CHAPTER XI

THE MEANINGS OF SUBORDINATE CLAUSES

+393.+ Subordinate clauses may be classified not only according to their use as parts of speech, but also, in quite a different way, in accordance with their +various meanings+. These distinctions in idea are of capital importance for the accurate and forcible expression of thought.

+394.+ The variety of meanings which subordinate clauses may express is great, but most of these meanings come under the following heads:--(1) +place+ or +time+, (2) +cause+, (3) +concession+, (4) +purpose+, (5) +result+, (6) +condition+, (7) +comparison+,[43] (8) +indirect discourse+, (9) +indirect question+.

The general meaning of the clause is usually indicated by the word which introduces it.

I. CLAUSES OF PLACE AND TIME

+395.+ +An adjective or an adverbial clause may express place or time.+

I. ADJECTIVE CLAUSES

The house _where the robbery occurred_ is No. 14.

The bridge _over which we rode_ is in ruins.

There is a point _beyond which you cannot go_.

The day _when_ (or _on which_) _I was to sail_ arrived at last.

The day _before you came_ was rainy.

His terror _while it thundered_ was pitiable.

II. ADVERBIAL CLAUSES

Remain _where I can see you_.

That belongs _where you found it_.

_Whithersoever I go_, fear dogs my steps.

_Whenever the bell rings_, you must take down the receiver.

Esmond heard the chimes _as he sat in his own chamber_.

I have lived in Cairo _since my father died_.

+396.+ Adjective clauses of place and time may be introduced by relative pronouns (see examples above).

Adjective and adverbial clauses of place and time may be introduced by relative adverbs. Thus,--

PLACE: where, whence, whither, wherever, whithersoever, wherefrom, whereto, etc.

TIME: when, whenever, while, as, before, after, until, since.

For _as_ and _since_ in causal clauses, see § 398; for _while_ in concessive clauses, see § 399.

+397.+ Clauses of time are sometimes shortened by the omission of the copula and its subject.

When [_he was_] rescued, he was almost dead.

Tom was attacked by cramp _while swimming_ across the river.

II. CAUSAL CLAUSES

+398.+ +An adverbial clause may express cause.+

+Causal clauses+ are introduced by the subordinate conjunctions _because_, _since_, _as_, _inasmuch as_, and sometimes _that_.

I came home _because I was tired_.

_As the day was clear_, we decided to climb the mountain.

_Since you will not relent_, you must take the consequences.

We were glad _that the wreck was no worse_.

Tom was delighted _that his friend was safe_.

_Since_ is a preposition or an adverb when it denotes +time+; +as+ is an adverb when it denotes +time+. Both _since_ and _as_ are conjunctions when they express +cause+. For _as_ used as a relative pronoun, see § 147.

III. CONCESSIVE CLAUSES

+399.+ +An adverbial clause may express concession.+

A +concessive clause+ is usually introduced by a subordinate conjunction, _though_, _although_, or _even if_. It +admits+ (or concedes) some fact or supposition +in spite of which+ the assertion in the main clause is made.

_Although I do not like his manners_, I respect his character.

We won the game, _though we expected to lose_.

_Even if you fail_, you will have gained experience.

_Even if you were a king_, you would find somebody or something more powerful than yourself.

_Though he should read books forever_, he would not grow wise.

NOTE. _While_ is often used as a weaker or more courteous synonym for _although_.

The main clause, when it follows the concessive clause, may be emphasized by means of _yet_, _still_, _nevertheless_.

Although the task was heavy, _yet_ his courage never failed. [_Although_ and _yet_ are correlative conjunctions (§ 369).]

Though his reputation was great at home, _yet_ it was greater abroad.

Concessive clauses sometimes omit the copula and its subject.

_Though_ [_he was_] _tired_, he was not disheartened.

This punishment, _though perhaps necessary_, seems rather severe.

+400.+ For the distinction between the indicative and the subjunctive in concessive clauses, see § 279; for that between _should_ and _would_, see § 305.

+401.+ A concessive clause may be introduced by the conjunction _as_, or by a relative pronoun or a relative adverb.

{_Whatever_ you say, | _Whichever_ argument you present, | _However_ much you object,} he will carry his point.

