CHAPTER III

MODIFIERS

+462.+ The various kinds of +modifiers+ and +complements+ have all been studied in preceding chapters,--each in connection with the construction which it illustrates. For purposes of analysis, however, it is necessary to consider modifiers as such and complements as such.

The topics will be taken up in the following order:--(1) modifiers,--of the subject, of the predicate; (2) complements; (3) modifiers of complements; (4) modifiers of modifiers.

+463.+ +A word or group of words that changes or modifies the meaning of another word is called a modifier+ (§ 19).

{Men | _Able_ men | Men _of ability_} can always find employment.

{Walls | _Battlemented_ walls | Walls _with battlements_} usually enclosed mediæval cities.

{Cottages | _English_ cottages | Cottages _in England_} are often thatched.

The boy listened {_eagerly_. | _with eagerness_.}

I coughed {_purposely_. | _on purpose_.}

The bullet passed {_harmlessly_. | _without doing harm_.}

+464.+ Modifiers may be attached not only to substantives and verbs, but also to adjectives and adverbs.

All modifiers of substantives are called +adjective modifiers+; all modifiers of verbs, adjectives, and adverbs are called +adverbial modifiers+.

NOTE. The terms +adjective modifier+ and +adjective+ are not synonymous. All adjectives are adjective modifiers, but all adjective modifiers are not adjectives. Thus, in “Henry’s skates are rusty,” the possessive noun _Henry’s_ is an adjective modifier, since it limits the noun _skates_ as an adjective might do.

+465.+ A group of words used as a modifier may be either a +phrase+ or a +clause+ (§§ 40–46).

{_Able_ men | Men _of ability_ | Men _who have ability_} can always find employment.

I spoke {_thoughtlessly_. | _without thinking_. | _before I thought_.}

+A phrase or a clause used as an adjective modifier is called an adjective phrase or clause.+

+A phrase or a clause used as an adverbial modifier is called an adverbial phrase or clause.+

Adjective and adverbial clauses are always +subordinate+, because they are used as parts of speech (§ 46).

MODIFIERS OF THE SUBJECT

+466.+ Any substantive in the sentence may take an adjective modifier, but +modifiers of the subject+ are particularly important.

The simple subject may be modified by (1) an +adjective+, an +adjective phrase+, or an +adjective clause+; (2) a +participle+; (3) an +infinitive+; (4) a +possessive+; (5) an +appositive+.

I. ADJECTIVES, ADJECTIVE PHRASES, ADJECTIVE CLAUSES

+467.+ The simple subject may be modified by an +adjective+, an +adjective phrase+, or an +adjective clause+.

{_Ivory_ trinkets | Trinkets _of ivory_ | Trinkets _which were carved from ivory_} lay scattered about.

{_Treeless_ spots | Spots _without trees_ | Spots _where no trees grew_} were plainly visible.

In each of these groups of sentences, the subject of the first sentence is modified by an +adjective+, that of the second by an +adjective phrase+, that of the third by an +adjective clause+.

Most adjective phrases are +prepositional+ (§ 42), as in the examples.

+468.+ An +adjective clause+ may be introduced by a +relative pronoun+ or a +relative adverb+. For lists, see § 377.

I. RELATIVE PRONOUNS

The architect _who designed this church_ was a man of genius.

The painter _whom Ruskin oftenest mentions_ is Turner.

A piece of amber _which is rubbed briskly_ will attract bits of paper.

The day _that I dreaded_ came at last.

The plain _through which this river flows_ is marvelously fertile.

The book _from which I got this information_ is always regarded as authoritative.

A friend _in whom one can trust_ is a treasure beyond price.

The boys _with whom he associates_ do him no good.

II. RELATIVE ADVERBS

The spot _where the Old Guard made their last stand_ is marked by a bronze eagle.

The morning _when I arrived in Rome_ is one of my pleasantest memories.

The year _after Ashton left home_ brought fresh disaster.

The land _whence Scyld drifted in his magic boat_ will never be known.

NOTE. A preposition and a relative pronoun may often replace a relative adverb. Thus, in the second example, _on which_ might be substituted for _when_.

II. PARTICIPLES

+469.+ The subject may be modified by a +participle+ (with or without modifier or complement).

1. _Smiling_, the child shook his head.

2. My aunt, _reassured_, took up her book again.

3. The prisoner sank back _exhausted_.

4. _Exasperated_ beyond endurance, the captain cut the rope.

5. John, _obeying_ a sudden impulse, took to his heels.

6. _Having broken_ one oar, Robert had to scull.

