of the country he had chosen for his retreat. 46. That no man can lawfully promise what he cannot lawfully do is a self-evident proposition.--MACKINTOSH.

47. How far the governor contributed towards the expenses of the outfit is not very clear. 48. The next epoch in the history of Russia was that of Peter the Great, whose genius overcame the obstacles consequent on the remoteness of its situation, and opened to its people the career of European industry, arts, and arms.--ALISON. 49. As the chase lengthens, the sportsmen drop off, till at last the foremost huntsman is left alone, and his horse, overcome with fatigue, stumbles and dies in a rocky valley.--JEFFREY. 50. The Lowland knight, though startled, repeats his defiance; and Sir Roderick, respecting his valor, by a signal dismisses his men to their concealment, and assures him anew of his safety. 51. I stood awe-struck--I cannot tell how long--watching how the live flame-snakes crept and hissed, and leapt and roared, and rushed in long horizontal jets from stack to stack before the howling wind, and fastened their fiery talons on the barn-eaves, and swept over the peaked roofs, and hurled themselves in fiery flakes into the yard beyond.--KINGSLEY. 52. When I was at Grand Cairo, I picked up several Oriental manuscripts, which I have still by me.--ADDISON. 53. Often have I wondered at the temerity of my father, who, in spite of an habitual general respect which we all in common manifested towards him, would venture now and then to stand up against him in some argument touching their youthful days.--LAMB. 54. By all means begin your folio; even if the doctor does not give you a year, even if he hesitates about a month, make one brave push and see what can be accomplished in a week.--STEVENSON.

APPENDIX

LISTS OF VERBS

In the first list, only such verb forms are given as are indisputably correct in accordance with the best prose usage of the present day. The pupil may feel perfectly safe, therefore, in using the forms registered in this list.[52]

A few verbs (marked *) which are seldom or never used in ordinary language are included in this list. These have various irregularities. A few verbs are partly strong and partly weak.

Weak verbs are printed in italics.

For the modal auxiliaries, see page 299.

I

PRESENT TENSE PAST TENSE PAST PARTICIPLE

abide abode abode am (_subjunc._, be) was been arise arose arisen awake awoke, _awaked_ _awaked_ bear bore borne, born[53] beat beat beaten beget begot begotten begin began begun behold beheld beheld _bend_ _bent_ _bent_ _bereave_ _bereft_, _bereft_, _bereaved_ _bereaved_[54] _beseech_ _besought_ _besought_ _bet_ _bet_ _bet_ bid (command) bade bidden bid (money) bid bid bind bound bound bite bit bitten _bleed_ _bled_ _bled_ _bless_ (see p. 298) blow blew blown break broke broken _breed_ _bred_ _bred_ _bring_ _brought_ _brought_ _build_ _built_ _built_ _burn_ (see p. 298) burst burst burst _buy_ _bought_ _bought_ _cast_ _cast_ _cast_ _catch_ _caught_ _caught_ chide chid chidden choose chose chosen *cleave (split)[55] _cleft_, clove _cleft_, _cleaved_ (cloven, _adj._) cling clung clung come came come _cost_ _cost_ _cost_ _creep_ _crept_ _crept_ _crow_ (see p. 299) _curse_ (see p. 298) _cut_ _cut_ _cut_ _dare_ (see p. 299) _deal_ _dealt_ _dealt_ dig dug dug do did done draw drew drawn _dream_ (see p. 298) _dress_ (see p. 298) drink drank drunk (drunken, _adj._) drive drove driven _dwell_ _dwelt_ _dwelt_ eat ate eaten _engrave_ (see p. 299) fall fell fallen _feed_ _fed_ _fed_ _feel_ _felt_ _felt_ fight fought fought find found found _flee_ _fled_ _fled_ fling flung flung fly flew flown forbear forbore forborne forget forgot forgotten forsake forsook forsaken freeze froze frozen _freight_ (see p. 299) get got got[56] _gird_ (see p. 298) give gave given go _went_ gone _grave_ (see p. 299) grind ground ground grow grew grown hang hung, _hanged_[57] hung, _hanged_[57] _have_ _had_ _had_ _hear_ _heard_ _heard_ heave hove, _heaved_[58] hove, _heaved_[58] _hew_ _hewed_ hewn hide hid hidden _hit_ _hit_ _hit_ hold held held _hurt_ _hurt_ _hurt_ _keep_ _kept_ _kept_ _kneel_ (see p. 298) _knit_ (see p. 298) know knew known _lade_[59] _laded_ _laded_, laden _lay_ _laid_ _laid_ _lead_ _led_ _led_ _learn_ (see p. 298) _leave_ _left_ _left_ _lend_ _lent_ _lent_ let let let lie (recline)[60] lay lain _light_ _lighted_ _lighted_ or _lit_[61] or _lit_[61] _lose_ _lost_ _lost_ _make_ _made_ _made_ _mean_ _meant_ _meant_ _meet_ _met_ _met_ _mow_ (see p. 299) _pay_ _paid_ _paid_ _pen_(shut up) (see p. 298) _put_ _put_ _put_ _quit_ (see p. 298) _read_ _rĕad_ _rĕad_ *_reave_ _reft_, _reaved_ _reft_, _reaved_ reeve rove rove _rend_ _rent_ _rent_ _rid_ _rid_ _rid_ ride rode ridden ring rang rung rise rose risen *_rive_ _rived_ riven, _rived_ run ran run _say_ _said_ _said_ see saw seen _seek_ _sought_ _sought_ *seethe (_transitive_)[62] sod, _seethed_ _seethed_ (sodden, _adj._) _sell_ _sold_ _sold_ _send_ _sent_ _sent_ _set_ _set_ _set_ _sew_ (see p. 299) shake shook shaken _shape_ (see p. 299) _shave_ _shaved_ _shaved_ (shaven, _adj._) _shear_ (see p. 299) _shed_ _shed_ _shed_ shine shone shone _shoe_ _shod_ _shod_ shoot shot shot _show_ _showed_ shown _shred_ (see p. 298) shrink shrank shrunk (shrunken, _adj._) *shrive shrove, _shrived_ shriven, _shrived_ _shut_ _shut_ _shut_ sing sang sung sink sank sunk sit sat sat slay slew slain _sleep_ _slept_ _slept_ slide slid slid, slidden sling slung slung slink slunk slunk _slit_ _slit_ _slit_ _smell_ (see p. 298) smite smote smitten _sow_ _sowed_ _sowed_, sown speak spoke spoken _speed_ (see p. 298) _spell_ (see p. 299) _spend_ _spent_ _spent_ _spill_ (see p. 299) spin spun spun spit spit spit _split_ _split_ _split_ _spoil_ (see p. 299) _spread_ _spread_ _spread_ spring sprang sprung stand stood stood stave stove, _staved_ stove, _staved_ _stay_ (see p. 299) steal stole stolen stick stuck stuck sting stung stung stink stunk stunk _strew_ _strewed_ strewn stride strode stridden strike struck struck (stricken, _adj._)[63] string strung strung strive strove striven swear swore sworn _sweat_ (see p. 299) _sweep_ _swept_ _swept_ _swell_ _swelled_ _swelled_, swollen swim swam swum swing swung swung take took taken _teach_ _taught_ _taught_ tear tore torn _tell_ _told_ _told_ _think_ _thought_ _thought_ thrive throve, _thrived_ thriven, _thrived_ throw threw thrown _thrust_ _thrust_ _thrust_ tread trod trodden wake woke, _waked_ woke, _waked_ _wax_ (grow) (see p. 299) wear wore worn weave wove woven _wed_ (see p. 299) _weep_ _wept_ _wept_ _wet_ _wet_ _wet_ win won won wind wound wound wring wrung wrung write wrote written

_Bear_, _break_, _drive_, _get_ (_beget_, _forget_), _speak_, _spin_, _stink_, _swear_, _tear_, have an archaic past tense in _a_: _bare_, _brake_, _drave_, _gat_, _spake_, etc.

_Beat_, _beget_ (_forget_), _bite_, _break_, _forsake_, _hide_, _ride_, _shake_, _speak_, _weave_, _write_, and some other verbs have archaic forms of the past participle like those of the past tense. The participles in _en_, however, are now the accepted forms. _Chid_ and _trod_ are common participial forms.

_Begin_, _drink_, _ring_, _shrink_, _sing_, _sink_, _spring_, _swim_, often have in poetry a _u_-form (_begun_, _sung_, etc.) in the past tense as well as in the past participle. This form (though good _old_ English)[64] should be avoided in modern speech.

_Bend_, _beseech_, _bet_, _build_, _burst_, _catch_, _dwell_, _rend_, _split_, _wet_, have archaic or less usual forms in _ed_: _bended_, _beseeched_, _betted_, etc. _Builded_ is common in the proverbial “He _builded_ better than he knew.” _Bursted_ is common as an adjective: “a _bursted_ bubble.”

_Bid_, “to command,” has sometimes _bid_ in both the past tense and the past participle; _bid_, “to offer money,” has these forms regularly.

_Blend_, _leap_, _lean_, have usually _blended_, _leaped_, _leaned_; but _blent_, _leapt_, _leant_ are not uncommon.

_Clothe_ has commonly _clothed_; but _clad_ is common in literary use, and is regular in the adjectives _well-clad_, _ill-clad_ (for which ordinary speech has substituted _well-dressed_, _badly_ or _poorly dressed_).

_Dive_ has _dived_; but _dove_ (an old form) is common in America.

_Plead_ has past tense and past participle _pleaded_. _Plead_ (pronounced _plĕd_) is avoided by careful writers and speakers.

_Prove_ has past tense and past participle _proved_. The past participle _proven_ should be avoided.

_Work_ has past tense and past participle _worked_. _Wrought_ in the past tense and the past participle is archaic, but is also modern as an adjective (as in _wrought iron_).

Some verbs have rare or archaic weak forms alongside of the strong forms; thus _digged,_ _shined_, past tense and past participle of _dig_, _shine_; _showed_, past participle of _show_.

_Ate_ and _eaten_ are preferred to _eat_ (pronounced _ĕt_).

_Quoth_, “said,” is an old strong past tense. The compound _bequeath_ has _bequeathed_ only.

Miscellaneous archaisms are the past tenses _sate_ for _sat_, _trode_ for _trod_, _spat_ for _spit_; also _writ_ for _wrote_ and _written_, _rid_ for _rode_ and _ridden_, _strewed_ and _strown_ for _strewn_.

II

The following verbs vary between _ed_ and _t_ (_d_) in the past tense and the past participle. In some of them, this variation is a mere difference of spelling. In writing, the _ed_ forms are preferred in most cases; in speaking, the _t_ forms are very common.

bless blessed, blest[65] burn burned, burnt[66] curse cursed, curst[65] dare dared (_less commonly_, durst) dream dreamed, dreamt dress dressed, drest gird girded, girt[66] kneel kneeled, knelt[66] knit knit, knitted[66] learn learned, learnt[67] pen (shut up) penned, pent[66] quit quitted, quit[66] shred shredded, shred[66] smell smelled, smelt[66] speed sped, speeded[66] spell spelled, spelt spill spilled, spilt[66] spoil spoiled, spoilt[66] stay stayed, staid sweat sweated, sweat[66] wed wedded (_p.p. also_ wed)[66]

III

The following verbs have regular _ed_ forms in modern prose, but in poetry and the high style sometimes show archaic forms.