_Weak as I am_, I will make the effort.

_Gay as the scene was_, ’twas but a dreary place for Mr. Esmond.

NOTE. The adverbial use of _however_ is quite distinct from its use as a coördinate conjunction (§ 362).

+402.+ Concession is sometimes expressed by a subjunctive clause without a conjunction to introduce it (§ 281).

_Be it ever so humble_, there’s no place like home.

I will help you, _cost what it may_!

IV–V. CLAUSES OF PURPOSE AND OF RESULT

+403.+ +A subordinate clause may express purpose or result.+

I. CLAUSES OF PURPOSE

These men died _that we might live_.

I will take care _that you are not harmed_.

John worked day and night _that the plans might be ready in time_.

We threw our ballast overboard, _so that the airship might clear the treetops_.

All our arrangements have been made with the utmost precision, _in order that the ship may be launched promptly and without accident_.

II. CLAUSES OF RESULT

He has recovered his strength, _so that he can now work_.

The town stood at the foot of the volcano, _so that every building was destroyed_.

Quentin started _so_ suddenly _that he almost dropped his weapon_.

His rancor against the duke was _so_ apparent _that one saw it in the first half-hour’s conversation_.

Their minds were _so_ much embittered _that they imputed to each other nothing less than deliberate villany_.

You make _such_ a noise _that I cannot hear the music_.

+404.+ +Clauses of purpose+ may be introduced by the subordinate conjunction _that_ or by a phrase containing it (_so that_, _in order that_, _to the end that_, etc.).

Negative clauses of purpose may be introduced by _that ... not_ or by _lest_. For _lest_ with the subjunctive, see § 284.

Take heed _lest thou fall_.

I feared _lest I might anger thee_.--SHAKSPERE.

+405.+ +Clauses of result+ may be introduced by the phrase _so that_, consisting of the adverb _so_ and the subordinate conjunction _that_; or by _that_ alone, especially when _so_, _such_, or some similar word stands in the main clause.

+406.+ A clause of +purpose+ or of +result+ may be either an +adverbial clause+ (as in § 403) or a +substantive clause+.

I intend _that you shall be elected_. [Object.]

My intention is _that you shall be appointed_. [Predicate nominative.]

The result is _that he is bankrupt_. [Predicate nominative.]

His exertions had this effect, _that the vote was unanimous_. [Appositive.]

+407.+ A substantive clause of purpose is often used as the +object+ of a verb of _commanding_, _desiring_, or the like.

The general ordered _that the fort should be blown up_.

The prisoner begged _that his fetters might be struck off_.

+408.+ For subordinate clauses with _shall_ or _should_, implying purpose or expectation, see § 304.

+409.+ Purpose may be expressed by the infinitive with _to_ or _in order to_, and result by the infinitive with _to_ or _as to_.

He abandoned his profession _to_ [or _in order to_] _become a missionary_. [Purpose.]

He was kind enough _to help me_. [Result. Compare: He was so kind _that he helped me_.]

He was so kind _as to help me_. [Result.]

+Negative result+ is often expressed by the adverb _too_ and the infinitive.

Iron is _too_ heavy _to float_. [Compare: Iron is so heavy _that it does not float_.]

+410.+ Purpose may be expressed by an +infinitive clause+ (§ 325).

The teacher intended _us to finish the book_. [Compare: The teacher intended _that we should finish the book_.]

The foreman ordered _the engine to be stopped_. [Compare: The foreman ordered _that the engine should be stopped_.]

VI. CONDITIONAL SENTENCES

+411.+ +A clause that expresses a condition introduced by _if_, or by some equivalent word or phrase, is called a conditional clause.+

+A sentence that contains a conditional clause is called a conditional sentence.+

_If it rains_, we shall remain at home.

I shall attend the convention _if I am in town_.

I will take this book, _if you please_.

+412.+ A _conditional sentence_ in its simplest form consists of two parts:--

(1) A subordinate (adverbial) clause, commonly introduced by _if_, and expressing the +condition+.

(2) A main clause expressing the +conclusion+, that is, the statement which is true in case the condition expressed in the _if_-clause is true.

Thus in the first example in § 411, the +condition+ is _if it rains_; the +conclusion+ is _we shall remain at home_.

