CHAPTER I

THE STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES

+448.+ +Analysis+ is a Greek word which means “the act of dissolving or breaking up.” In grammar it is applied to the separation of a sentence into its constituent parts, or +elements+. To dissect a sentence in this way is to +analyze+ it.

The elements which make up a +sentence+ are: (1) the +simple subject+; (2) the +simple predicate+; (3) +modifiers+; (4) the +complements+,--direct object, predicate objective, predicate adjective, predicate nominative; and (5) the so-called +independent elements+,--the interjection, the vocative (or nominative of direct address), the exclamatory nominative, and various parenthetical expressions (§ 501).

+449.+ The absolute essentials for a sentence are a +substantive as subject+ and a +verb as predicate+ (§ 35). By combining these two indispensable elements, in various ways, with +modifiers+ and +complements+, the sentence may be extended to any length desired. Indeed, the sole limits are the constructive skill of the writer and the hearer’s ability to follow the thought without losing the thread.

In the present chapter, we shall consider how sentences are built up, or constructed. Our starting point in this study will be the +simple sentence+.

SIMPLE SENTENCES

+450.+ The following statement is a +simple sentence+, for it contains but +one subject+ and +one predicate+ (§ 46):--

The polar bear | lives in the Arctic regions.

The framework or skeleton of this simple sentence consists of the subject noun _bear_ (the simple subject) and the predicate verb _lives_ (the simple predicate). To make the +complete subject+, _bear_ takes as +modifiers+ the two adjectives _the_ and _polar_; to make the +complete predicate+, _lives_ takes as +modifier+ the adverbial phrase _in the Arctic regions_.

By attaching another simple subject to _bear_ we make a +compound subject+. Similarly, we make a +compound predicate+ by adding another verb (§ 38).

The polar _bear_ and the _walrus_ | _live_ and _thrive_ in the Arctic regions.

The compound subject is _bear and walrus_; the compound predicate is _live and thrive_. Both verbs are modified by the adverbial phrase _in the Arctic regions_. The sentence itself is still a simple sentence.

In each of the following simple sentences either the subject or the predicate or both are compound:--

Games and carols closed the busy day.--ROGERS.

The stars leap forth, and tremble, and retire before the advancing moon.--GEORGE MEREDITH.

Madame Defarge knitted with nimble fingers and steady eyebrows, and saw nothing.--DICKENS.

Work or worry had left its traces upon his thin, yellow face.--DOYLE.

Crows flutter about the towers and perch on every weathercock.--IRVING.

He gained the door to the landing, pulled it open, and rushed forth.--LYTTON.

Countrymen, butchers, drovers, hawkers, boys, thieves, idlers, and vagabonds of every low grade, were mingled together in a dense mass.--DICKENS.

There stood the broad-wheeled wains and the antique plows and the harrows.--LONGFELLOW.

Both Augustus and Peters joined with him in his design and insisted upon its immediately being carried into effect.--POE.

Women and children, from garrets alike and cellars, through infinite London, look down or look up with loving eyes upon our gay ribbons and our martial laurels.--DE QUINCEY.

COMPOUND SENTENCES

+451.+ If we attach another simple sentence to that in § 450, the result is a +compound sentence+.

The polar bear | lives in the Arctic regions, || but || it | sometimes reaches temperate latitudes.

This is manifestly a +compound sentence+, for it consists of two +coördinate clauses+, joined by the conjunction _but_ (§ 46).

The framework of the second clause consists of the subject _it_ and the simple predicate _reaches_. To make the complete predicate, the verb _reaches_ takes not only a modifier (the adverb _sometimes_), but a +complement+,--the direct object _latitudes_, which completes the meaning of the verb. This noun is itself modified by the adjective _temperate_. Both clauses are +simple+, for each contains but one subject and one predicate.

+452.+ Obviously, almost any number of simple sentences may be joined (with or without conjunctions) to make one compound sentence.