PRESENT TENSE PAST TENSE PAST PARTICIPLE

crow crowed, crew crowed, crown freight freighted freighted, fraught (_figurative_) grave graved graved, graven engrave engraved engraved, engraven mow mowed mowed, mown sew sewed sewed, sewn shape shaped shaped, shapen shear sheared, shore sheared, shorn wax (grow) waxed waxed, waxen

IV

The present tense of _may_, _can_, _shall_, is an old strong past. Hence the first and third persons singular are alike:--_I may_, _he may_. The actual past tenses of these verbs are weak forms:--_might_, _could_, _should_. _Must_ is the weak past tense of an obsolete _mōt_, and is almost always used as a present tense (§ 292).

_Dare_ and _owe_ originally belonged to this class. _Owe_ has become a regular weak verb, except for the peculiar past tense _ought_, which is used in a present sense (see § 293); _dare_ has in the third person _dare_ or _dares_, and in the past _dared_, more rarely _durst_. The archaic _wot_ “know,” past _wist_, also belongs to this class. _Will_ is inflected like _shall_, having _will_ in the first and third singular, _wilt_ in the second singular, and _would_ in the past.

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB _TO BE_

INDICATIVE MOOD

PRESENT TENSE

SINGULAR PLURAL 1. I am. We are. 2. Thou art. You are. 3. He is. They are.

PAST TENSE

1. I was. We were. 2. Thou wast (wert). You were. 3. He was. They were.

FUTURE TENSE

1. I shall be. We shall be. 2. Thou wilt be. You will be. 3. He will be. They will be.

PERFECT (OR PRESENT PERFECT) TENSE

1. I have been. We have been. 2. Thou hast been. You have been. 3. He has been. They have been.

PLUPERFECT (OR PAST PERFECT) TENSE

1. I had been. We had been. 2. Thou hadst been. You had been. 3. He had been. They had been.

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE

1. I shall have been. We shall have been. 2. Thou wilt have been. You will have been. 3. He will have been. They will have been.

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD

PRESENT TENSE

1. If I be. If we be. 2. If thou be. If you be. 3. If he be. If they be.

PAST TENSE

1. If I were. If we were. 2. If thou wert. If you were. 3. If he were. If they were.

PERFECT (OR PRESENT PERFECT) TENSE

1. If I have been. If we have been. 2. If thou have been. If you have been. 3. If he have been. If they have been.

PLUPERFECT (OR PAST PERFECT) TENSE

1. If I had been. If we had been. 2. If thou hadst been. If you had been. 3. If he had been. If they had been.

IMPERATIVE MOOD. _Present. Sing. and Pl._ Be [thou _or_ you]. INFINITIVE. _Present_, to be; _Perfect_, to have been. PARTICIPLES. _Present_, being; _Past_, been; _Perfect_, having been.

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB _TO STRIKE_

_ACTIVE VOICE_

INDICATIVE MOOD

PRESENT TENSE

1. I strike. We strike. 2. Thou strikest. You strike. 3. He strikes. They strike.

PAST TENSE

1. I struck. We struck. 2. Thou struckest. You struck. 3. He struck. They struck.

FUTURE TENSE

1. I shall strike. We shall strike. 2. Thou wilt strike. You will strike. 3. He will strike. They will strike.

PERFECT (OR PRESENT PERFECT) TENSE

1. I have struck. We have struck. 2. Thou hast struck. You have struck. 3. He has struck. They have struck.

PLUPERFECT (OR PAST PERFECT) TENSE

1. I had struck. We had struck. 2. Thou hadst struck. You had struck. 3. He had struck. They had struck.

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE

1. I shall have struck. We shall have struck. 2. Thou wilt have struck. You will have struck. 3. He will have struck. They will have struck.

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD

PRESENT TENSE

1. If I strike. If we strike. 2. If thou strike. If you strike. 3. If he strike. If they strike.

PAST TENSE

1. If I struck. If we struck. 2. If thou struck. If you struck. 3. If he struck. If they struck.

PERFECT (OR PRESENT PERFECT) TENSE

1. If I have struck. If we have struck. 2. If thou have struck. If you have struck. 3. If he have struck. If they have struck.

PLUPERFECT (OR PAST PERFECT) TENSE

1. If I had struck. If we had struck. 2. If thou hadst struck. If you had struck. 3. If he had struck. If they had struck.

IMPERATIVE MOOD. _Present._ _Sing. and Pl._ Strike [thou _or_ you]. INFINITIVE. _Present_, to strike; _Perfect_, to have struck. PARTICIPLE. _Present_, striking; _Past_, struck; _Perfect_, having struck.

_PASSIVE VOICE_

INDICATIVE MOOD

PRESENT TENSE

1. I am struck. We are struck. 2. Thou art struck. You are struck. 3. He is struck. They are struck.

PAST TENSE

1. I was struck. We were struck. 2. Thou wast (_or_ wert) struck. You were struck. 3. He was struck. They were struck.

FUTURE TENSE

1. I shall be struck. We shall be struck. 2. Thou wilt be struck. You will be struck. 3. He will be struck. They will be struck.

PERFECT (OR PRESENT PERFECT) TENSE

1. I have been struck. We have been struck. 2. Thou hast been struck. You have been struck. 3. He has been struck. They have been struck.

PLUPERFECT (OR PAST PERFECT) TENSE

1. I had been struck. We had been struck. 2. Thou hadst been struck. You had been struck. 3. He had been struck. They had been struck.

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE

1. I shall have been struck. We shall have been struck. 2. Thou wilt have been struck. You will have been struck. 3. He will have been struck. They will have been struck.

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD

PRESENT TENSE

1. If I be struck. If we be struck. 2. If thou be struck. If you be struck. 3. If he be struck. If they be struck.

PAST TENSE

1. If I were struck. If we were struck. 2. If thou wert struck. If you were struck. 3. If he were struck. If they were struck.

PERFECT (OR PRESENT PERFECT) TENSE

1. If I have been struck. If we have been struck. 2. If thou have been struck. If you have been struck. 3. If he have been struck. If they have been struck.

PLUPERFECT (OR PAST PERFECT) TENSE

1. If I had been struck. If we had been struck. 2. If thou hadst been struck. If you had been struck. 3. If he had been struck. If they had been struck.

IMPERATIVE MOOD. _Present._ _Sing. and Pl._ Be [thou _or_ you] struck. INFINITIVE. _Present_, to be struck; _Perfect_, to have been struck. PARTICIPLES. _Present_, being struck; _Past_, struck; _Perfect_, having been struck.

USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS

1. Every sentence begins with a capital letter.

2. Every line of poetry begins with a capital letter.

3. The first word of every direct quotation begins with a capital letter.

NOTE. This rule does not apply to quoted fragments of sentences.

4. Every proper noun or abbreviation of a proper noun begins with a capital letter.

5. Most adjectives derived from proper nouns begin with capital letters; as,--_American_, _Indian_, _Swedish_, _Spenserian_.

NOTE. Some adjectives derived from proper nouns have ceased to be closely associated in thought with the nouns from which they come, and therefore begin with small letters. Thus,--voltaic, galvanic, mesmeric, maudlin, stentorian.

6. Every title attached to the name of a person begins with a capital letter.

_Mr._ Thomas Smith John Wilson, _Esq._ _Miss_ Allerton _Dr._ F. E. Wilson C. J. Adams, _M.D._ _President_ Grant _Professor_ Whitney _Sir_ Walter Raleigh

7. In titles of books, etc., the first word, as well as every important word that follows, begins with a capital letter.

8. The interjection _O_ and the pronoun _I_ are always written in capital letters.

9. Personal pronouns referring to the Deity are often capitalized.

NOTE. Usage varies: the personal pronouns are commonly capitalized when they refer to the Deity, the relatives less frequently. The rule is often disregarded altogether when its observance would result in a multitude of capitals, as in the Bible and in many hymn books and works of theology.

10. Common nouns and adjectives often begin with capital letters when they designate the topics or main points of definitions or similar statements. Such capitals are called _emphatic_ (or _topical_) _capitals_.

NOTE. Emphatic (or topical) capitals are analogous to capitals in the titles of books (see Rule 7), but their use is not obligatory. They are especially common in text-books and other elementary manuals.

RULES OF PUNCTUATION[68]

The common marks of punctuation are the period, the interrogation point, the exclamation point, the comma, the semicolon, the colon, the dash, marks of parenthesis, and quotation marks. The hyphen and the apostrophe may be conveniently treated along with marks of punctuation.

I

1. The period, the interrogation point, and the exclamation point are used at the end of sentences. Every complete sentence must be followed by one of these three marks.

The end of a declarative or an imperative sentence is marked by a period. But a declarative or an imperative sentence that is likewise exclamatory may be followed by an exclamation point instead of a period.

The end of a direct question is marked by an interrogation point.

An exclamatory sentence in the form of an indirect question is followed by an exclamation point; as,--“How absolute the knave is!”

2. A period is used after an abbreviation.

3. An exclamation point is used after an exclamatory word or phrase.

NOTE. This rule is not absolute. Most interjections take the exclamation point. With other words and with phrases, usage differs; if strong feeling is expressed, the exclamation point is commonly used, but too many such marks deface the page.

II

The comma is used--

1. After a noun (or a phrase) of direct address (a _vocative nominative_). Thus,--

John, tell me the truth.

Little boy, what is your name?

NOTE. If the noun is exclamatory, an exclamation point may be used instead of a comma.

2. Before a direct quotation in a sentence. Thus,--

The cry ran through the ranks, “Are we never to move forward?”

NOTE. When the quotation is long or formal, a colon, or a colon and a dash, may be used instead of a comma, especially with the words _as follows_.

3. After a direct quotation when this is the subject or the object of a following verb. Thus,--

“They are coming; the attack will be made on the center,” said Lord Fitzroy Somerset.

“I see it,” was the cool reply of the duke.

NOTE. If the quotation ends with an interrogation point or an exclamation point, no comma is used.

4. To separate words, or groups of words, arranged in a coördinate series, when these are not connected by _and_, _or_, or _nor_.

If the conjunction is used to connect the last two members of the series but omitted with the others, the comma may be used before the conjunction.

I found two saws, an axe, and a hammer.

They were so shy, so subtle, and so swift of foot, that it was difficult to come at them.

It would make the reader pity me to tell what odd, misshapen, ugly things I made.

They groaned, they stirred, they all uprose.

NOTE 1. Commas may be used even when conjunctions are expressed, if the members of the series consist of several words, or if the writer wishes to emphasize their distinctness.

NOTE 2. Clauses in a series are commonly separated by semicolons unless they are short and simple (see pp. 309–310).

5. To set off words and phrases out of their regular order. Thus,--

Seated on her accustomed chair, with her usual air of apathy and want of interest in what surrounded her, she seemed now and then mechanically to resume the motion of twirling her spindle.--SCOTT.

6. To separate a long subject from the verb of the predicate. Thus,--

To have passed them over in an historical sketch of my literary life and opinions, would have seemed to me like the denial of a debt.--COLERIDGE.

7. To set off an appositive noun or an appositive adjective, with its modifiers. Thus,--

I have had the most amusing letter from Hogg, the Ettrick minstrel.

There was an impression upon the public mind, natural enough from the continually augmenting velocity of the mail, but quite erroneous, that an outside seat on this class of carriages was a post of danger.--DE QUINCEY.

NOTE 1. Many participial and other adjective phrases come under this head. Thus,--

The genius, seeing me indulge myself on this melancholy prospect, told me I had dwelt long enough upon it.--ADDISON.

NOTE 2. If a noun and its appositive are so closely connected as to form one idea, no comma is used. Thus,--

My friend Jackson lives in San Francisco.

NOTE 3. An intensive pronoun (_myself_, etc.) is not separated by a comma from the substantive which it emphasizes.

NOTE 4. A series of words or phrases in apposition with a single substantive is sometimes set off, as a whole, by a comma and a dash.

