CHAPTER VIII

CONJUNCTIONS

+361.+ +Conjunctions connect words or groups of words.+

+Conjunctions are either coördinate or subordinate.+[41]

1. +A coördinate conjunction connects words or groups of words that are independent of each other.+

1. Hay _and_ grain are sold here.

2. Will you take tea _or_ coffee?

3. He was pale _but_ undaunted.

4. The messenger replied courteously _but_ firmly.

5. The troops embarked rapidly _but_ without confusion.

6. Noon came, _and_ the task was still unfinished.

7. We must hide here until night falls _and_ the street is deserted.

In each of the first four sentences, the conjunction (_and_, _or_, _but_) connects single words that are in the same construction (subjects, objects, predicate adjectives, adverbs). In the fifth, _but_ connects an adverb with an adverbial phrase (both being modifiers of the verb _embarked_). In the sixth, _and_ joins the two coördinate clauses of a compound sentence (§ 44). In the seventh, _and_ joins two coördinate clauses which, taken together, make up the subordinate clause _until ... deserted_; this clause may therefore be called a compound subordinate clause (see § 454).

2. +A subordinate conjunction connects a subordinate clause with the clause on which it depends.+

Harmon did not quail, _though_ he saw the danger.

Take this seat, _if_ you prefer.

I hesitated _because_ I remembered your warning.

_Unless_ you reform, your career will be ruined.

+362.+ The chief +coördinate conjunctions+ are:--

and (both ... and) not only ... but also or (either ... or) nor (neither ... nor) but for however moreover therefore then yet still nevertheless notwithstanding

Several of these are much used for +transition+, whether from sentence to sentence or from one paragraph to another.

Such are:--however, moreover, therefore, then, nevertheless, notwithstanding, yet, still.

+363.+ _Then_ is an adverb when it denotes time, a conjunction when it denotes consequence or the like.

_Then_ the boat glided up to the pier. [Time.]

Men are imperfect creatures: we must not, _then_, expect them to be angels. [Consequence.]

+364.+ _Yet_ and _still_ are adverbs when they express time or degree, conjunctions when they connect.

We have not started _yet_. [Time.]

It is _still_ raining. [Time.]

This hatchet is dull, but that is duller _still_. [Degree.]

I miss him, _yet_ I am glad he went. [Conjunction.]

I like dogs; _still_ I do not care to own one. [Conjunction.]

+365.+ _For_ and _notwithstanding_ may be either prepositions or conjunctions.

PREPOSITIONS CONJUNCTIONS

I am waiting _for_ you. We must go, _for_ it is late.

Jane is coming, It is a hard storm. _notwithstanding_ the storm. She will come, _notwithstanding_.

NOTE. _For_ is sometimes classified as a subordinate conjunction, but the fact that it may be used to begin an independent sentence (even when such a sentence opens a paragraph) justifies its inclusion among the coördinates.

+366.+ The chief +subordinate conjunctions+ are:--

although, though as as if (as though) because if lest since (= because) than that unless whereas whether (whether ... or)

A few phrases may be regarded as compound conjunctions. Such are:--_in order that_, _so that_, _provided that_, _in case that_, _but that_, _as if_, _as though_, _even if_. _Provided_, and _in case_ (without _that_) may also be used as conjunctions: as,--“I will go _provided_ it doesn’t rain.”

+367.+ The subordinate conjunction _that_ is often omitted when it may readily be supplied.

He said [that] he was starving.

They feared [that] they were betrayed.

I cannot believe [that] you would try to injure me.

NOTE. This omission is similar to that of the relative pronoun (§ 151). It is extremely common, not only in colloquial language but also in literature, whether prose or verse.

+368.+ _As_ and _since_ in the sense of “because,” and _while_ in the sense of “though,” are conjunctions.

When denoting +time+, _as_ is an adverb, _while_ is a noun or an adverb, and _since_ is an adverb or a preposition.

_As_ (or _since_) you will not listen, I will say no more. [Conjunction.]

_As_ we crossed the bridge, I looked down at the rushing stream. [Adverb.]

Ten years have passed _since_ my uncle went to sea. [Adverb.]

The house has been empty _since_ Christmas. [Preposition.]

+369.+ Conjunctions used in pairs are called +correlative conjunctions+.

The chief correlatives are:--

both ... and not only ... but also either ... or neither ... nor though ... yet (still) although ... yet (still) since ... therefore if ... then

Examples of correlatives may be seen in the following sentences:--

_Both_ lions _and_ wolves are carnivorous.

The culprit looked _both_ angry _and_ ashamed.

William II is _not only_ German Emperor _but also_ King of Prussia.

_Either_ brass _or_ copper will do.

_Neither_ Keats _nor_ Shelley lived to be old.

He asked me _whether_ I was an Austrian _or_ a Russian.

_Though_ the roads were very bad, _yet_ he managed to reach Utica before midnight.

_Although_ he has wronged me, _still_ I cannot believe he is my enemy.

_Since_ four is the square of two, _therefore_ two is the square root of four.

_If_ Allen’s testimony is true, _then_ Gilbert’s must be false.

+370.+ _But_ is used as a subordinate conjunction in the sense of _but that_ or _unless_.

There is no doubt _but that_ they are murderers.--SHELLEY.

Your uncle must not know _but_ [= _but that_] you are dead.--SHAKSPERE.

Ne’er may I look on day _but_ [= _unless_] she tells your highness the truth.--SHAKSPERE. [This use is obsolete.]

There is not a wave of the Seine _but_ is associated in my mind with the first rise of the sandstones and forest pines of Fontainebleau.--RUSKIN.

There was nobody _but_ loved her.

NOTE. In the last two examples the subject of the subordinate clause is omitted:--“There is not a wave _but_ [_it_] is associated,” “There was nobody _but_ [_he_] loved her.” In such cases, _but_ is sometimes regarded as a relative pronoun.

_Notwithstanding_ is used as a subordinate conjunction in the sense of _though_.

I shall go, _notwithstanding_ the road is said to be impassable.

+371.+ +Relative adverbs+ are similar in their use to conjunctions, and are therefore often called +conjunctive adverbs+ (§§ 194–195).

NOTE. Most conjunctions, historically considered, are merely adverbs (or adverbial phrases) which have come to be used in so peculiar a way as to form a special class among the parts of speech. Thus the adverbs _since_ and _while_ become conjunctions when they cease to denote time; _because_ is a corruption of the phrase _by cause_; _but_ is developed from an old adverb meaning “outside.”