Either the condition or the conclusion may come first.

The conditional clause is often called the +protasis+, and the conclusion is often called the +apodosis+.

The +conclusion+ of a conditional sentence may be declarative, interrogative, imperative, or exclamatory.

If you go to Philadelphia, _where shall you stay_? [Interrogative.]

_Sit here_, if you wish. [Imperative.]

If you win the prize, _how glad I shall be_! [Exclamatory.]

+413.+ A conditional clause may be introduced by _provided_ (or _provided that_), _granted that_, _supposing_ (or _suppose_), _on condition that_.

I will permit you to go, _on condition that_ you come home early.

You may have the money, _provided_ you will put it in the bank.

_Supposing_ (or _suppose_) it rains, what shall we do?

_Suppose_ is really an imperative and _supposing_ a participle, the clause being the object.

+414.+ A +negative condition+ is commonly introduced by _if ... not_ or _unless_.

I will wait for him, _if_ you do _not_ object.

_Unless_ you overcome that habit, you will be ruined.

+415.+ +Double+ (or +alternative+) +conditions+ may be introduced by _whether ... or_.

_Whether_ he goes or stays, he must pay a week’s board. [Compare: _If_ he goes _or if_ he stays, etc.]

He is determined to buy that car, _whether_ you approve _or_ not. [That is: _if_ you approve _or if_ you do not approve.]

+416.+ A conditional clause may be introduced by _whoever_, _whenever_, or some similar compound (§§ 159, 195).

_Whoever_ offends, is punished. [Compare: _If anybody_ offends, he is punished.]

_Whoever_ shall offend, shall be punished.

_Whomever_ you ask, you will be disappointed. [Compare: If you shall ask anybody.]

He will come _whenever_ [= _if ever_] he is called.

NOTE. In older English and in poetry, _who_ is common in this construction: as,--“_Who_ [= _whoever_] steals my purse, steals trash” (SHAKSPERE).

+417.+ A conditional clause sometimes omits the copula and its subject.

I will go if [_it is_] necessary.

If [_it is_] possible, come to-morrow.

The _if_-clause is sometimes used as an exclamation, with the conclusion omitted.

If I only had a rifle!

+418.+ A condition may be expressed by means of an assertion, a question, an imperative, or the absolute construction (§ 345).

We take the receiver from the hook, and the operator answers. We replace it, and the connection is broken. [Compare: If we take the receiver from the hook, the operator answers, etc.]

Press that button, and the bell will ring.

Do you refuse? Then you must take the consequences.

We shall sail on Monday, weather permitting.

NOTE. In such cases, there is no subordinate conditional clause. Thus, in the first example, we have two independent coördinate clauses, making a compound sentence (§ 44).

FORMS OF CONDITIONS

+419.+ Conditional sentences show great variety of form, but it is easy to classify them according to the +time+ of the supposed case and the +degree of doubt+ that the speaker expresses.

+420.+ Conditions may be +present+, +past+, or +future+.

PRESENT AND PAST CONDITIONS

+421.+ Present and past conditions may be either (1) +non-committal+ or (2) +contrary to fact+.

1. A condition is +non-committal+ when it implies nothing as to the truth or falsity of the case supposed.

_If James is angry_, I am sorry. [Perhaps James is angry, perhaps not.]

2. A condition is +contrary to fact+ when it implies that the supposed case is not or was not true.

_If James were angry_, I should be sorry. [James is _not_ angry.]

+422.+ In a +non-committal present condition+, the _if_-clause[44] takes the present indicative; in a +non-committal past condition+, the past, the perfect, or the pluperfect.

The conclusion may be in any form that the sense allows.

I. PRESENT CONDITION, NON-COMMITTAL

_If this pebble is a diamond_, {it is valuable. | guard it carefully. | you have made a great discovery. | you will get a large sum for it. | why are you so careless of it? | what a prize it is!}

_If it is raining_, shut the window.

_If Jack lives in this house_, {he is a lucky boy. | ring the bell. | he has moved since last May.}

II. PAST CONDITION, NON-COMMITTAL

_If that pebble was a diamond_, {it was valuable. | why did you throw it away? | go back and look for it.}

_If Tom has apologized_, {he has done his duty. | you ought to excuse him. | forgive him.}

_If John had reached home before we started_, he must have made a quick journey.