8. To set off a subordinate clause, especially one introduced by a descriptive relative. Thus,--

I am going to take a last dinner with a most agreeable family, who have been my only neighbors ever since I have lived at Weston.--COWPER.

NOTE. No comma is used before a restrictive relative. Thus,--

I want to know many things which only you can tell me.

Perhaps I am the only man in England who can boast of such good fortune.

9. To set off a phrase containing a nominative absolute. Thus,--

They had some difficulty in passing the ferry at the riverside, the ferryman being afraid of them.--DEFOE.

10. To set off _however_, _nevertheless_, _moreover_, etc., and introductory phrases like _in the first place_, _on the one hand_, etc.

11. To set off a parenthetical expression. For this purpose commas, dashes, or marks of parenthesis may be used.

When the parenthetical matter is brief or closely related to the rest of the sentence, it is generally set off by commas. Thus,--

I exercised a piece of hypocrisy for which, I hope, you will hold me excused.--THACKERAY.

When it is longer and more independent, it is generally marked off by dashes, or enclosed in marks of parenthesis. The latter are less frequently used at present than formerly.

The connection of the mail with the state and the executive government--a connection obvious, but yet not strictly defined--gave to the whole mail establishment an official grandeur.--DE QUINCEY.

NOTE. Brackets are used to indicate insertions that are not part of the text.

III

The clauses of a compound sentence may be separated by colons, semicolons, or commas.

1. The colon is used--

_a._ To show that the second of two clauses repeats the substance of the first in another form, or defines the first as an appositive defines a noun. Thus,--

This was the practice of the Grecian stage. But Terence made an innovation in the Roman: all his plays have double actions.--DRYDEN.

_b._ To separate two groups of clauses one or both of which contain a semicolon. Thus,--

At that time, news such as we had heard might have been long in penetrating so far into the recesses of the mountains; but now, as you know, the approach is easy, and the communication, in summer time, almost hourly: nor is this strange, for travellers after pleasure are become not less active, and more numerous, than those who formerly left their homes for purposes of gain.--WORDSWORTH.

NOTE. The colon is less used now than formerly. The tendency is to use a semicolon or to begin a new sentence.

2. The semicolon is used when the clauses are of the same general nature and contribute to the same general effect, especially if one or more of them contain commas. Thus,--

The sky was cloudless; the sun shone out bright and warm; the songs of birds, and hum of myriads of summer insects filled the air; and the cottage garden, crowded with every rich and beautiful tint, sparkled in the heavy dew like beds of glittering jewels.--DICKENS.

3. The comma may be used when the clauses are short and simple (see p. 307).

NOTE. The choice between colon, semicolon, and comma is determined in many cases by the writer’s feeling of the closer or the looser connection of the ideas expressed by the several clauses, and is to some extent a matter of taste.

IV

1. In a complex sentence, the dependent clause is generally separated from the main clause by a comma. But when the dependent clause is short and the connection close, the comma may be omitted.

NOTE. A descriptive relative clause is preceded by a comma, a restrictive relative clause is not (see p. 70).

2. The clauses of a series, when in the same dependent construction, are often separated by semicolons to give more emphasis to each. Thus,--

[Mrs. Battle] was none of your lukewarm gamesters, your half-and-half players, who have no objection to take a hand if you want one to make up a rubber; who affirm that they have no pleasure in winning; that they like to win one game and lose another; that they can while away an hour very agreeably at a card table, but are indifferent whether they play or no; and will desire an adversary who has slipped a wrong card, to take it up and play another.--LAMB.

V

1. A direct quotation is enclosed in quotation marks.

NOTE. If the quotation stands by itself and is printed in different type, the marks may be omitted.

2. A quotation within a quotation is usually enclosed in single quotation marks.

3. In a quotation consisting of several paragraphs, quotation marks are put at the beginning of each paragraph and at the end of the last.

NOTE. For the punctuation before a quotation, see p. 307.

4. When a book, poem, or the like, is referred to, the title may be enclosed in quotation marks or italicized.

VI

1. Sudden changes in thought and feeling or breaks in speech are indicated by dashes. Thus,--

Eh!--what--why--upon my life, and so it is--Charley, my boy, so it’s you, is it?--LEVER.

2. Parenthetical expressions may be set off by dashes (see p. 308).

3. A colon, or colon and dash, may precede an enumeration, a direct quotation, or a statement formally introduced,--especially with _as follows_, _namely_, and the like. Before an enumeration a comma and a dash may be used. Thus,--

There are eight parts of speech:--nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections. OR--

There are eight parts of speech,--nouns, pronouns, etc.

4. The dash is sometimes used to strengthen a comma (as in the last paragraph but one).

VII

1. The apostrophe is used--

_a._ To mark the omission of a letter or letters in contractions.

_b._ As a sign of the possessive or genitive.

_c._ To indicate the plural of letters, signs, etc.

2. The hyphen is used--

_a._ When the parts of a word are separated in writing.

_b._ Between the parts of some compound words. (See the dictionary in each case.)

RULES OF SYNTAX

1. The +subject+ of a verb is in the +nominative case+ (p. 41).

2. A substantive standing in the predicate, but describing or defining the subject, agrees with the subject in case and is called a +predicate nominative+ (p. 41).

3. A substantive used for the purpose of +addressing+ a person directly, and not connected with any verb, is called a +vocative+.

A vocative is in the +nominative case+, and is often called a +nominative by direct address+ or a +vocative nominative+ (p. 42).

4. A substantive used as an +exclamation+ is called an +exclamatory nominative+ or a +nominative of exclamation+ (p. 42).

5. A substantive, with a participle, may express the cause, time, or circumstances of an action.

This is called the +absolute construction+.

The substantive is in the +nominative case+ and is called a +nominative absolute+ (p. 144).

6. The +possessive case+ denotes ownership or possession (p. 43).

7. The +object+ of a verb or preposition is in the +objective case+ (p. 47).

8. A substantive that completes the meaning of a transitive verb is called its +direct object+, and is said to be in the +objective case+ (p. 48).

9. A verb of _asking_ sometimes takes +two direct objects+, one denoting the +person+ and the other the +thing+ (p. 50).

10. Verbs of _choosing_, _calling_, _naming_, _making_, and _thinking_ may take +two objects+ referring to the same person or thing.

The first of these is the +direct object+, and the second, which completes the sense of the predicate, is called a +predicate objective+ (pp. 50, 111).

11. Some verbs of _giving_, _telling_, _refusing_, and the like, may take +two objects+, a +direct object+ and an +indirect object+.

The indirect object denotes the person or thing toward whom or toward which is directed the action expressed by the rest of the predicate (p. 50).

12. A verb that is regularly intransitive sometimes takes as object a noun whose meaning closely resembles its own.

A noun in this construction is called the +cognate object+ of the verb and is in the +objective case+ (p. 52).

13. A noun, or a group of words consisting of a noun and its modifiers, may be used adverbially. Such a noun is called an +adverbial objective+ (p. 53).

14. An +appositive+ is in the same case as the substantive which it limits (p. 42).

15. A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in +gender+, +number+, and +person+ (p. 55).

16. +Relative pronouns+ connect dependent clauses with main clauses by referring directly to a substantive in the main clause.

This substantive is the +antecedent+ of the relative (p. 66).

A relative pronoun must agree with its antecedent in +gender+, +number+, and +person+.

The +case+ of a relative pronoun has nothing to do with its antecedent, but depends on the construction of its own clause (p. 68).

17. A relative pronoun in the objective case is often omitted (p. 69).

18. The relative pronoun _what_ is equivalent to _that which_, and has a +double construction+:--(1) the construction of the +omitted+ or +implied antecedent+ _that_; (2) the construction of the +relative+ _which_ (p. 71).

19. The +compound relative pronouns+ may include or imply their own antecedents and hence may have a +double construction+ (p. 72).

The compound relatives are sometimes used without an antecedent expressed or implied (p. 72).

20. An adjective is said to +belong+ to the substantive which it describes or limits (pp. 5, 75).

21. Adjectives may be classified, according to their position in the sentence, as +attributive+, +appositive+, and +predicate adjectives+ (p. 76).

1. An +attributive adjective+ is closely attached to its noun and regularly precedes it.

2. An +appositive adjective+ is added to its noun to explain it, like a noun in apposition.

3. A +predicate adjective+ completes the meaning of the predicate verb, but describes or limits the subject.

For the use of an adjective as +predicate objective+, see § 488.

22. The +comparative degree+, not the superlative, is used in comparing two persons or things.

The +superlative+ is used in comparing one person or thing with two or more (p. 88).

23. +Relative adverbs+ introduce subordinate clauses and are similar in their use to relative pronouns (p. 86).

24. A +verb+ must agree with its subject in +number+ and +person+ (p. 97).

25. A +compound subject+ with _and_ usually takes a verb in the plural number (p. 100).

26. A +compound subject+ with _or_ or _nor_ takes a verb in the singular number if the substantives are singular (p. 100).

27. Nouns that are +plural in form but singular in sense+ commonly take a verb in the singular number (p. 101).

28. +Collective nouns+ take sometimes a singular and sometimes a plural verb.

When the persons or things denoted are thought of as +individuals+, the plural should be used. When the collection is regarded as a +unit+, the singular should be used (p. 101).

29. A verb is in the +active voice+ when it represents the subject as the +doer+ of an act (p. 107).

30. A verb is in the +passive voice+ when it represents the subject as the +receiver+ or the +product+ of an action (p. 107).

The object of the active verb becomes the subject of the passive, and the subject of the active verb becomes in the passive an adverbial phrase modifying the predicate verb (p. 110).

31. When a verb takes both a +direct+ and an +indirect object+, one of the two is often retained after the passive, the other becoming the subject (p. 112).

32. The +indicative+ is the mood of +simple assertion+ or +interrogation+, but it is used in other constructions also (p. 115).

33. The +imperative+ is the mood of +command+ or +request+ (p. 115).

34. The +subject+ of an +imperative+ is seldom expressed unless it is emphatic.

The subject, when expressed, may precede the imperative: as,--_You go_, _You read_ (p. 117).

35. The +subjunctive mood+ is used in certain special constructions of +wish+, +condition+, and the like (pp. 115, 118).

For particulars and examples, see pp. 119–123.

For modal auxiliaries, see pp. 124–132.

36. An +infinitive+, with or without a complement or modifiers, may be used as the +subject+ of a sentence, as a +predicate nominative+, or as an +appositive+ (pp. 134, 135).

37. An +infinitive+ may be used as the +object+ of the prepositions _but_, _except_, _about_, (p. 135).

38. The +infinitive+ may be used as a +nominative of exclamation+ (p. 136).

39. An +infinitive+ may modify a verb by +completing+ its meaning, or by expressing the +purpose+ of the action (p. 137).

40. An +infinitive+ may be used as an +adjective modifier+ of a +noun+ or as an +adverbial modifier+ of an +adjective+.

In this use the infinitive is said to +depend+ on the word which it modifies (p. 136).

41. A kind of +clause+, consisting of a substantive in the objective case followed by an +infinitive+, may be used as the object of certain verbs.

Such clauses are called +infinitive clauses+, and the substantive is said to be the subject of the infinitive.

The +subject+ of an +infinitive+ is in the objective case.

+Infinitive clauses+ are used (1) after verbs of _wishing_, _commanding_, _advising_, and the like, and (2) after some verbs of _believing_, _declaring_, and _perceiving_ (p. 138).

An infinitive clause may be the object of the preposition _for_.

An infinitive clause with _for_ may be used as a subject, as a predicate nominative, or as the object of a preposition (pp. 138–139).

42. The participle is a verb-form which has no subject, but which partakes of the nature of an adjective and expresses action or state in such a way as to describe or limit a substantive (pp. 12, 140).