7. The natives, _fearing_ captivity above all things, leaped into the river.

8. Albert left the room, _looking_ rather sullen.

In the fourth example the participle is modified by an adverbial phrase; in the fifth and sixth, it has an object; in the seventh, it has both an object and a modifier; in the eighth, it is followed by the predicate adjective _sullen_. In analysis, the whole participial phrase (consisting of the participle and accompanying words) may be treated as an adjective phrase modifying the subject; but it is simpler to regard the participle as the modifier, and then to enumerate its modifiers, etc., separately.

Thus, in the seventh example, the simple subject _natives_ is modified by the participle _fearing_, which has for a complement _captivity_ (the direct object) and is modified by the adverbial phrase _above all things_.

NOTE. A participle, though a modifier of the subject, has at the same time a peculiar relation to the predicate, because it may take the place of an adverbial clause. Thus, in the seventh example, _fearing_ is practically equivalent to the clause _because they feared_, which, if substituted for the participle, would of course modify the predicate verb _leaped_. This dual office of the participle comes from its twofold nature as (1) an adjective and (2) a verb. In analyzing, we treat the participle as an adjective modifier of the noun to which it belongs; but its function as a substitute for an adverbial clause is an important means of securing variety in style.

III. INFINITIVES

+470.+ The subject may be modified by an +infinitive+.

Eagerness _to learn_ was young Lincoln’s strongest passion.

Desire _to travel_ made Taylor restless.

The wish _to succeed_ prompted him to do his best.

Ability _to write rapidly_ is a valuable accomplishment.

Howard’s unwillingness _to desert a friend_ cost him his life.

In the fourth example, the infinitive has an adverbial modifier (_rapidly_); and in the fifth, it has a complement, its object (_friend_). In such instances, two methods of analysis are allowable, as in the case of participial phrases (§ 469).

IV. POSSESSIVES

+471.+ The subject may be modified by a substantive in the +possessive case+.

Such a substantive may be called a +possessive modifier+.

_Napoleon’s_ tomb is in Paris.

A _man’s_ house is his castle.

_One’s_ taste in reading changes as one grows older.

A _moment’s_ thought would have saved me.

The _squirrel’s_ teeth grow rapidly.

The _Indians’_ camp was near the river.

_His_ name is Alfred.

_Your_ carriage has arrived.

In each of these examples, a substantive in the possessive case modifies the subject by limiting its meaning precisely as an adjective would do.

NOTE. An adjective phrase may often be substituted for a possessive. Thus, in the first example, instead of “_Napoleon’s_ tomb” one may say “the tomb _of Napoleon_” (§ 93).

V. APPOSITIVES

+472.+ The subject may be modified by a +substantive in apposition+ (§ 88, 5).

Meredith the _carpenter_ lives in that house.

Herbert, our _captain_, has broken his leg.

The idol of the Aztecs, a grotesque _image_, was thrown down by the Spaniards.

Many books, both _pamphlets_ and bound _volumes_, littered the table. [Here the subject (_books_) is modified by two appositives.]

Appositives often have modifiers of their own.

Thus _carpenter_ is modified by the adjective _the_, _captain_ by the possessive _our_, _image_ by the adjectives _a_ and _grotesque_.

In analyzing, the whole appositive phrase (consisting of the appositive and attached words) may be regarded as modifying the subject. It is as well, however, to treat the appositive as the modifier and then to enumerate the adjectives, etc., by which the appositive itself is modified.

+473.+ A +noun clause+ may be used as an appositive, and so may be an adjective modifier (§ 386).

The question _whether Antonio was a citizen_ was settled in the affirmative. [Here the italicized clause is used as a noun in apposition with _question_.]

The statement _that water freezes_ seems absurd to a native of the torrid zone. [The clause _that water freezes_ is in apposition with _statement_.]

An adjective in the appositive position is often called an +appositive adjective+ (§ 172). “A sword, _keen_ and _bright_, flashed from the soldier’s scabbard.”

MODIFIERS OF THE PREDICATE

+474.+ The +simple predicate+, being a verb or verb-phrase, can have only +adverbial modifiers+.

The simple predicate may be modified by (1) an +adverb+, an +adverbial phrase+, or an +adverbial clause+, (2) an +infinitive+, (3) an +adverbial objective+, (4) a +nominative absolute+, (5) an +indirect object+, (6) a +cognate object+.

I. ADVERB, ADVERBIAL PHRASE, ADVERBIAL CLAUSE

+475.+ The simple predicate may be modified by an +adverb+, an +adverbial phrase+, or an +adverbial clause+.