In each of these examples, the speaker declines to commit himself as to the truth of the supposed case. Perhaps the pebble was a diamond, perhaps not; Tom may or may not have apologized; whether or not John had reached home, we cannot tell.

+423.+ In a +condition contrary to fact+, the _if_-clause takes the past subjunctive when the condition refers to present time, the pluperfect subjunctive when it refers to past time.

The conclusion regularly takes _should_ or _would_ (§ 286, 3).

If John _were_ here, I _should recognize_ him. [Present condition, present conclusion.]

If John _were_ here, I _should have recognized_ him before this. [Present condition, past conclusion.]

If I _had offended_ him, I _should have regretted_ it. [Past condition, past conclusion.]

If I _had_ then _offended_ him, I _should regret_ it now. [Past condition, present conclusion.]

In each of these sentences, the speaker distinctly implies that the supposed case (or +condition+) _is_ (or _was_) _not a fact_. It follows, of course, that the +conclusion+ is not a fact:--John is _not_ here; therefore I _do not_ recognize him.

+424.+ In conditions contrary to fact, the subjunctive without _if_ is common. In this use, the subject follows the verb (§ 281).

_Were_ he my friend, I should expect his help. [= If he _were_ my friend. Present condition, contrary to fact.]

_Had_ he _been_ my friend, I should have expected his help. [= If he _had been_ my friend. Past condition, contrary to fact.]

NOTE. In older English, the subjunctive may be used in both clauses: as,--“He _were_ no lion, _were_ not Romans hinds” (SHAKSPERE).

FUTURE CONDITIONS

+425.+ +Future conditions+ always imply +doubt+, for no one can tell what may or may not happen to-morrow.

+426.+ In all future conditions, some verb-form denoting future time is used in both clauses.

1. In a future condition which suggests nothing as to the probability or improbability of the case supposed, the present indicative is regularly used in the _if_-clause, and the future indicative in the conclusion.

If it _rains_ to-morrow, I _shall_ not _go_.

In very formal or exact language a verb-phrase with _shall_ may be used in the _if_-clause: as,--“If it _shall rain_ to-morrow, I shall not go.”

2. The present subjunctive is sometimes used in the _if_-clause. This form commonly suggests more doubt than the present indicative.

If it _rain_ to-morrow, I shall not go.

3. In a future condition which puts the supposed case rather vaguely, often with a considerable suggestion of doubt, a verb-phrase with _should_ or _would_ is used in both clauses.

If it _should rain_ to-morrow, I _should_ not _go_.

For the use of _should_ or _would_ in such clauses, see § 305.

A phrase with _were to_ may replace the _should_-phrase in the _if_-clause. This form often emphasizes the suggestion of doubt.

If it _were to rain_ to-morrow, I should not go.

The past subjunctive may stand in the _if_-clause instead of the _should_-phrase.

If it _rained_ to-morrow, I should not go.

NOTE. The comparative amount of doubt implied in the different kinds of future conditions cannot be defined with precision; for it varies with the circumstances or the context, and often depends on emphasis or the tone of the voice. Thus, in “if it should rain to-morrow,” _should_ may be so emphasized as to make the supposed case seem highly improbable, whereas an emphasis on _to-morrow_ would have a very different effect. As to the subjunctive, its use is often due rather to the writer’s liking for that mood than to any special doubt in his mind.

+427.+ For _even if_ in concessive clauses, see § 399; for _as if_ in clauses of comparison, see § 428; for _if_ (in the sense of _whether_) in indirect questions, see § 442.

VII. CLAUSES OF COMPARISON

+428.+ +An adverbial clause introduced by _as if_ may express comparison.+[45]

You speak _as if you were angry_.[46]

He breathes _as if he were exhausted_.

She cared for me _as if I had been her son_.

_As though_ is also used, but _as if_ is now preferred by most writers.

The subjunctive _were_, not the indicative _was_, is used after _as if_ (§ 282).

+429.+ _As_ and _than_, as subordinate conjunctions, introduce +clauses of comparison+ or +degree+.