43. A +participle+ is said to +belong+ to the substantive which it describes or limits (pp. 12, 142).

44. A participle should not be used without some substantive to which it may belong (p. 142).

45. An +infinitive+ or a +participle+, like any other verb-form, may take an +object+ if its meaning allows (pp. 134, 143).

46. +Infinitives+ and +participles+, like other verb-forms, may be +modified+ by adverbs, adverbial phrases, or adverbial clauses (pp. 134, 142).

47. +Verbal+ (or +participial+) +nouns+ in _-ing_ have the form of present participles, but the construction of nouns (p. 145).

48. +Verbal nouns+ in _-ing_ have certain properties of the verb (p. 146).

1. Verbal nouns in _-ing_ may take a +direct+ or an +indirect object+ if their meaning allows.

2. A verbal noun in _-ing_ may take an +adverbial modifier+.

But verbal nouns in _-ing_, like other nouns, may be +modified+ by +adjectives+.

49. A noun in _-ing_ may be used as an +adjective+, or as the adjective element in a +compound noun+ (p. 146).

50. The substantive which follows a +preposition+ is called its +object+ and is in the +objective case+ (p. 148).

51. A +coördinate conjunction+ connects words or groups of words that are independent of each other (p. 151).

52. A +subordinate conjunction+ connects a subordinate clause with the clause on which it depends (p. 151).

53. +Interjections+ usually have no grammatical connection with the phrases or sentences in which they stand.

Sometimes, however, a substantive is connected with an interjection by means of a preposition (p. 155).

THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE

English is a member of the great Indo-European Family of languages, which is so called because it includes well-nigh all the languages of Europe and the most important of those found in India. Within this family, English belongs to the Teutonic (or Germanic) Group, which contains also German, Dutch, the Scandinavian tongues (Icelandic, Danish, Norwegian, Swedish), and some others.

English of the oldest period is called either Anglo-Saxon or Old English. This was the speech of certain piratical tribes whose home was in northern Germany, on the eastern and southern shores of the North Sea, but who invaded Britain about A.D. 450, and subdued the Celtic inhabitants of the island in a series of fierce wars. The most considerable of the invading tribes were the Angles and the Saxons. Their dominion was well assured by the beginning of the seventh century, and their language, which they usually called “English” (that is, “the tongue of the Angles”), gradually spread through England and most of Scotland. In Wales, however, the native Britons have maintained their own Celtic speech to the present day; and in the Scottish Highlands, Gaelic--which is akin to Welsh and practically identical with the native language of Ireland--is still extensively used.

At the time of the invasion, the Angles and Saxons were heathen, and the Britons, who had been for four centuries under the sway of the Roman Empire, were Christians, and much more highly civilized than their conquerors. Indeed, they had adopted many features of Roman culture, and Latin was spoken to some extent, at least in the larger towns. By the end of the seventh century, however, the Anglo-Saxons also had embraced Christianity and had made remarkable advances in literature and learning. The language of the Britons exerted but slight influence upon that of the Anglo-Saxons. The Celtic words in English are few in number, and most of them were borrowed in comparatively recent times.

The Norman Conquest (1066) marks a highly significant date in the history of our language. The Normans were a Scandinavian tribe who had been in possession of Normandy (in northern France) for about a hundred and fifty years. They had abandoned their native tongue, and spoke a dialect of French. From 1066 to about the year 1400, two languages were therefore common in England,--English, which was employed by the vast majority of the people, and French, which was the language of the court and the higher orders. French, however, was never a serious rival of English for supremacy in the island. It was the speech of a class, not of the nation, and its use gradually died out, except as an accomplishment. By the time of Chaucer (who was born about 1340 and died in 1400), it was clear that the English tongue was henceforth to be regarded as the only natural language for Englishmen, whether they were of Anglo-Saxon or of Norman origin.

Still, the Norman conquest had a profound influence upon English. It is not true--though often asserted--that the multitude of French words which our language contains were derived from the Norman dialect. Comparatively few of them came into English until after 1300, when Normandy had been lost to the English crown for a hundred years. Since 1300 we have borrowed freely--not from Norman, however, but from Central (or Parisian) French, which had become the standard to which the English descendants of the Normans endeavored to conform. The effect of the Conquest, then, was not to fill English with Norman terms. It was rather to bring England into close social and literary relations with France, and thus to facilitate the adoption of words and constructions from Central French.

Further, since literature was in the middle ages dependent in the main upon private patronage, the existence of a ruling class whose interest was in French, discouraged the maintenance of any national or general standard of English composition. Every English writer had recourse to his local dialect, and one dialect was felt to be as good as another.

By 1350, however, the dialect of London and the vicinity had come, apparently, to be regarded as somewhat more elegant and polished than the others. All that was needed was the appearance of some writer of supreme genius to whom this dialect should be native. Chaucer was such a writer, for he was born in London. To be sure, Chaucer did not “make modern English.” None the less, he was a powerful agent in settling the language. Since his time, at all events, the fact of a “standard of literary usage” has been undisputed. Dialects still exist, but they are not regarded as authoritative. Educated speakers and writers of English, the world over, use the language with substantial uniformity.[69]

Meantime, however, the English of the Anglo-Saxons had undergone many changes before Chaucer was born. Most of its inflections had been lost, and still others have been discarded since. Further, there had been extensive borrowing from French and Latin, and this continued throughout the fourteenth century. The habit, once formed, has proved lasting. Our vocabulary has received contributions from many languages, and is still receiving them. Greek may be mentioned in particular as the source of many words, especially in the various departments of science. But French and Latin remain the chief foreign elements in English.

In the following extract from Scott, most of the words printed in Roman type are of Anglo-Saxon origin, whereas the italicized words are derived from Latin or French.

It was not until evening was nearly _closed_ that Ivanhoe was _restored_ to _consciousness_ of his _situation_. He awoke from a broken slumber, under the _confused impressions_ which are _naturally attendant_ on the _recovery_ from a _state_ of _insensibility_. He was un_able_ for some time to recall _exactly_ to _memory_ the _circumstances_ which had _preceded_ his fall in the _lists_, or to make out any _connected chain_ of the _events_ in which he had been _engaged_ upon the yesterday. A _sense_ of wounds and _injury_, _joined_ to great weakness and _exhaustion_, was mingled with the _recollection_ of blows dealt and _received_, of steeds rushing upon each other, overthrowing and overthrown, of shouts and clashing of _arms_, and all the heady _tumult_ of a _confused_ fight. An _effort_ to draw aside the _curtain_ of his _couch_ was in some _degree success_ful, although _rendered difficult_ by the _pain_ of his wound.

English has also adopted a good many Scandinavian words, though they form no such proportion of its vocabulary as French or Latin. Danish and Norwegian pirates began to harry the coast in the eighth century. Permanent settlements followed, as well as wars of conquest, and for about thirty years (1013–1042) a Danish family occupied the English throne. These events explain the Scandinavian element in our language.

Despite the freedom with which English has adopted words from abroad, it is still essentially a Germanic speech. Its structure is still the native structure. The borrowings have enriched its vocabulary, but have had comparatively little effect upon its syntax. The foreign words have been naturalized, and their presence in no wise interferes with the unity and general consistency of the English language. It is a strange error to regard English as a combination of Anglo-Saxon and Norman French. As for the loss or decay of inflections, that is not due to a mixture of dialects. It is a natural tendency, which may be seen, for example, in Dutch and Danish, though there was no Norman Conquest in Holland or Denmark. The loss, indeed, is really a gain, for it is progress in the direction of simplicity.

The Anglo-Saxon or Old English Period comes down to about a century, or a century and a half, after the Norman Conquest. Its extreme limit may be set at 1200. The period from 1200 to 1500 is usually known as the Middle English Period. From 1500 to the present time may be regarded as the Modern Period, though within these boundaries English has changed enormously in pronunciation and in vocabulary, very largely in syntax, and to some extent in inflection. The almost complete abandonment of the subjunctive in common speech is one of the latest of these changes. This, too, is in the direction of simplicity.

The people of Great Britain have long been famous as travellers, explorers, and colonizers. Their language, once the dialect (or dialects) of a handful of Germanic adventurers, has spread to all parts of the world, so that now it is not merely the language of England, but, to a considerable extent, that of Scotland, Ireland, North America, India, Australasia, and South Africa. In this vast area, numerous varieties of pronunciation and of idiom of course occur, but, on the whole, the uniformity of the language is surprisingly well preserved.

FOOTNOTES

[1] For a brief history of the English language, see p. 316.

[2] Compare pp. 316–317.

[3] In this book, well-established colloquial idioms or constructions are mentioned from time to time, but always with a note as to their actual status in the language.

[4] In this book, several old forms and constructions which the student is constantly encountering in the English classics are treated in their proper places,--always with an indication of their difference from the modern standard.

[5] In the technical language of grammar an adjective is said to _describe_ a substantive when it describes the object which the substantive denotes.

[6] Definitive adjectives are often called +limiting adjectives+. All adjectives, however, _limit_, even those that also _describe_.

[7] The usual brief definition of a verb is, “A verb is a word which asserts.” But this definition in strictness applies only to verbs in declarative sentences.

[8] For full inflection see pp. 300–301.

[9] +Compound complex+ sentences are also called +complex compound+ sentences. For further treatment of such sentences, see pp. 187, 190, 215–216.

[10] _Vixen_ is really formed from _fox_ (compare the German _Füchsin_ from _Fuchs_).

[11] _Halo_, _memento_, _zero_ also form a plural in _es_ (_haloes_, etc.).

[12] This list is intended for reference.

[13] The English word _animalcule_ (plural _animalcules_) is preferable. The plural _animalculæ_ is erroneous.

[14] _Messrs._ is an abbreviation of the French _messieurs_.

[15] When such nouns as _chemistry_ refer to textbooks, they may be used in the plural: as,--“Bring your _chemistries_ to-morrow.”

[16] This section is intended chiefly for reference.

[17] Note the ambiguity to the ear though not to the eye.

[18] The only exception is in reflexive action, where the object is a compound personal pronoun (“Charles deceived _himself_”). See § 126.

[19] The pupil should not “supply nouns” in such sentences as these. For example, it is unscientific to expand the first sentence into “This [morning] is a fine morning,” and then to parse _this_ as an adjective. It is even more objectionable to expand the fifth sentence by inserting _thing_ or the like after _this_. The plan of “supplying” unexpressed words (as being “understood”) tends to confuse real distinctions of language, and should never be resorted to when it can be avoided.

[20] The negative _not_ (§ 190, 4) is merely a shortened form of _naught_.

[21] Because of their use as connectives, relative pronouns are sometimes called +conjunctive pronouns+.

[22] For indirect questions, see § 441.

[23] In some of these cases the comparative and superlative are really different words from the positive.

[24] The four classes are not absolute, for the same adverb may be used in different senses and thus belong to different classes. Sometimes, too, there is room for difference of opinion. Thus in the fourth and fifth examples under 1, _terribly_ and _surprisingly_ are equivalent to “in a terrible (or surprising) manner,” and therefore are classified as adverbs of manner; but they may also be regarded as adverbs of degree.

[25] Many comparatives and superlatives in _er_ and _est_ that are no longer allowable in prose are still used in poetry.

[26] Many grammarians regard _is_ and the noun or adjective that follows it (_is money_, etc.) as the simple predicate; but the nomenclature here adopted is equally scientific and more convenient.

[27] The word _tense_ is simply an English form of the French word for _time_.

[28] The +past tense+ is often called the +preterite+ (from a Latin word meaning “gone by”). _Preterite_ is in some ways a better name for the tense than _past_, since both the perfect and the pluperfect tenses also refer to past time.