The quiet August noon has come; A slumberous silence fills the sky; The fields are still, the woods are dumb, In glassy sleep the waters lie.--BRYANT.

States fall, arts fade, but Nature does not die.--BYRON.

The court was sitting; the case was heard; the judge had finished; and only the verdict was yet in arrear.--DE QUINCEY.

He softly blushed; he sighed; he hoped; he feared; he doubted; he sometimes yielded to the delightful idea.--THACKERAY.

A mob appeared before the window, a smart rap was heard at the door, the boys hallooed, and the maid announced Mr. Grenville.--COWPER.

His health had suffered from confinement; his high spirit had been cruelly wounded; and soon after his liberation he died of a broken heart.--MACAULAY.

COMPLEX SENTENCES

+453.+ The simple sentence in § 450 may be made +complex+ by means of a +subordinate clause+ used as a +modifier+ (§ 47).

The polar bear, _which lives in the Arctic regions_, sometimes reaches temperate latitudes.

The polar bear sometimes reaches temperate latitudes _when the ice drifts southward_.

In the first example, the simple subject (_bear_), besides its two adjective modifiers (_the_ and _polar_), takes a third, the adjective clause _which lives in the Arctic regions_ (§ 47). The sentence, then, is +complex+: the main clause is _the polar bear sometimes reaches temperate latitudes_; the subordinate clause is _which lives in the Arctic regions_.

The second sentence is also complex. The main clause is the same as in the first (_the polar bear sometimes reaches temperate latitudes_). The subordinate clause is _when the ice drifts southward_, an +adverbial modifier+ of the predicate verb _reaches_.

COMPOUND AND COMPLEX CLAUSES

+454.+ Two or more +coördinate clauses+ may be joined to make one +compound clause+.

The polar bear, _which lives in the Arctic regions and whose physical constitution is wonderfully adapted to that frigid climate_, sometimes reaches temperate latitudes.

The polar bear sometimes reaches temperate latitudes _when the floes break up and when the ice drifts southward_.

In the first example, the italicized words form a +compound adjective clause+, modifying the noun _bear_. It consists of two +coördinate adjective clauses+ joined by _and_. These clauses are coördinate because they are of the same +order+ or +rank+ in the sentence (§ 46), each being (if taken singly) an adjective modifier of the noun.

In the second example, the predicate verb _reaches_ is modified by a +compound adverbial clause+, similarly made up.

+455.+ A clause is +complex+ when it contains a modifying clause.

The polar bear, _which lives in the Arctic regions when it is at home_, sometimes reaches temperate latitudes.

Here the +adjective clause+ _which lives in the Arctic regions when it is at home_ is +complex+, for it contains the adverbial clause _when it is at home_, modifying the verb _lives_.

COMPOUND COMPLEX SENTENCES

+456.+ Two or more independent complex clauses may be joined to make a +compound complex sentence+.

The brown bear, of which there are several varieties, is common in the temperate regions of the Eastern Hemisphere; || and || the polar bear sometimes reaches temperate latitudes when the ice drifts southward.

This is a +compound complex sentence+, for it consists of two complex clauses joined by the coördinate conjunction _and_. Each of these two clauses is independent of the other, for each might stand by itself as a complex sentence.

The first complex clause contains an adjective clause, _of which there are several varieties_, modifying _bear_; the second contains an adverbial clause, _when the ice drifts southward_, modifying _reaches_.

+457.+ A sentence consisting of two or more independent clauses is also classed as a compound complex sentence if any one of these is complex.

The brown bear is common in the temperate regions of the Eastern Hemisphere; || and || the polar bear sometimes reaches temperate latitudes when the ice drifts southward.

The brown bear, of which there are several varieties, is common in the temperate regions of the Eastern Hemisphere; || and || the polar bear sometimes reaches temperate latitudes.

Both of these are compound complex sentences. In one, the first clause is simple (§ 451) and the second is complex. In the other, the first clause is complex and the second is simple.