You are as old _as he_ [_is_].

I am younger _than you_ [_are_].

He weighs as much _as I_ [_weigh_].

I pity you more _than_ [_I pity_] _her_.

When the verb is omitted, the substantive that follows _as_ or _than_ is in the same case in which it would stand if the verb were expressed. Thus,--

You are stronger than _he_. [NOT: than _him_.]

I see you oftener than _him_. [NOT: than _he_.]

He plays a better game than _I_. [NOT: than _me_.]

They will miss John more than _me_. [That is: more than they miss _me_.]

VIII. INDIRECT DISCOURSE

+430.+ A quotation may be +direct+ or +indirect+.

A +direct quotation+ repeats a speech or thought in its original form.

I replied: “I am sorry to hear it.”

“Henceforth,” he explained, “I shall call on Tuesdays.”

“You must see California,” she insisted.

“Elizabeth no longer lives here,” he said.

“I know nothing about it,” was the witness’s reply.

“Where,” thought I, “are the crew?”[47]

An +indirect quotation+ repeats a speech or thought in substance, but usually with some change in its form.

An indirect quotation, when a statement, is a subordinate clause dependent on some word of _saying_ or _thinking_, and introduced by the conjunction _that_.

I replied _that I was sorry to hear it_. [Direct: I am sorry.]

He explained _that henceforth he should call on Tuesdays_.

She insisted _that I must see California_.

+A direct quotation+ begins with a +capital letter+, unless it is a fragment of a sentence. It is enclosed in +quotation marks+.

+An indirect quotation+ begins with a +small letter+. It usually has no quotation marks.

+431.+ +A substantive clause introduced by _that_ may be used with verbs and other expressions of _telling_, _thinking_, _knowing_, and _perceiving_, to report the words or thought of a person in substance, but usually with some change of form.+

+Such clauses are said to be in the indirect discourse.+

For distinction, a remark or a thought in its original form (as in a direct quotation) is said to be in the +direct discourse+.

+432.+ Statements in _indirect discourse_, being substantive clauses, may be used in various noun constructions: (1) as +object+ of some verb of _telling_, _thinking_, or the like, (2) as +subject+, (3) as +predicate nominative+, (4) as +appositive+.

He said _that the box was empty_. [Object.]

_That the box was empty_ was all he could say. [Subject.]

My remark was _that the bill is a menace_. [Predicate nominative.]

Your remark, _that the bill is a menace_, has aroused vigorous protest. [Apposition.]

+433.+ The conjunction _that_ is often omitted.

Jack said [_that_] he was sorry.

I hope [_that_] you can come.

I know he is too busy a man to have leisure for me.--COWPER.

+434.+ In indirect discourse, after the past or the pluperfect tense, the present tense of the direct discourse becomes past, and the perfect becomes pluperfect.

1. DIRECT: I _am_ tired. INDIRECT: John {said | had said} that he _was_ tired.

2. DIRECT: I _have won_. INDIRECT: John {said | had said} that he _had won_.

But a general or universal truth always remains in the present tense.

DIRECT: Air _is_ a gas. INDIRECT: I told him that air _is_ a gas. INDIRECT: I had told him a hundred times that air _is_ a gas.

+435.+ The clause with _that_ in indirect discourse is sometimes replaced by an infinitive clause (§ 325).

The jury declared _him to be innocent_. [Compare: The jury declared _that he was innocent_.]

Morton admitted _them to be counterfeit_. [Compare: Morton admitted _that they were counterfeit_.]

In these sentences, _him_ and _them_ are, of course, the subjects of the infinitives, not the objects of _declared_ and _admitted_.

+436.+ When the verb of _telling_ or _thinking_ is in the +passive voice+, three constructions occur:--

1. A clause with _that_ is used as the subject of the passive verb.

That Rogers desires the office is commonly reported.

2. The expletive _it_ is used as the grammatical subject, and a _that_-clause follows the passive verb.

It is commonly reported that Rogers desires the office.

3. The subject of the _that_-clause becomes the subject of the passive verb, and the verb of the clause is replaced by an infinitive.

Rogers is commonly reported to desire the office.