[29] Silent final _e_ is not counted as an ending.

[30] Notice also the change from _v_ to _f_ before _t_.

[31] The ending _ed_ indicates tense, not person or number.

[32] The second person singular is often given as “_Thou walkest_ or _You walk_,” but it is simpler to regard _You walk_ in this use as a plural in a singular sense (§ 224).

[33] This rule is not absolute. Sometimes the distinction is unimportant, and the feeling of the moment often determines the number of the verb.

[34] So _I can strike_, etc.

[35] So _I could strike_, etc.

[36] So _I can have struck_, etc.

[37] So _I could have struck_, etc.

[38] For the so-called +infinitive clause+, in which the infinitive has a subject of a peculiar kind, see §§ 324–328.

[39] After verbs of _wishing_, etc., they express purpose (§ 403); after verbs of _believing_, etc., they are in indirect discourse (§ 431).

[40] The only exceptions are trifling differences in spelling.

[41] Coördinate conjunctions are also called +coördinating+, and subordinate conjunctions are also called +subordinating+.

[42] Compare the exclamatory sentence (§ 3) and the exclamatory nominative (§ 88, 4).

[43] Including clauses of +manner+ and +degree+ (§§ 428–429).

[44] By “_if_-clause” is meant the protasis, whatever the conjunction.

[45] Clauses introduced by _as_ are often called +clauses of manner+.

[46] Such sentences are elliptical in origin. Thus, “The man acts as if he were crazy” is equivalent to “The man acts as [he would act] if he were crazy.” But it is not necessary to supply the ellipsis in analyzing.

[47] In analyzing, the direct quotation may be regarded as the object of the verb of saying, etc. (or the subject, if that verb is passive); and if it forms a complete sentence, this may be analyzed as if it stood by itself. It is not proper to regard the direct quotation as a subordinate clause.

[48] See pp. 102–105, 127–132.

[49] Instead of +compound complex+, the term +complex compound+ is often used. The terms are synonymous, both meaning “compound in general structure, but complex in one or more members.”

[50] Or parse the nominatives according to the models in § 112.

[51] For exercises in the use of the comparative and the superlative, see pp. 249–250, 252.

[52] The omission of a form from the list, then, does not necessarily indicate that it is wrong or even objectionable. There is considerable diversity of usage with regard to the strong verbs, and to state the facts at length would take much space. An attempt to include archaic, poetical, and rare forms in the same list with the usual modern forms is sure to mislead the pupil. Hence the list here presented is confined to forms about whose correctness there can be no difference of opinion. Archaic and poetical tense-forms are treated later (pp. 297–299).

[53] _Born_ is used only in the passive sense of “born into the world.”

[54] The adjective form is _bereaved_: as, “The bereaved father.”

[55] _Cleave_, “to adhere,” has _cleaved_ in both the past tense and the past participle, and also an archaic past form _clave_.

[56] The archaic participle _gotten_ is used in the compounds _begotten_ and _forgotten_, and as an adjective (“_ill-gotten_ gains”). Many good speakers also use it instead of the past participle got, but _got_ is the accepted modern form.

[57] _Hanged_ is used only of execution by hanging.

[58] Usage varies with the context. We say, “The crew _hove_ the cargo overboard,” but NOT “She _hove_ a sigh.”

[59] _Load_ has _loaded_ in both the past tense and the past participle. _Laden_ is sometimes used as the past participle of _load_.

[60] _Lie_, “to tell a falsehood,” has _lied_ in both the past tense and the past participle.

[61] So both _light_, “to kindle,” and _light_, “to alight.” The verb _alight_ has usually _alighted_ in both the past tense and the past participle.

[62] _Seethe_, intransitive, has usually _seethed_ in both the past tense and the past participle. It is in rather common literary use.

[63] _Stricken_ is also used as a participle in a figurative sense. Thus we say, “The community was _stricken_ with pestilence,”--but “The dog was _struck_ with a stick.”

[64] It is a remnant of the old past plural. In Anglo-Saxon the principal parts of _begin_ were: present, _beginne_; past, _began_; past plural, _begunnon_; past participle, _begunnen_.

[65] The adjectives are usually pronounced _blessèd_, _cursèd_. Compare also the adjective _accursèd_.

[66] Both forms are in good use.

[67] Both forms are in good use. The adjective is pronounced _learnèd_.

[68] The main rules of punctuation are well fixed and depend on important distinctions in sentence structure and consequently in thought. In detail, however, there is much variety of usage, and care should be taken not to insist on such uniformity in the pupils’ practice as is not found in the printed books which they use. If young writers can be induced to indicate the ends of their sentences properly, much has been accomplished.

[69] It is not meant, of course, that an American or Australian of the present day should exert himself to imitate the speech of a modern Londoner. The point is, that what we now call “English” is, in most respects, the direct descendant of the London dialect of the fourteenth century.

INDEX

[_References are to pages_; f. _signifies “and following page”_; ff. _signifies “and following pages.”_]

_A_ for _on_ (_a-fishing_), 147, 149. _A_ or _an_, 77 ff.; distributive, 79. _About_, with infinitive, 105, 135. Absolute construction, 144. See Nominative. Absolute use of transitive verbs, 92. Abstract nouns, 29 f. Accusative, 52. Action, nouns in _-ing_, 145 ff. Active voice, 107 ff. See Passive. Adjective, 5, 75 ff.; descriptive and definitive, 5, 75 f.; proper, 75; compound, 75; pronominal, 76 (cf. 62 ff.); attributive, appositive, predicate, 76 f.; articles, 77 ff; comparison, 79 ff., 88 f.; numerals, 89 f.; noun as adjective, adjective as noun, 9, 78; participle as, 143; adjective in exclamations, 155 f.; as modifier of subject, 192 f. See Adjective pronoun, Predicate adjective. Adjective clauses, 20, 66, 86, 157 f.; place or time, 163 f.; as modifiers of subject, 192 f.; of complement, 206. Adjective phrases, 16, 157; comparison of, 89; as modifiers of subject, 192 f.; as complements, 204; as modifiers of modifiers, 207. Adjective pronouns, 62 ff.; demonstrative, 62 ff.; indefinite, 64 f. Adverb, defined, 7; classification, forms, and use, 83 ff.; relative or conjunctive, 86; interrogative, 86; comparison, 87 ff.; numeral, 89 f.; in exclamations, 155 f.; as modifier, 196 f., 206, 208. Adverbial clauses, 20 f., 86, 158 f.; place or time, 163 f.; causal, 164; concessive, 164 f.; purpose or result, 166 f.; conditional, 167 ff.; comparison, degree, manner, 173; indirect question, 180; as modifiers of predicate, 196 f.; of complement, 206; of modifiers, 207 f. Adverbial objective, 53; clause as, 158 f.; as modifier, 198. Adverbial phrases, 16, 53, 142, 158; numeral, 90; as modifiers of predicate, 196 f., 198 ff.; of complement, 206; of modifiers, 207 f. _Advising_, verbs of, with infinitive clause, 138. Affirmative, 85. _A-fishing_, etc., 147, 149. _After_, preposition, 148; relative adverb, 86, 157, 164. Agreement, of predicate nominative with subject, 41, 57 f.; of appositive, 42, 47, 53, 57; of pronoun with antecedent, 55, 65; of relative with antecedent, 68, 102; of verb with subject, 97, 100 ff. _All_, 65. Alternative conditions, 168; questions, 179. _Although._ See _Though_. Analysis, 183 ff.; structure of sentences, 183 ff.; analysis, with models, 188 ff.; simple sentences, 188; compound, 188 f.; complex, 189 f.; compound complex, 190; modifiers, 191 ff.; complements, 200 ff.; modifiers of complements and of modifiers, 205 ff.; independent elements, 209; combinations of clauses, 210 ff.; elliptical sentences, 224 ff. See further under these several heads. Anglo-Saxon, xv, 316 f. Animals, names of, gender, 32; pronouns, 69. _Another_, 64 f. Antecedent of pronoun, 4; agreement, 55, 65, 68, 102; unexpressed, 71 ff.; _what_, 71; compound relatives, 72 f. _Any_, _anything_, 64 f. Apodosis, 168. Apostrophe, 43 ff., 56, 311. _Appear_, with predicate nominative or adjective, 6 f., 76, 93. Apposition, 42. See Appositive. Appositive, case of, 42, 47, 53, 57; with possessive, 47; infinitive as, 134 f.; clause as, 159 ff., 167, 174, 180, 196; appositive as modifier, 195 f., 207. Appositive adjective, 76. Appositive phrase, 195. Archaisms, xvii. See Old. Articles, 77 ff.; generic, 77; repeated, 78; with verbal noun, 147. _As_, relative pronoun, 67; relative adverb, 86, 153; conjunction, 153; in concession, 165; in clauses of degree, 173. _As if_, _as though_, 122, 153, 173; _as to_, with infinitive, 167. _Asking_, verb of, two objects, 50; retained object, 112; with indirect question, 179 ff. (cf. 160). Assertion, 2, 5, 13. Attribute. See Predicate adjective, Predicate objective. Attributive adjective, 76. _Aught_, _naught_, 65. Authorship, 43. Auxiliary verbs, 6, 91; in future, 102 ff.; in compound tenses, 106; in passive, 108 ff.; in progressive form, 113 f.; in emphatic form, 114; replacing subjunctive, 123; in potential verb-phrases, 124 ff.

_Be_, 6 f., 93; conjugation, 99, 118 f., 300 f.; auxiliary of passive, 108 ff.; of progressive form, 113; ellipsis of, 114, 144, 164 f., 169, 224 f.; predicate pronoun after, 139. See Predicate nominative. _Become_, with predicate nominative or adjective, 6 f., 76, 93. _Before_, preposition, 148; relative adverb, 86, 157, 163 f.; with subjunctive, 122; with _should_, 130. _Believing_, verbs of, with infinitive clause, 138. Biblical style. See Solemn. _Bid_, with infinitive, 138. _Both_, pronoun, 64. _Both ... and_, 15, 153. _But_, adverb, 135. _But_, coördinate conjunction, 152; subordinate, 153 f.; elliptical constructions, 154. _But_, preposition, 148; with infinitive, 135.