The landlord collects his rents {_monthly_. | _on the first of every month_. | _when the first of the month comes_.}

The old schoolhouse stands {_there_. | _at the cross-roads_. | _where the roads meet_.}

We left the hall {_early_. | _before the last speech_. | _while the last speech was being delivered_.}

In each of these groups, the simple predicate of the first sentence is modified by an adverb, that of the second by an adverbial phrase, and that of the third by an adverbial clause.

Most adverbial phrases are +prepositional+ (§ 42).

ADVERB ADVERBIAL PHRASE

speedily with speed furiously with fury lately of late instantly in an instant there in that place rapidly at a rapid rate skillfully { in a skillful manner { with skill promptly on the instant to-morrow on the morrow unwillingly against my will

Peculiar adverbial phrases are:--

to and fro, now and then, up and down, again and again, first and last, full speed, full tilt, hit or miss, more or less, head first, upside down, inside out, sink or swim, cash down.

+476.+ An adverbial clause that modifies a verb may be introduced by (1) a +relative adverb+, or (2) a +subordinate conjunction+.

I. RELATIVE ADVERBS

Our colonel was always found _where the fighting was fiercest_.

_When I give the signal_, press the button.

_Whenever I call_, you refuse to see me.

Miller arrived _after the play had begun_.

Everybody listened _while the vagrant told his story_.

My uncle laughed _until the tears came_.

The prisoner has not been seen _since he made his escape_.

II. SUBORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS

Archer resigned _because his health failed_.

I will give the address _if you will let me choose my subject_.

Brandon insisted on walking, _although the roads were dangerous_.

The child ran with all her might _lest she should be too late_.

I gave you a front seat _in order that you might hear_.

The town lies at the base of a lofty cliff _so that it is sheltered from the north wind_.

II. INFINITIVE

+477.+ The simple predicate may be modified by an +infinitive+ (§ 323).

He lay down _to rest_.

I stopped _to listen_.

The fire continued _to burn_.

The wind began _to subside_.

Jack worked hard _to fell_ the tree.

Will did his best _to win_ the prize.

Kate began _to weep_ bitterly.

That draughtsman seems _to be_ remarkably skilful.

The infinitive may have a complement or a modifier, as in the last four examples.

III. ADVERBIAL OBJECTIVE

+478.+ The simple predicate may be modified by an +adverbial objective+ (§ 109).

I have waited _ages_.

We have walked _miles_.

Arthur practised _weeks_.

The addition of modifiers to the adverbial objective makes an adverbial phrase.

Walter ran _the entire distance_.

He stayed _a whole day_.

I will forgive you _this time_.

He came at me _full tilt_.

The wind blew _all night_.

Come with me _a little way_.

In the first sentence, the adverbial phrase _the entire distance_ modifies the verb _ran_ as an adverb would do. This phrase consists of the noun _distance_ with its adjective modifiers, _the_ and _entire_.

IV. NOMINATIVE ABSOLUTE

+479.+ The simple predicate may be modified by a +nominative absolute+ (§ 345).

A substantive in the +absolute construction+ makes with its modifiers an adverbial phrase.

_The ship having arrived_, we all embarked.

We shall sail on Tuesday, _weather permitting_.

_That done_, repair to Pompey’s theatre.

_The bridge across the chasm being only a single tree trunk_, we hesitated to attempt the passage.

In the first sentence, the adverbial absolute phrase, _the ship having arrived_, is equivalent to the adverbial prepositional phrase, _on the arrival of the ship_, and defines the time of the action expressed by the verb _embarked_.

V. INDIRECT OBJECT

+480.+ The simple predicate may be modified by an +indirect object+ (§ 105).

He gave _me_ a watch. [= He gave a watch _to me_.]

Tom told _me_ the whole story. [= Tom told the whole story _to me_.]

In these sentences, the indirect object _me_, being equivalent to a prepositional phrase, is an adverbial modifier.

The objective of service (§ 106) is also an adverbial modifier.

VI. COGNATE OBJECT

+481.+ The simple predicate may be modified by a +cognate object+ or by a phrase containing such an object (§ 108).

The officer looked _daggers_ at me [= looked at me angrily].

The shepherd sang a merry _song_ [= sang merrily].

The skipper laughed a scornful _laugh_ [= laughed scornfully].

In the first sentence, the cognate object (_daggers_) modifies the predicate verb (_looked_) as the adverb _angrily_ would do. It is therefore an adverbial modifier. In the second and third sentences the modifier of the predicate verb (_sang_, _laughed_) is an adverbial phrase consisting of a cognate object (_song_, _laugh_) with its adjective modifiers (_a merry_, _a scornful_).