The choice among these three idioms is largely a matter of emphasis or euphony. The first may easily become heavy or awkward, and it is therefore less common than either of the others.

NOTE. The third of these idioms is often called the +personal construction+, to distinguish it from the second, in which the grammatical subject is the impersonal _it_ (§ 120, 1). The infinitive in this third idiom may be regarded as a peculiar adverbial modifier of the passive verb.

Further examples of the three constructions with passive verbs of _telling_, _thinking_, etc., are the following:--

That in vivacity, humor, and eloquence, the Irish stand high among the nations of the world is now universally acknowledged.--MACAULAY.

It is admitted that the exercise of the imagination is most delightful.--SHELLEY.

It must be owned that Charles’s life has points of some originality.--STEVENSON.

Porto Bello is still said to be impregnable, and it is reported the Dutch have declared war against us.--GRAY.

He was generally believed to have been a pirate.--LYTTON.

Pope may be said to write always with his reputation in his head.--JOHNSON.

She was observed to flutter her fan with such vehement rapidity that the elaborate delicacy of its workmanship gave way.--HAWTHORNE.

This is said to be the only château in France in which the ancient furniture of its original age is preserved.--LONGFELLOW.

+437.+ A substantive clause with _that_ is common after _it seems_, _it is true_, _it is evident_, and similar expressions.

It seems _that Robert has lost all his money_.

It is true _that genius does not always bring happiness with it_.

It is evident _that Andrews tells the truth_.

This construction is really the same as that in § 436, 2.

+438.+ The uses of _shall_ and _will_, _should_ and _would_, in +indirect discourse+ are the same as in the +direct+,[48] with the following exception:--

+When the first person with _shall_ or _should_ in direct discourse becomes the second or third person in the indirect, _shall_ or _should_ is retained.+

DIRECT: You say, “_I shall_ die.” INDIRECT: You say that _you shall_ die.

DIRECT: You said, “_I shall_ die.” INDIRECT: You said that _you should_ die.

DIRECT: He says, “_I shall_ die.” INDIRECT: He says that _he shall_ die.

DIRECT: He said, “_I shall_ die.” INDIRECT: He said that _he should_ die.

The reason for the retention of _shall_ or _should_ is that, in such cases, the second or third person of the indirect discourse represents the first person of the direct.

The change from _shall_ (after _says_) to _should_ (after _said_) is a mere change of tense, according to the rule in § 434.

NOTE. The general principle is, to retain in the indirect discourse the auxiliary of the direct, simply changing the tense if necessary (§ 434). This principle of course covers the use of _you_ or _he shall_ or _should_ to represent _I shall_ or _should_. There is, however, one important exception to the general principle: when its application would result in the use of _I will_ or _I would_ to express mere futurity, _I shall_ or _I should_ is employed. Thus, John says to Charles, “If you fall overboard, _you will_ drown”; but Charles, reporting this, must say, “John tells me that, if I fall overboard, _I shall_ [NOT _will_] drown.” The general rule, then, may be stated as follows: The indirect discourse retains the auxiliary of the direct (with a change in tense, if necessary), unless such retention makes _will_ or _would_ express simple futurity in the first person,--in that case, _shall_ or _should_ is used.

+439.+ The following sentences illustrate the correct use of _shall_ and _will_, _should_ and _would_, in the indirect discourse:--

1. He writes me that he believes _he shall_ be at Eton till the middle of November.--GRAY. [Direct: I shall be at Eton.]

2. He that would pass the latter part of his life with honor and decency, must, while he is young, consider that _he shall_ one day be old.--JOHNSON. [Direct: I shall one day be old.]

3. Could he but reduce the Aztec capital, he felt that _he should_ be safe.--PRESCOTT. [Direct: I shall be safe.]

4. Plantagenet took it into his head that _he should_ like to learn to play at bowls.--DISRAELI. [Direct: I should like.]

5. He answered that _he should_ be very proud of hoisting his flag under Sir John’s command.--SOUTHEY. [Direct: I shall (_or_ should) be, etc.]

6. He knew that if he applied himself in earnest to the work of reformation, _he should_ raise every bad passion in arms against him.--MACAULAY. [Direct: If I apply myself ..., I shall raise, etc.]