_Calling_, verbs of, two objects, 50; predicate nominative after passive, 111. _Can_, _could_, 124 ff., 299. Capital letters, 27 ff., 75; rules, 305. Cardinal numerals, 89 f. Case, 40 ff.; nominative, 40 ff.; possessive, 43 ff.; objective, 47 ff.; of appositives, 42, 47, 53, 57. See Pronouns. Cause, clauses of, 164; nominative absolute, 144. Chaucer, xv, 43, 49, 85, 317 f. _Choosing_, verbs of, two objects, 50; predicate nominative after passive, 111. Clauses, independent and subordinate, 16 ff.; as parts of speech, 19 ff., 157 ff.; infinitive, 137 ff.; simple, compound, complex, 210 ff.; combination of, 210 ff. See Adjective, Adverbial, Noun, Infinitive clause. Clauses, subordinate, classified according to meaning, 163 ff.; place and time, 163 f.; cause, 164; concession, 164 f.; purpose and result, 166 f.; conditional, 167 ff.; comparison and manner, 173; indirect discourse, 173 ff.; indirect questions, 179 ff. Cognate object, 52; _it_ as, 58; as modifier, 199. Collective nouns, 29 f.; verbs with, 101 f. Colloquial forms and constructions, xvi, 38, 57 ff., 61, 69, 100, 112, 120, 149, 155. Colon, 309 f. Color, adjectives of, 84. Combinations of clauses, 210 ff. _Come_, _have_ (or _am_) _come_, 107. Comma, 70, 306 ff. Command, with _shall_ or _will_, 105, 118; as condition, 169; verbs of, with infinitive clause, 138; with noun clause, 160, 167. See Imperative. Common gender, 31. Common nouns, 27 ff.; personification, 28 f. Comparative and superlative, of adjectives, 79 ff., 88 f.; of adverbs, 87 ff.; use, 88 f.; comparative with _the_, 86. Comparison, clauses of, 173. Comparison of adjectives, 79 ff., 88 f.; of adverbs, 87 ff.; use of, 88 f. Complementary infinitive, 137. Complementary object, 50. See Predicate objective. Complements. See Object, Predicate objective, Predicate nominative, Predicate adjective. Complements, classified, 200 ff.; direct object, 201; predicate objective, 202; predicate nominative, 202 f.; predicate adjective, 203 f. Complements, modifiers of, 205 f. Complete predicate. See Predicate. Complete predication, 200. Complete subject. See Subject. Complete tenses, 106 f. Complete verbs, 200. Complex clauses, 18, 187, 211 f., 215 f., 219 ff. Complex compound. See Compound complex. Complex sentences, 17 ff., 186; analyzed, 189 f.; varieties of, 216 ff. Compound adjectives, 75. Compound clauses, 151, 186, 210 ff. Compound complex sentences, 18, 187, 215 f.; analyzed, 190, 222 f. Compound conjunctions, 153. Compound nouns, 30, 146 f.; plural, 36; possessive, 46 f. Compound personal pronouns, 60 ff.; intensive and reflexive, 61 f.; relatives, 72 f. Compound predicate, 15, 184 f., 212 f. Compound sentences, 17 ff., 185; analyzed, 188 f.; elaboration of, 213 f. Compound subject, 15, 184 f., 212 f.; agreement, 100 f. Compound tenses, 106 f. _Concerning_, 142, 149. Concession, moods in, 120 ff.; _should_ and _would_ in, 123, 131; clauses of, 164 ff. Conclusion, 168. Conditional clauses and sentences, moods in, 120 ff., 170 ff.; forms and meaning, 167 ff.; classification, 169 ff.; past and present, 170 f.; non-committal and contrary to fact, 170 f.; future, 171 f.; _shall_, _will_, _should_, _would_, 130 f. Conjugation, 25, 94 ff.; indicative present and past, 98 f.; future, 102; active and passive, 108 ff.; progressive, 113 f.; potential verb-phrases, 124 f.; tables of, 300 ff. Conjunction, defined, 8; classification and use, 151 ff.; coördinate or coördinating, 151 f.; subordinate or subordinating, 151, 153 f.; correlative, 153 f.; adverb, preposition, and, 152 f.; and adverb, 150. Conjunctive adverbs and pronouns. See Relative. _Considering_, 142, 149. Construction, xiv, 25 ff. Contractions: _it’s_, 56; _I’ll_, _we’ll_, 104; _let’s_, 120; _may n’t_, _ought n’t_, 126; _I’d_, _we’d_, 130. Contrary to fact, conditions, 170 f. Coördinate (coördinating) conjunctions, 151 f. Coördinate clauses, 17 ff., 185 ff., 210 ff. Coördination in sentences, 210 ff. See Coördinate. Copula. See _Be_. Copulative verbs, 6 f., 76, 93. See _Be_. Correlative conjunctions, 153 f. _Could._ See _Can_.

_Dare_, 137, 299. Dash, 310. Dative, 52, 60. Declarative sentences, 2. _Declaring_, verbs of, with infinitive clause, 138. Declension of nouns, 40; of personal pronouns, 55 f.; of _self_-pronouns, 60; of demonstratives, 63; of relatives, 67; of compound relatives, 72; of interrogatives, 73. Defective verbs, 299. Definite article, 77 ff. Definitive adjectives, 5, 75 f. Degree, adverbs of, 84; clauses of, 173. See Comparison. Deity, words for the, 305. Demonstrative pronouns and adjectives, 62 ff. Dependent. See Subordinate. Descriptive adjectives, 4, 75; relatives, 70 f. _Desiring_, verbs of, with infinitive, 137; with noun clause, 160, 167. _Did._ See _Do_. Direct address, nominative in, 42; independent element, 209. Direct discourse, 174 ff. Direct object. See Object. Direct quotations, 173 f.; questions, 179. _Do_, _did_, in questions, 114; in emphatic verb-phrases, 114; in imperative, 117; as substitute for some other verb, 114. Double comparison, 88; conditions, 168. _Doubting_, verb of, with indirect question, 179 (cf. 160).

_Each_, _each other_, 64 f. Editorial _we_, 57. _Either_, 64; _either ... or_, 15, 153. _Elder_, _eldest_, 81. Elements. See Subject, Predicate, Modifiers, Complements, Independent. Ellipsis, understood words, etc., 3, 47, 58, 63, 69, 71, 114, 117, 19 f., 121 f., 133, 144, 149, 153 f., 155, 160, 164 f., 169, 173, 175, 224 ff. Elliptical sentences, 224 ff. _’em_, 57. Emphasis, superlative of, 88. Emphatic verb-phrases, 114; imperative, 117. _-en_, plural ending of nouns, 35; old plural ending of verbs, 99. Endings, in inflection, 25; gender, 33; number, 34 ff.; case, 40; possessive, 43 f.; comparison, 80 ff., 87; adverbs, 83 ff.; tense, 95 f.; personal endings, 97 f. English language, xi ff.; history of, 316 ff. Errors of speech, 37, 45, 56, 58, 60, 62, 64 f., 74, 77, 88, 102 ff., 126, 128 ff., 133 ff., 139, 147. _Even if_, 153, 164 f. _Every_, _everybody_, _everything_, 64 f. _Except_, with infinitive, 135. Exclamation, nominative in, 42, 57, 156; objective _me_, 60; infinitive, 136; various parts of speech, 155 f.; phrases, 155 f.; clauses, 169; as independent element, 209. See Interjection. Exclamation point, 155, 306. Exclamatory sentences, 2 f., 74; phrases, 155 f.; expressions, 155 f., 209. See Exclamation, Interjection. Exercises, 227–290. See Table of Contents, v. Exhortations, 120. Expectation, subjunctive, 122 f.; _should_, 130. Expletive. See _It_, _There_. Extent, possessive of, 46. _Eyne_, 35.

_Feel_, with predicate adjective, 77; with infinitive, 136. Feminine. See Gender. _Few_, 65. Figures, plural of, 36. _For_, conjunction, 152. _For_, preposition, 148, 152; with infinitive, 135; with infinitive clause, 139. Foreign plurals, 37. Fractional parts, 90. Future conditions, 171 f. Future perfect tense, 106. Future tense, 94, 102 ff. See _Shall_, _will_.

Gender, 31 ff.; of nouns and pronouns, 31; special rules for nouns, 32 ff.; of pronouns, 56; of relatives, 67 ff. See Personification. _Generally speaking_, 142. Generic article, 77. Genitive. See Possessive. Gerund, 146. _Giving_, verbs of, direct and indirect object, 50; retained object, 112. _Go._ See Motion. _Going to_, 105. Grammar, nature and principles of, xi ff. _Granted that_, 168.

Habitual action, 127. _Had rather_, etc., 123; _had to_, 126. _Half_, 102. _Have_, _had_, 6, 95; auxiliary in compound tenses, 106 ff., 141. _He_, 56; for _he or she_, 65. _Hear_, with infinitive, 136. _Hem_, old pronoun, 57. _His_, as neuter, 56. _Hosen_, 35. _How_, 86. _However_, 152; in concessions, 165. Hyphen, 30, 311.

_I’d_, _we’d_, 130. Idioms, nature of, xv. _If_, 153; in conditions, 168 ff.; in wishes, 169; in indirect questions, 179. _Ill_, 81, 87. _I’ll_, _we’ll_, 104. Imperative mood, 116 ff.; in exclamations, 156; as a condition, 169. Imperative sentences, 2 f., 116 ff.; subject of, 2, 117. Impersonal _it_, 58. See _It_. _In case that_, 153; _in order that_, 153, 166; _in order to_, 167. Incomplete predication, 200; verbs, 200. Indefinite article, 77 ff.; pronouns and adjectives, 64 f.; nouns, 65; relatives (_whoever_, etc.), 72 f. Independent clauses, 17 f. See Clauses. Independent elements, 209. Independent participles, 142. Indicative mood, 115 f.; variety of use, 116; in statements and questions of fact, 116; in commands, 105, 118; in concessions, 121; in conditions, 170, 172. Indirect discourse, 173 ff.; tenses in, 175; passive, 175 f.; _shall_, _should_, _will_, _would_, 177 f. Indirect object, 50 f.; retained with passive, 112; of participial nouns, 146; as modifier, 199. Indirect questions, 179 ff.; infinitive in, 181; subjunctive in, 181; _shall_, _should_, _will_, _would_, 182. Indirect quotations, 173 ff. Infinitive, 11 ff., 132 ff.; forms, 107, 133; object and modifiers, 134; uses, 134 ff.; as noun, 11 ff., 134; as object, 135; as nominative of exclamation, 136; as modifier, 136 f., 194, 197 f.; with _see_, _hear_, _feel_, 136; complementary, 137; of purpose, 137, 167; in verb-phrases, 12; in future, 102; in emphatic forms, 114, 117; in potential verb-phrases, 124 ff.; with _ought_, tenses, 126; in indirect questions, 181; in verb-phrases, see Future, Future perfect, Emphatic, Potential. Infinitive clause, 137 ff.; as object, 138 f.; as subject, 139; predicate pronoun in, 139; expressing purpose, 167; indirect discourse, 175. Infinitive phrase, 194. Inflection, nature and function of, xiii f., 25; summary of, 26; of nouns, 30 ff.; of pronouns, 55 ff.; of adjectives, 79 ff.; of verbs, 94 ff.; lists of verb-forms, 291 ff. _-ing_, verbal nouns in, 145 ff. See Participial nouns. Intensive pronouns, 61 f. Interjections, defined, 8; use, 155 f.; as independent elements, 209. Interrogation point, 306. Interrogative adverbs, 86; with clauses, 157; in indirect questions, 179; with infinitive, 181. Interrogative pronouns, 73 f.; as adjectives, 74; with prepositions, 150; with clauses, 157; in indirect questions, 179 ff.; with infinitive, 181. Interrogative sentences, 2 f.; order in, 3; _do_, _did_ in, 114; direct and indirect questions, 179 ff. Intransitive verbs, 48 f., 92 f.; voice, 111; in passive with preposition, 111. Inverted order, 3, 85, 121 f., 161. Irregular verbs, 95, 99; participles, 141; lists, 291 ff. _Is._ See _Be_. _It_, 56; impersonal, 58; expletive, 58, 135, 161, 175 f.; cognate object, 58.

_Kind_, _sort_, 64. _Kine_, 35. _Knowing_, verbs of, indirect discourse, 174; indirect question, 179.

Language, nature of, xi ff.; English, 316 ff. _Less_, _least_, 81, 87. _Lest_, with subjunctive, 122; purpose, 122, 166. _Let_, with infinitive, 138; _let us_, 120. Letters, plural of, 36. _Like_, _should like_, 129. _Like_, with objective, 52. Limiting adjectives, 5. See Definitive. _Look_, with predicate adjective, 77.

Main clause, 17 f.; analysis, 184 ff., 213 ff.; compound, 216 f. Majesty, plural of, 57. _Make_, with infinitive, 138. _Making_, verbs of, two objects, 50; predicate nominative after passive, 111. _-man_, words ending in, plural of, 35. Manner, adverbs of, 83; clauses of, 173. _Many_, 65. Masculine. See Gender. _May_, _might_, auxiliary, 120 ff.; replacing subjunctive, 123; form, 299. Measure or extent, possessive of, 46. _Meseems_, _methinks_, 60. _Might_, auxiliary, 123 ff.; replacing subjunctive, 123; _might better_, 123. See _May_. Modal auxiliaries, use and meaning, 124 ff. Mode. See Mood. Models for parsing, analysis, 54, 74, 82, 188 ff., 243, 250 f., 262, 270. See Exercises. Modifiers, 7; classified, 191 ff.; of subject, 192 ff.; adjectives, adjective phrases, adjective clauses, 192 f.; participles, 193 f.; infinitives, 194; possessives, 195; appositives, 195 f.; of predicate, 196 ff.; adverbs, adverbial phrases, adverbial clauses, 196 f.; infinitives, 197 f.; adverbial objectives, 198; nominative absolute, 198 f.; indirect object, 199; cognate object, 199. Modifiers of complements, 205 f. Modifiers of modifiers, 207 f. Mood, 115 ff.; indicative, 115 f.; imperative, 116 ff.; subjunctive, 118 ff.; potential, 124. See Indicative, Subjunctive, etc. _More_, _most_, in comparison, 81, 87 ff. _-most_, superlative suffix, 82. Motion, verbs of, with _have_ or _be_, 107; ellipsis, 225. _Must_, auxiliary, 124 ff., 299. _My_, _mine_, 59.

_Naming_, verbs of, two objects, 50; predicate nominative after passive, 111. _Naught_, _not_, 65. _Near_, with objective, 52. Negative, _neither_, 64, 152; _none_, 64; _not_, 65; _no_, 85; statements and questions, 114; commands, 117; purpose or result, 166 f.; condition, 168. _Neither_, pronoun, 64; conjunction, with _nor_, 15, 152 ff.; number with, 100. Neuter. See Gender. _Next_, 52, 82, 87. _Nigh_, _next_, 82. _No_, _yes_, 85. Nominative case, 41 f.; subject, 41; predicate, 41; direct address (vocative), 42; in exclamation, 42; absolute, 144, 198 f. Non-committal conditions, 170 f. _None_, 64. _Nor_, _neither ... nor_, number with, 100. _Not_, 65. _Notwithstanding_, preposition or conjunction, 152, 154. Noun, defined, 4; classification, 27 ff.; common and proper, 27 ff.; abstract and collective, 29 f.; compound, 30, 36, 47, 146 f.; inflection, 30 ff.; gender, 31 ff.; number, 34 ff.; person, 39; case, 40 ff.; numeral, 89 f.; verbal (participial), 145 ff. See Infinitive. Noun clauses, 20, 159 ff.; construction, as subject, object, etc., 159 ff.; purpose and result, 166 f.; indirect discourse, 174 ff.; indirect questions, 180 ff.; analysis, 190; as complement, 201 ff.; direct object, 201; predicate objective, 202; predicate nominative, 203. Noun-phrases, 16, 28; possessive of, 47; verbal noun-phrases, 146. _Number_, _a_ (or _the_), 101. Number of nouns, 34 ff.; of pronouns, 56 f., 60, 63 ff., 67 f., 72; of verbs, 97 ff., 100 ff.; agreement in, 55, 65, 68, 97, 100 ff. Numerals, 89 f.

_O_ or _oh_, 8, 155; in wishes, 155. Object, of preposition, 8, 47, 148; of verb, direct, 48 ff.; predicate objective, 50; indirect, 50 f.; for whom, 51; cognate, 52; retained, 112; of infinitive, 134; of verbal (participial) noun, 146 f.; infinitive as, 135; infinitive clause as, 138 f.; noun-clause as, 159 ff., 167, 174 ff., 180 f. See Complements, Modifiers. Object clauses. See Noun clauses. Objective attribute, 50. Objective case, 47 ff.; of service, 51 f.; adverbial, 53; in apposition, 53; of pronouns, 55 f., 60, 63, 67, 69, 72, 73 f.; in exclamation, 60; subject of infinitive, 138 f. See Object. Objective complement, 50. See Predicate objective. Obsolete words, etc., xvi f. See Old. _Of mine_, 47, 59. _Of_-phrase, 45. Old or poetical forms and constructions, 28 f., 32, 35, 39, 43, 45, 52, 56 ff., 59 ff., 62 f., 67, 69, 73, 78, 82, 84 f., 88, 90, 95 ff., 99, 100, 105, 114, 116 f., 118, 120, 122, 124, 126, 135, 149, 154, 225, 293, 297 ff. _On condition that_, 168. _One_, _one’s_, _one’s self_, 60, 65; _one another_, 64 f. _Or_, _either ... or_, 15, 153 f.; number with _or_, _nor_, 100. Order. See Inverted. Orders, _will_ in, 105. See Command. Ordinal numerals, 89 f. _Other_, _another_, 64 f. _Ought_, 126 f. _Ourself_, 60. _Owe_, _ought_, 126, 299. _Own_, 61.

_Pains_, 101. Parsing, models for, 54, 74, 82, 243, 250 f., 262, 270. _Part_, _portion_, 102. Participial nouns, 145 ff.; object of, 146 f.; modifiers of, 146; as adjective, 146 f.; with article, 147. Participial phrase, 194. Participles, 11 f., 140 ff.; present, past, perfect, 12, 106 f., 140 f.; constructions, 142 ff.; object and modifiers of, 142 f.; as prepositions, 142, 149; as adjectives, 143; with nominative absolute, 145; as modifiers, 193 f., 205. Parts of speech, defined, 3 ff.; same word as different, 9 ff.; substitutes for, 15 ff. (see Phrases, Clauses); inflection and syntax, 25 ff. See Noun, Pronoun, etc. Passive voice, 107 ff.; form of, 108 ff.; use of, 110 ff.; predicate nominative with, 111; retained object with, 112; in progressive form, 114; in imperative, 117; in subjunctive, 119; intransitive verbs with preposition, 111; passive distinguished from _be_ with participle used as adjective, 143; clause as retained object, 160; indirect discourse, 175 f. Past conditions, 169 ff.; non-committal, 170 f.; contrary to fact, 171. Past participle, 106, 140 f.; as predicate adjective, 143. Past perfect tense, 106, 109; subjunctive, 121 f., 171; progressive, 125; in conditions, 121, 170 f.; in indirect discourse, 175. Past tense, 94 ff.; personal endings, 97 ff.; passive, 108; progressive, 113 f.; emphatic, 114; subjunctive, 118, 121 ff., 171 f.; indicative and subjunctive in conditions, 170 ff.; in indirect discourse, 175. _Pending_, 142, 149. _Per_, _per cent_, etc., 79, 149. _Perceiving_, verbs of, with infinitive clause, 138; indirect discourse, 174; indirect question, 179. Perfect infinitive, 107, 133; with _ought_, 126; participle, 107, 140 f. Perfect (or present perfect) tense, 106. Period, 306. Permission, 125 f., 129. Person of substantives, 39; of pronouns, 55 ff.; of relatives, 68; of verbs, 97 ff., 100 ff. Personal construction, 176. Personal endings, 97 f. Personal pronouns, 55 ff.; inflection, 55 ff.; gender and number, 56 f.; case, 57 ff.; _self_-pronouns, 60 ff.; as predicate nominative, 41. Personification, 28 f., 32. Phrases, 16; kinds of, 16 (see Noun-phrases, Adjective phrases, Adverbial phrases, Verb-phrases); as prepositions, 149; as conjunctions, 153; exclamatory, 155; in analysis, 191 ff.; as modifiers of subject, 192 f.; of predicate, 196 f.; as complements, 204; as modifiers of complements, 205 f.; of other modifiers, 207 f. See Progressive, Emphatic, Potential, Appositive, Infinitive, Participial, Prepositional, Verbal noun-phrases. Place and time, adverbs of, 83 ff.; clauses of, 163 f. Pluperfect tense, 106, 109; subjunctive, 121 f., 171; progressive, 125; in conditions, 121, 170 f.; in indirect discourse, 175. Plural of nouns, 34 ff.; irregular, 35 ff.; of compounds, 36; of foreign nouns, 37; of proper names and titles, 35, 38; of possessive, 43 f.; of pronouns, 56 f., 60, 62 ff.; of relatives, 67 f.; of verbs, 97 ff.; plural of majesty, 57. Poetical forms and constructions, xvii. See Old. _Portion_, _part_, 102. Positive degree, 79, 87. Possessive case of nouns, 43 ff.; use, 45 ff.; of measure, 46; of compound nouns and of phrases, 46 f.; apposition with, 47; of personal pronouns, 55 f., 59; of definite pronouns, 65; of relatives, 67, 69, 72; of interrogatives, 73; possessive nouns modified, 207. Possessive modifiers, 195, 205, 207. Possessive pronouns, 55 f., 59; _my_, _mine_, etc., use of, 59; _one’s_, 65; _whose_, 67, 69, 72, 73. Potential verb-phrases, 124 ff.; mood, 124 ff. _Pray_, 58. Prayers, subjunctive, 119 f. Predicate, 2; inverted order, 3, 85, 121 f., 161; simple and complete, 14 f., 183 f.; compound, 15, 184 f., 212 f.; possessive in, 59; analysis, 183 ff.; modifiers of, 196 ff.; complements, 200 ff. See Complements, Modifiers. Predicate adjective, 76 f., 93; participle as, 143; analysis, 203 f.; as complement, 203 f.; phrase as, 204; modifiers of, 206. Predicate nominative, 41, 49, 93; of pronouns, 58; after passive, 111; infinitive as, 134 f.; infinitive clause as, 139; noun clause as, 159 f., 174, 180; in analysis, 202 f.; as complement, 202 f.; modifiers of, 205 f. Predicate objective, 50, 111; adjective as, 50; in analysis, 202; as complement, 202; modified, 205. Predicate pronoun after _to be_, 139. Predication, complete and incomplete, 200. Preposition, defined, 8; list and uses, 148 ff.; object of, 8, 47, 150 ff.; with intransitive verb, 111; with passive, 111; phrase used as, 149; at end of clause, 149; following the object, 149; omitted, 149; participle as, 149; infinitive as object of, 135; clause as object of, 161, 180. Prepositional phrases, 16, 148. Present conditions, 170 ff.; non-committal, 170 f.; contrary to fact, 171. Present infinitive, 133; with _ought_, 126. Present participle, 12, 140 f.; in verb-phrases, 13, 113 f., 130 f.; with nominative absolute, 144. Present perfect tense, 106. Present tense form, 94; personal endings, 97 f.; conjugation, 98 f.; in future sense, 105; in future conditions, 172; passive, 108; progressive, 113 f.; emphatic, 114; imperative, 116 f.; subjunctive, 118 f., 120 ff.; indicative and subjunctive in conditions, 170 f.; participle, 12, 144 ff.; infinitive, 133. Preterite, 94. See Past. Preterite-present verbs, 299. Principal clause. See Main clause. Principal parts, 107; list, 291 ff. _Prithee_, 58. Progressive verb-phrases, 113 f.; in subjunctive, 119. Prohibition, 117. Pronominal adjectives. See Adjective pronouns; Demonstrative, Indefinite, Relative, Interrogative. Pronoun defined, 4; antecedent of, 4; classification, forms, and uses, 55 ff.; predicate nominative, 41, 58. See Personal, Adjective, Demonstrative, Indefinite, Relative, Interrogative, Intensive, Reflexive, Reciprocal, Gender. Pronoun, predicate, after to be, 139. Proper nouns, 27 ff.; plural, 35, 38; possessive, 44; adjectives, 75. Prophecy, _shall_, 105. Protasis, 168. _Provided_ (_that_), 153, 168. Punctuation, rules of, 306 ff. Purpose, subjunctive and indicative, 122 f.; infinitive of, 137, 167; clauses of, 166 f.; infinitive clause, 167.