7. He was pleased to say that _he should_ like to have the author in his service.--CARLYLE. [Direct: I should like.]

8. Mr. Tristram at last declared that _he_ was overcome with fatigue, and _should_ be happy to sit down.--HENRY JAMES. [Direct: I should be happy.]

9. She vowed that unless he made a great match, _she should_ never die easy.--THACKERAY. [Direct: Unless you make a great match, I shall never die easy.]

10. You think now _I shall_ get into a scrape at home. You think _I shall_ scream and plunge and spoil everything.--GEORGE ELIOT. [Direct: She will get into a scrape, etc.]

11. You in a manner impose upon them the necessity of being silent, by declaring that _you will_ be so yourself.--COWPER. [Determination: I will be silent.]

12. He [Swift] tells them that _he will_ run away and leave them, if they do not instantly make a provision for him.--JEFFREY. [Threat: I will run away.]

13. The king declared that _he would_ not reprieve her for one day.--MACKINTOSH. [Direct: I will not.]

14. Horace declares that _he would_ not for all the world get into a boat with a man who had divulged the Eleusinian mysteries.--COWPER. [Direct: I would not.]

15. I called up Sirboko, and told him, if _he would_ liberate this one man to please me, _he should_ be no loser.--SPEKE. [Direct: If you will liberate, etc., you shall be no loser.]

16. We concluded that, if we did not come at some water in ten days’ time, _we would_ return.--DE FOE. [Direct: If we do not, etc., we will return.]

17. With a theatrical gesture and the remark that _I should_ see, he opened some cages and released half a dozen cats.--W. J. LOCKE. [Direct: You shall see.]

IX. INDIRECT QUESTIONS

+440.+ +A question expressed in the form actually used in asking it is called a direct question.+

What is your name?

“What is your name?” he asked.

The direct form may be retained when the question is quoted or reported, as in the second example above. Often, however, a question is quoted or reported, not in the direct form, but in the form of a +subordinate clause+: as,--

He asked _what my name was_.

Such a clause is called an +indirect question+.

+441.+ +An indirect question expresses the substance of a direct question in the form of a subordinate clause.+

+Indirect questions depend on verbs or other expressions of _asking_, _doubting_, _thinking_, _perceiving_, and the like.+

Franklin asked _where the difficulty lay_. [Direct question: “Where does the difficulty lie?”]

The sergeant wondered _how he should escape_. [Direct question: “How shall I escape?”]

I have not decided _which train I shall take_. [Direct question: “Which train shall I take?”]

+442.+ Both +direct+ and +indirect questions+ may be introduced (1) by the interrogative pronouns _who_, _which_, _what_; (2) by the interrogative adverbs _when_, _where_, _whence_, _whither_, _how_, _why_.

+Indirect questions+ may be introduced by the subordinate conjunctions _whether_ (_whether ... or_) and _if_.

The use of +tenses+ in indirect questions is the same as in the indirect discourse (§ 434).

The constable inquired _whether_ (or _if_) _I lived in Casterbridge_. [His question was: Do you live in Casterbridge?]

Your father wishes to know _if you have been playing truant_. [Direct question: Have you been playing truant?]

I considered _whether I should apply to Kent or to Arnold_. [Direct question: Shall I apply to Kent or to Arnold?]

+443.+ Indirect questions are usually noun clauses. They may be used in various noun constructions: (1) as +object+ of some verb of +asking+ or the like, (2) as +subject+, (3) as +predicate nominative+, (4) as +appositive+, (5) as +object+ of a preposition.

The skipper asked _what had become of the cook_. [Object.]

He was asked _what his profession was_. [Retained object after the passive (§§ 253, 389).]

_How we could escape_ was a difficult question. [Subject.]

The problem was _how they should find food_. [Predicate nominative.]

The question _who was to blame_ has never been settled. [Apposition with _question_.]

They all felt great perplexity as to _what they should do_. [Object of a preposition.]

An indirect question may be an adverbial clause.

They were uncertain _what course they should take_. [The clause modifies _uncertain_.]

Edmund was in doubt _where he should spend the night_. [The clause modifies the adjective phrase _in doubt_.]