Questions, 3 f.; _shall_ and _will_ in, 102 ff.; _should_ and _would_ in, 127 ff.; _do_, _did_, 114; _may_, 126; as condition, 169; direct and indirect, 179 ff. See Interrogative. Quotation marks, 310. Quotations, direct and indirect, 173 ff.

_Rather_, 87; _had rather_, 123. Reciprocal pronouns, 64 f. Reflexive pronouns, 61; simple personal pronouns as, 61. _Refusing_, verbs of, direct and indirect object, 50; retained object, 112. Regular verbs, 95 ff.; participles, 141. Relative adjectives, 73. Relative adverbs, 86; with subjunctive, 122; introducing clauses, 157 f.; place and time, 164; concession, 165; conditions, 169. Relative pronouns, 66 ff.; forms, 67; gender, 67 ff.; agreement, 68, 102; case, 68 f., 139; omitted, 69; descriptive and restrictive, 70 f.; _what_, 71; compound relatives, 72 f.; relatives introducing clauses, 66, 157 f.; place and time, 163 f.; concession, 131, 165; condition, 131, 169. Restrictive relatives, 70 f. Result, clause of, 166 f.; infinitive, 167; negative, 167. Retained object, 112; clause as, 160. Royal _we_, 57, 60.

_Same_ (_the_) _as_, 67. _Saying._ See _Telling_. _See_, with infinitive, 136. _Seem_, with predicate nominative or adjective, 6 f., 76, 93; _it seems that_, 176. _Self_-pronouns, 60 ff. Semicolon, 309 f. Sentences, 1 ff.; kinds of, 2 f.; parts of speech in, 3 ff., 13 ff.; essential elements in, 2, 14; simple and complete subject and predicate, 14 f.; clauses in, 16 ff.; simple, compound, complex, 17 ff.; compound complex, 18. Sentences, analysis, 183 ff.; structure and elements, 183; of simple sentences, 184 f.; of compound, 185; of complex, 186; of compound and complex clauses, 186 f.; of compound complex sentences, 187; models for analysis of simple, compound, complex, compound complex sentences, 188 ff.; modifiers, 191 ff.; complements, 200 ff.; modifiers of complements and of modifiers, 205 ff.; independent elements, 209; combinations of clauses making sentences of various forms, 210 ff.; special complications, 220 ff.; elliptical sentences, 224 ff. See Subject, Compound, Complex, Modifiers, etc. Sequence of tenses, 175, 179. Service, objective of, 51 f. _Several_, 65. Shakspere, forms and constructions in, 35, 39, 47, 56, 57, 59, 60, 62, 63, 67, 69, 88, 90, 126, 149, 154, 166, 169, 171, 225. _Shall_ and _will_, 102 ff.; in assertions and questions, 102 ff.; in subordinate clauses, 130 ff.; indirect discourse, 177 f.; indirect questions, 182; forms, 299. See _Should_. Ship, gender, 32. _Shoon_, 35. _Should_ and _would_, in simple sentences and independent clauses, 127 ff.; in subordinate clauses, 130 ff.; in indirect discourse, 177 f.; in indirect questions, 182. See _Shall_. _Should_ and _would_, special senses, 126 f.; replacing subjunctive, 123; in clauses of purpose, 130; concessions, 131; in conditional sentences, 131, 171 f. Signs, plural of, 36. Simple clauses. See Clauses. Simple sentences, 17 ff., 184 f.; analyzed, 188 f.; elaboration of, 212 f. See Sentences. _Since_, adverb, preposition, conjunction, 86, 153. Singular. See Number. _Smell_, with predicate adjective, 77. _So as to_, 167; _so that_, 153, 166. Solemn (or Biblical) style, xvii, 56 f., 60, 69, 90, 95, 98 f., 105, 117, 120, 122, 172. _Some_, 64; _somewhat_, 65. _Sort_, _kind_, 64. _Sound_, with predicate adjective, 77. Split infinitive, 134. _Still_, _yet_, adverbs or conjunctions, 152. Strong verbs, 95, 99; participles, 141; list, 291 ff. Style and grammar, xvi f. Subject, 2; inverted order, 3; omitted, 3, 58, 114, 117, 121, 164 f., 169, 224 ff.; simple and complete, 14 f.; compound, 15, 184 f.; infinitive as, 11, 134 f.; clause as, 20, 139, 159 f., 174 f., 180, 190; case, 41; agreement with verb, 97, 100 ff.; modifiers of, 192 ff.; subject of infinitive, 138. See Predicate nominative. Subject and predicate, 2, 13 ff., 183 ff., 191 ff. Subject complement, 41. See Predicate nominative. Subjunctive mood, 115 f., 118 ff.; forms, 118 f.; uses, 119 ff.; in wishes, etc., 119 f.; concessions, 120 f.; conditions, 120 ff., 170 ff.; clauses of purpose or expectation, 122, 166; with _as if_, 122, 173; in indirect questions, 181; auxiliaries replacing subjunctive, 123. Subordinate clauses, 17 ff.; as parts of speech, 19 ff., 157 ff.; analysis, 186 ff., 189 ff.; combinations of, 210; variety of use, 216 ff.; special complications, 220 ff. See Noun, Adjective, Adverbial, Indicative, Subjunctive. Subordinate clauses, meanings of, 163 ff.; place and time, 163 f.; cause, 164; concession, 164 f.; purpose and result, 166 f.; conditional, 167 ff.; comparison and manner, 173; indirect discourse, 173 ff.; indirect questions, 179 ff. Subordinate (or subordinating) conjunctions, 151, 153 f., 157. Substantive, 4. See Noun, Pronoun. Substantive clauses. See Noun clauses. _Such_, 64; _such ... as_, 67. Superlative of emphasis, 88. See Comparison. _Suppose_, _supposing_, 168. Syntax, xiv, 25 ff.; summary of rules, 311 ff.

_Taste_, with predicate adjective, 77. _Telling_, verbs of, direct and indirect object, 50; retained object, 112; object clause, 160; indirect discourse, 174. Tense, 94 ff. See Present, Past, Future, Compound tenses. Tenses, use in conditions, 121, 170 ff.; with _ought_, 126; in indirect discourse, 175, 177 ff.; in indirect questions, 179, 182. Termination. See Endings. _Than_, 87; case after, 173; clauses, 173. _That_, conjunction with subordinate clause, 20 f., 132, 137, 153, 157 ff., 160 ff.; in clauses of purpose, 122 f., 130, 166 f.; result, 166 f.; indirect discourse, 174 ff.; omitted, 153, 160, 175, 225. _That_, demonstrative, 62 ff.; relative, 67 ff.; omitted, 69. _The_, article, 77 ff.; abbreviated to _ye_, 57; _the which_, 67; adverb with comparative, 86. _Then_, adverb or conjunction, 152. _There_, expletive, 85. _Thereof_, _therewith_, etc., 60. _They_, indefinite use, 57. _Thinking_, verbs of, two objects, 50; predicate nominative after passive, 111; object clause, 160; indirect discourse, 174; indirect question, 179. _This_, _these_, 62 ff. _Thou_, _ye_, _you_, 56 f. _Though_, _although_, 21; mood after, 120 f. See Concession. _Till_, _until_, relative adverb, 86; with subjunctive, 122 f.; with _should_, 123, 130; preposition, 149. Time, adverbs of, 83; clauses of, 163 f.; nominative absolute, 144. Titles, plural, 38. _To_, with infinitive, 11, 132 ff.; standing for infinitive, 133; expressing purpose, 167; _to let_, 136; _to the end that_, 166. _Too_ ... _to_, 167. Transition, 152. Transitive verbs, 48 ff., 92; used absolutely, 92; passive use of, 110 ff. See Object.

_Unless_, 121 ff., 168. _Unlike_, objective with, 52. _Until._ See _Till_. Usage and grammar, xv ff.

Verb, 5 ff.; inflection and syntax, 91 ff.; classification, 91 ff.; inflection, 94 ff., 102 ff.; person and number, 97 ff.; agreement with subject, 97, 100 ff.; voice, 107 ff.; progressive form, 113 f.; emphatic form, 114; mood, 115 ff.; potential verb-phrases, 124 ff.; infinitive, 11 f., 132 ff.; participles, 11 f., 140 ff.; lists of verbs, 291 ff. See Predicate, Transitive, Tense, etc. Verbal noun in _-ing_, 145 ff. See Participial nouns. Verbal noun-phrases, 146. Verb-phrases, 5, 16, 91; to supply inflection, see Future, Complete tenses, Passive, Progressive, Potential, Subjunctive. Vocal organs, xi. Vocabulary of English, 318 f. Vocative (direct address), nominative, 42; as independent element, 209. Voice, 107 ff. See Passive.

_We_, indefinite use, 57; royal and editorial _we_, 57. Weak verbs, 95 ff., 98 f.; participles, 141; lists, 291 ff. _We’d_, 130. _Well_, 81, 87. _We’ll_, 104. _Were to_, 172. _What_, relative, 71; double construction, 71, 73; as adjective, 73; interrogative, 73 f.; as adjective, 74; in exclamatory sentences, 74; interjection, 74. _Whatever_, _whatsoever_, 72 f.; in concession, 165; in conditions, 169. _Whatso_, 73. _When_, _whenever_, 86; in conditions, 169. _Whence_, 86. _Where_, _wherever_, 86. _Whereof_, _wherefrom_, etc., 69. _Whether_, _whether ... or_, 153, 168, 179. _Which_, relative, 67 ff.; gender, 67 ff.; for _who_, _whom_, 69; as adjective, 73; _the which_, 67; interrogative, 73; as adjective, 74. _Whichever_, 72 f. _While_, noun, adverb, conjunction, 86, 153. _Whither_, 86. _Who_, _whose_, _whom_, relative, 66 ff.; gender, 67 ff.; interrogative, 73 f., 150. _Whoever_, _whosoever_, _whoso_, 72 f.; in concession, 165; in condition, 169. _Why_, 86, 179. _Will_, in orders, 105; in future, see _Shall_. Wish, subjunctive in, 119 f., 123; _may_, 125 f.; verbs of, with infinitive or infinitive clause, 137 f.; with object clause, 160, 167; _O_ in a wish, 155; _if_, 169. Words, nature and use of, xi ff. _Wot_, _wist_, 299. _Would_, in wishes, 120; habitual action, 127; _would better_ (_rather_), 123. See _Should_. Written and spoken language, xi ff.

_Ye_, old uses, 57; abbreviation, 57. _Yes_, _no_, 85. _Yet_, _still_, adverbs or conjunctions, 152. _Yon_, _yond_, _yonder_, 63. _You_ and _thou_, 56 f.; indefinite _you_, 57.

Transcriber’s Notes

Variant spelling and hyphenation have been preserved as printed; simple typographical errors have been corrected. Punctuation has been standardised, and unbalanced quotation marks and parentheses have been repaired.

The following changes have also been made:

Page vi, Contents: Person 39 238 changed to Person 39 236

Page 26: Number (_Verb agrees with Subject_) [was printed with a brace spanning _Number_ and _Person_]

Page 98, Personal Endings: [repeated no-ending in each cell instead of replicating the book’s row-spanning braces]

Page 258 [changed word order]: If the verb is active, change it to the passive, and make such other changes as may be necessary. If the verb is active, change it to the passive.

If the verb is active, change it to the passive, and make such other changes as may be necessary. If the verb is passive, change it to the active.

Footnote 66: [The table spanned pages 298 to 299, and the footnote was repeated across the page break; the transcriber omitted duplicate note.]