+444.+ Since the pronouns _who_, _which_, and _what_ may be either interrogative or relative, an indirect question may closely resemble a relative clause. These two constructions, however, are sharply distinguished. A relative clause always +asserts+ something. An indirect question, on the contrary, has an +interrogative+ sense which may be seen by turning the question into the direct form.

The sailor _who saved the child_ is a Portuguese. [The clause _who saved the child_ is a relative clause, for it makes a distinct assertion about the sailor,--namely, that he saved the child. _Who_ is a relative pronoun and _sailor_ is its antecedent.]

{I asked | I do not know | It is still a question | It is doubtful} _who saved the child_. [Here the clause _who saved the child_ makes no assertion. On the contrary, it expresses a question which may easily be put in a direct form with an interrogation point: “Who saved the child?” _Who_ is an interrogative pronoun. It has no antecedent.]

The following examples further illustrate the difference between these two constructions:--

1. I foresee the course _which he will take_. [Relative clause.] I foresee _which course he will take_. [Indirect question.]

2. I heard _what he said_. [Relative clause. _What_ = “that which.”] I wondered _what he said_. [Indirect question. _What_ is an interrogative pronoun.]

3. This is the man _who brought the news_. [Relative clause.] The king asked _who brought the news_. [Indirect question.]

4. Here is a paper _which you must sign_. [Relative clause.] The clerk will tell you _which paper you must sign_. [Indirect question.]

NOTE. In such a sentence as “Tom knows _who saved the child_,” the indirect question may at first appear to be a relative clause with an omitted antecedent (_the man_, or _the person_). If, however, we insert such an antecedent (“Tom knows _the man_ who saved the child”), the meaning is completely changed. In the original sentence, it is stated that Tom knows the answer to the question, “Who saved the child?” In the new form of the sentence, it is stated that Tom is acquainted with a certain person, and to this is added an assertion about this person in the form of a relative clause.

+445.+ An indirect question is sometimes expressed by means of an interrogative pronoun or adverb followed by an infinitive.

_Whom to choose_ is a serious question. [Direct question: Whom shall we choose?]

John asked _what to do_. [John’s question was: What shall I do?]

I know _where to go_. [Direct question: Where shall I go?]

Tell me _when to strike the bell_.

I was at a loss _how to reply_.

I am in doubt _how to begin this essay_.

In the first four examples the italicized phrase is used as a noun (either as subject or object). In the fifth, the phrase _how to reply_ is adverbial, modifying the adjective phrase _at a loss_.

+446.+ The subjunctive was formerly common in indirect questions, and is still occasionally used after _if_ or _whether_.

I doubt if it _be_ true.

Elton questioned whether the project _were_ wise.

+447.+ The rule for _shall_ (_should_) and _will_ (_would_) in indirect questions is, to retain the auxiliary used in the direct question, merely changing the tense (_shall_ to _should_; _will_ to _would_) when necessary (§ 442).

I. MERE FUTURITY

1. DIRECT: What _shall I_ do?

INDIRECT: I wonder what _I shall_ do. You ask me what _you shall_ do. He asks me what _he shall_ do. I wondered what _I should_ do. You asked me what _you should_ do. He asked me what _he should_ do.

2. DIRECT: _Shall you_ lose your position?

INDIRECT: {I ask | He asks} you if _you shall_ lose your position. {I asked | He asked} you if _you should_ lose your position.

3. DIRECT: _Will Charles_ lose his position?

INDIRECT: I ask if _Charles will_ lose his position. {I | You | Tom} asked if _Charles would_ lose his position.

II. VOLITION

4. DIRECT: _Will you_ help me?

INDIRECT: You ask if _I will_ help you. He asks if _I will_ help him. You asked if _I would_ help you. He asked if _I would_ help him. {I asked him | You asked him | Tom asked him} if _he would_ {help me. | help you. | help him.}

NOTE. There is a single exception to the rule in § 447. When, in changing from a direct to an indirect question, the third person with _will_ or _would_ becomes the first, _shall_ or _should_ is substituted unless volition is expressed. Thus, John says to Thomas, “_Will Charles_ die of his wound?” Charles, reporting John’s question, says, “John asked Thomas whether _I should_ die of my wound.” Compare § 438, note.